•XT
THE -^
r MUSEUMS
OF
II!
ATURAL HISTORY
WITH INTRODUCTORY ESSAY ON
U ' /Y
[THEiy^H^HI^ -
Y+ BKISO A POPULAB ACCOCXT OF THS | / \ .
'
Jf % "» ^llQUADRUPEDS, BIRDS, REPTILES, FISHES, SHELLS, AND INSECTS,^ ^ ^
SIB JOHN RICHABDSON. C.B.. F.B.S. Lond.. Hon. F.R.S. Edin.,
Author ,.( ihe Fauna Uoreali Americana: Arctic Search after Sir John rrmikli.i. [
WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.L.S.. &c.,
I orator of York Museum ; Author of Trustine on Zoology; Element! of Entomology, ic. *<•. .
T. SPENCER COBBOLD, M.D., F.L.S..
and formerly Lecturer
WILLIAM BAIRD. M.D, F.L.S.. & ADAM WHITE, Esq.. ,
Anther of X»-.ral Iliitorv of British Kntomostnu;*. Author of popular Treatises ou Zoology
Cyulopwdia of the Natural Science*, ic. Iu»ecu, Crustacea. Ac.
•
WILLIAM MACKENZIE.
2090794
STACK ANNEX
'
UNN. OF CHJF. UCBWr/, LOS ^""
Stack Annex
N.I
LIST OF PLATES,
AND THE ORDER IN WHICH THEY ARE TO BE PLACED AT THE END OF EACH VOLUME, EXCEPT THE
ILLUSTRATED TITLE, WHICH IS TO BE PLACED AT THE BEGINNING OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
VOL. L
ILLUSTRATED TITLE PLATK8
MAMMALIA, 1 to 34
BIRDS, 1 " 30
" .37
VOL. II.
REPTILES, 1 to 8
AMPHIBIA, 1 " 4
FISHES, 1 " 17
ENTOMOLOGY OK INSECTS, 1 " 11
CIRRIPEDES, 1 " 2
MOLLUSCA, 1 " 11
TERMS USED IN CONCHOLOGY, . . . , ' 1 " 4
ECHINODERMATA, 1 " 6
ACALEPHjE 1 " 2
POLYPS, • 1 " 2
INFUSORIA AND ROTATORIA . ... 1 " 2
RHIZOPODA, 1 " 2
ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND NUMEROUS WOODCUTS.
BIBLICAL NATURAL SCIENCE;
BEING
THE EXPLANATION OF ALL REFERENCES IN HOLY SCRIPTURE
TO
GEOLOGY. BOTANY, ZOOLOGY, AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
BY THE EEV. JOHN DUNS, D.D., F.R.S.E.,
LATE EDITOR OF THB NORTH BRITISH REVIEW;
AUTHOR OF "MEMOIR OP REV. JOHN FLEMING, D.D., PROFESSOR OF NATURAL BCIEXCI
"CHRISTIANITY AND SCIENCE," KTO.
EVERAL features distinguish this Work from others in which kindred topics are dealt with.
The place in Biblical Literature which it seeks to occupy, is at present vacant. There is no
single work existing which is devoted exclusively to the same subjects.
British and foreign books of Eastern travel may be numbered by hundreds. Scattered throughout
these, which are for the most part expensive, very many facts are to be met with which shed much
light on those aspects of the sacred text now chiefly in view. Efforts have been made to render this
^ information most truly useful, by embodying it in one work. Thus far the Author's task has been
^ h one of compilation. But this forms only a very subordinate characteristic of the Work.
» JJ Great attention continues to be given, both in this country and America, to the relations between the Bible
^^and Science. These are still discussed in highly influential quarters. The sounds of the warfare reach the intelli-
gent classes in the community. They have not, however, any one work easily within reach, treating both of the
causes and the bearings of those great controversies which will not fail to be waged with growing keenness as
science advances. Though it would be unprofitable to dwell, in a controversial spirit, on the various theories of
creation and of the natural history of man. which, during the last twenty years, have had great prominence given to
them, yet an acquaintance with these must be valued by every lover of truth, and especially by all who receive the
Bible as the fully-inspired word of God.
The chief difficulties in the relations between the Bible and Science, are associated with the opening pages of
scripture. A full exposition will be given of the first eight chapters of Genesis. And, in connection with the exposition,
recent " Geological Theories of creation," " The Theory of Development by Natural Law," and that proposed by
Mr. Darwin on " The Origin of Species," will be carefully reviewed, and set in popular aspects. Questions
touching the " Presence of Death in the world before the Fall of Man," the hypothesis of a " Race of Preadamite
Men," " The Unity of the Human Race," and the " Extent of the Deluge," will all be considered in the introductory
pages of this "W ork.
Again ; those only who have studied the scriptures from the points of view of advanced science, can be fully
aware of the great light which may be shed on their meaning by Geology, Botany, Zoology, and Physical Geography.
Nor is this to be reckoned of little moment. Every illustration drawn from the works of God, and every figure used
by men who spake as the Holy Ghost gave them utterance, must be interesting. Intelligent men have thankfully
received the contributions which, in recent years, have been made to the elucidation of scripture, by those who,
sound in the faith, have either devoted themselves to the study of the original languages of the Bible, or have
brought a trustworthy historical criticism to bear on the discoveries of Champollion, Lepsius, Layard, Rawlinson,
Wilkinson, and others. It is fitting, then, that the students of Natural Science should bring their gifts and lay them
upon the same altar.
The title given above, indicates the special design of this Work. But it will often be necessary to give matter
which could not well be specified on the title-page. Information will be drawn from Metallurgy, Meteorology,
Astronomy, and, occasionally, from Archaeology. When needful, a sketch of the civil history of particular countries
and places will be introduced. It is hoped that the Work will thus be found both popularly useful, and, also,
interesting to theological students and ministers of Christ.
" BIBLICAL NATURAL SCIENCE " is written from the point of view of Christianity rather than of Theism. It
is kept in mind throughout that the Saviour of sinners was himself the Creator of all things. Thus " when on earth
all things served him, from the greatest to the least, even to the fishes that walked through the paths of the sea.
He was Lord over nature, and having nothing, yet in his Father's care for him was truly possessed of all things."
The Work will be completed in about Twenty Parts, price Two Shillings, each part consisting of Forty-eight Pages
of Letterpress, and, alternately, Two and Three Pages of Engraved Plates, in addition to the numerous Woodcut
Mlustrations introduced in the text.
AN OUTLINE
OF THE
CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALIA.
ORDER IL— QUADRUMANA,
ORDER in. — CHEIROPTEBA,
ORDER IV.— INSECTIVORA,
FIKST GEOUP-PLACENTAL AND VIVIPABOUS MAMMALS.
ORDER I. — BIMANA, Hominidce; Man.
Simiadce; Monkeys of the Old World, i.e., Anthropoid Apes, True
Apes, Monkeys Proper, and Baboons.
Cebidce ; Monkeys of the New World, or American Monkeys.
HapalidcR; Marmozets.
Lemuridce ; True Lemurs.
Lichanotidce ; Indris.
NycticebidcB ; Loris, Galagos, Potto.
Tarsiidce; Tarsiers.
Cheiromyidce ; Aye-aye of Madagascar.
Galeopithecidce ; Flying Lemur of Java.
f Vespertilionidce ; Pipistrelle, Noctule, Serotine, Barbastelle, Long-
Eared Bat, &c.
< Rhinolophidce • Horse-shoe Bats.
I PhyllostomidcB ; Vampires, African Leaf Bat.
[Pteropida; Kalong, &c.
[ Talpidce; Moles, Star-Nose, Chrysochlore.
| Soricidce; Shrew-Moles, Shrews, Musk-Rat, Elephant-Mouse, Soleno-
-( don, Bulau, &c.
Tupaiadce ; Tupaias.
(^ Erinaceadce ; Hedgehogs, Tenrec, Sokinah.
[ UrsidcB ; Bears, Badgers, Racoon, Ratel, Glutton, Coatimondi, &c.
Mustelida; Weasels, Martens, Sable, Ermine, Otters, Skunk, Teledu,
Grisons, &c.
Viverrida ; Civets, Ichneumons, Genet, Rasse, Paradoxure, Mangue,
Galet, &c.
Hycenidce; Hyaenas, Aard-Wolf.
Canidce ; Wolves and Dogs, Foxes, Jackal, Fennec, Lycaon, Lalande.
FelidcB ; Cats, Leopards, Lion, Tigers, Puma, Jaguar, Cheetah, Lynx,
Ounce, Serval.
f Phoddce ; Seals, Sea-Leopard, Sea-Bear, Sea-Lion, Sea-Elephant.
\Trichecidce; Walrus.
Sciuridce; Squirrels, Marmots, Flying Squirrels, Jelerang, Assapan,
Souslik.
Myoxidtt; Dormice.
Dipodida; Jerboas, Alak-Daargha.
Muridce ; Mice, Rats, Hamster, &c.
Arvicolidce; Voles, Water-Rat, Lemmings, Slepez.
Castoridce. ; Beaver, Musquash, Coypu.
Hystrieidce ; Porcupines, Shore-Mole, &c.
OctodontidcK ; Octodon, Schizodon, Spalacopus, Habrocome, Ctenomys.
ChinchUlidcB ; Chinchilla, Chincha, Viscacha.
Cavidce ; Cavies, Agoutis, Capybara, Paca.
[ Leporidce ; Hares and Rabbits, Calling Hare, Ogotona.
ORDER V. — CARKFVORA.
ORDER VI.— PESNIPEDIA,.
ORDER VII. — RODENTIA,
f Manida: ; Pangolins or Scaly Ant-eaters.
ORDER VIIT —EDENTATA J Myrmec°Pha9^^ ; Trae Ant-eaters, Tainandua, Aard-Vark.
" j Dasypidce; Armadillos, Pichichiago.
[ Bradypidce ; Sloths, Unau.
f Bovidce; Oxen, Bison, Buffaloes, Musk Ox.
isEgoscerid CE ; Goats and Sheep, Ibex.
Antilopidce ; Gnoos, Antelopes, Eland, Harte-Beest, Bubale, Prong-
ORDER IX.— RUMINANTIA, \ horn, &c.
Camelopardidce ; Giraffe.
I Cervidce; Stags, Elk, Rein-deer, Roebuck, Muntjak, Musk-deer.
[_ Camelidce; Camels, Llamas.
j ORDER X.— SOLIDUNGULA, Equidce; Horses, Zebras, Quagga, Ass, Kiang.
f Elephantida ; Elephants.
RhinoceridcB ; Rhinoceroses.
ORDER XI.-PACHYDERMATA, J ™W°P°*"midfe ; Hippopotamus.
j Tapvndce; Tapirs.
I Suidce; Boars, "\Vart-Hogs, Peccaries, Babyroussa.
[^ Hyracidce ; Dasse, Daman.
f Balcenidce; Mysticete, Razor-back, &c.
"5T1T r J Catodontidce ; Cachalot or Sperm Whales.
" 1 Delphinidce ; Dolphins, Porpoise, Beluga, Narwhal.
[Manatidce; Manatee, Dugong, Steller's Ilhytina.
SECOND GEOUP-NON-PLACENTM, AND OVO-VIVIPAROUS MAMMALS.
(" Phalascomyda ; Wombat.
Macropidcc ; Kangaroos, Potoroo, Tree-Kangaroos.
Phalangistidce ; Phalangers, Vulpine Opossum, Flying Phalangers,
ORDER XIH.-MARSUPIALIA D Kof.1*'
Peramelidce ; Bandicoot Rats.
DasyuridcE ; Ursine Opossum, Phascogales, Banded Myrmecobe,
Thylacinc.
[Diddphidce; American Opossums. Yapock.
ORDER XIV.-MOKOTREMATA, lOrnitMyncUdv; Duck-bill.
(Jacnyglossiflre: Porcupine Ant-eaters.
INTRODUCTION.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
BEFORE we enter upon an exposition of the fascinati§g 1 years. The palaeontologist, therefore, pursues his
r. • . i ,*u 4- ,„ ±u „ U~L:J.™ j „*., . ~r *; ».: j- : i i_. e ui_ •
science which teaches us the habits and structure of
the various forms of animal life, arranges them in their
several tribes and genera and species, points out their
resemblances and differences, and determines their part
in the grand economy of the universe ; before, in a
word, we proceed to a survey of the Animal Kingdom
as it is now presented to our gaze, it is well we should
inquire into its earlier history, and ascertain what facts
we can respecting the past condition of its individual
members.
The researches of modern geologists have revealed
to us the fact that Earth was not always tenanted by
the same forms of animal life, but that each age and
period has possessed its own separate creation; each
creation beinar, as it were, an advance upon its prede-
cessor, and a further, and in some respects a grander,
development of the Creative Power.
The naturalist who would fully comprehend the
extent, beauty, and splendour of the science to which
he has devoted himself, needs also to be a paleontolo-
gist ; that is, he should be able to trace these successive
developments from the tiny trilobites that inhabited the
Silurian seas, to the mighty mammoth which prowled
among the icy wastes of Siberia from the apparently
shapeless medusa which floats like an inanimate jelly
on the summer wave, to the exquisite organization and
colossal structure of the Asiatic elephant.
We know that before our planet assumed its present
configuration, it passed through a series of great and
astounding changes, which have left their indelible
records upon its surface and in its bosom. We know
that these changes in the condition of the earth were
accompanied by not less surprising changes in the
characters of its then inhabitants. That such would
be the case we might easily have presumed from our
knowledge of the fact that all animals, even now, will
not flourish under the same conditions ; that while one
genus seeks the dry and barren sands of the desert,
another can only live among the marshes of an inun-
dated coast; that while one basks in the warm rays
of a tropical sun, another flourishes in the obscure
twilight of the polar regions.
We are not, however, left to the mercies of philoso-
phical speculation. The records of her past are securely
preserved by Earth, and may be read at leisure by those
who have eyes to see. The curtain that concealed them
for so many centuries has been lifted, and in her rocks
vestigations under singularly favourable circumstances.
He is not left to-surmise or guess ; he has only to deal
with patent and irrefragable facts, with certain and
incontrovertible evidence. With equal eloquence and
truth it has been said that the earth is a book written
by the finger of God. Its leaves are those stratified
rocks which — superimposed on one another in an
ascending series — make up its crust, represent the
duration of ages by their thickness, and the cataclysms
of creation by their fractures. Its letters are the fossil
remains of the plants and animals that lie ensepulchred
in its womb ; the permanent traces of volcanic erup-
tions, and slow-moving glaciers, and ever-lapsing waters;
the faint but enduring footprints of the strange forms
which once crawled over its soft mud ; the ripple-marks
of primeval seas, whose music has died away into the
silence of a remote and mysterious past ! All these
hieroglyphics, says a recent writer, with which the stony
leaves of the earth's great book are crowded, thick as
the inscriptions on the buried bricks of Nineveh and
the mummy caves of Egypt, have been deciphered with
remarkable accuracy by the geologist. Not less signi-
ficant are they to him than the trail of his enemy to
the North American Indian, or the footprints of the
camel to the Arab nomade of the desert.
" As the ancient civilization," remarks Mr. Macmillan,
" of the great empires of Egypt, Nineveh, and Babylon,
has been recovered to us, and pictured in nearly all its
original grandeur and completeness, from the relics left
behind in the mounds of Khorsabad and the temples of
Memphis and Thebes, so from these remains of the pre-
Adamite world we can reconstruct, in imagination, the
successive scenery of its different epochs. Before the
eye of fancy, at the spell of some fossil, or insignificant
impression in a wayside stone, a combination of land-
scape scenery with which there is nothing an^ogous in
the present condition of things, passes iu review ; and
standing on this high vantage-ground of Time, we can
survey, by the help of those landmarks placed here and
there for our guidance, the whole history of our earth,
the whole series of creations which one after another
appeared and vanished ! "
This series of creations, regarded from the naturalist
or palaeontologist's point of view, we now proceed to
consider. The reader who follows us carefully in our
necessarily brief hut not the less accurate survey, will
remark, with wonder and admiration, how they all lead
and fossils we may study the revolutions of millions of up, by slow but certain steps, to the preparation of Earth
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
for its last and greatest inhabitant — Man. He will see,
moreover, a constant succession of forms of animal life
rising from lower to higher organizations ; not so much,
it is true, by the law of development as by that of sub-
stitution. Yet he will observe, too, a certain measure
of development. It may not be correct to say that the
trilobite has developed into man, but it is certain that
all man's parts and organs — to use Professor Owen's
expression — have been " sketched out " in anticipation
in the inferior animals. All those creatures which lived
and died in the bygone ages of the primeval world lived
and died in pre-ordained preparation for the embodi-
ment of the "divine Archetype" in his precious "ves-
ture of humanity." Thus, then, to the naturalist, Man
must ever appear as the apex of creation, the most
perfect form of animal life, the " centre of the universe
of time."
PRIMARY EPOCH.
The first forms of life upon the surface of our planet
would seem to have been vegetable ; the earliest animal
organisms belong to the SILURIAN PERIOD.* The earth
was then covered with seas of no great depth, whose
waters eddied round isolated rocks, or seethed over
barren submarine reefs; rocks arid reefs being clothed
with flowerless Algae, among which various species of
Molluscs found an asylum and a provision.
These molluscs belonged to the group BracMopoda,
or arm-footed ; a group with bivalve shells, differing
in internal structure from most recent bivalve molluscs.
In these the mantle, or pallium, consisted of two broad
expansions or lobes, which shut in the soft body of the
animal. The processes of respiration and aeration of
the blood were carried on by the surface of the lobes,
which were covered with a labyrinth of minute blood-
vessels, and fringed along the edges with vibratory cilia.
By means of the cilia the animal maintained a constant
motion in the surrounding water, which provided it
with the necessary supplies of fresh air. It procured
its food through the agency of a singular apparatus ; two
long tremulous arms, which, proceeding from the sides
of its mouth, were furnished with a host of filaments
to entangle as in a mesh its prey.
Among the fossil remains of this period the genus
Lingula is especially abundant. It is the only bivalve
with a pedunculated shell; that is, the only bivalve
able to attach itself to external objects by means of a
hollow fleshy tube, called a peduncle. It had two long
ciliated arms, like its congener, which it curled up during
repose. Its shell was thin, with equal valves, of a horny
or calcareous character, peaked at the apex, and gener-
ally open at' the base.
This genus is represented in the islands of the Indian
seas by several existing species.
In the Silurian strata, and, indeed, in all Palaeozoic
rocks up to the Triassic, are found numerous remains of
a genus of molluscs which paleontologists have named
Orthoceras, straight-horn. In many respects it is
closely akin to that fairy -like tenant of the existing seas,
the Nautilus, and might not inaccurately be described
• So called because the strata composing it were discovered
on an extensive scale, by Sir Roderick Murchison, in that part of
Wales formerly inhabited by the Silures.
as a nautilus unrolled and stretched out straight. It
has a straight shell, and its interior compartments are
separated by thin partitions, and pierced by a cylindri-
cal tube or siphuncle. According to the form and size
of this siphuncle the Orthoceratites have been classified
into certain sub-genera, including nearly 200 species.
They are very widely distributed, and of all the palaeozoic
fossils are the most abundant. In the Silurian seas they
lived a life of piracy and rapine, preying upon other
animals, which they hunted into the profoundest recesses,
and strangled in the tenacious grasp of their long arms.
The Orthis (straight) is a genus of fossil brachiopods,
also found in the Silurian rocks, and including upwards
of 100 species.
To the same period belongs the genus Terebratula,
of which only one living species exist, but the fossil
are more than 100 in number. The animal was
attached to its smooth circular shell, which had a trun-
cated and perforated beak, by a pedicle ; and the animal
itself consisted of a kind of slender, flattened, calcareous
loop, with divergent pieces, and a ciliated appendage on
either side. The shell is covered with minute perfora-
tions, and frequently ribbed in a very curious manner.
It bears a general resemblance to that of the cockle, BO
plentiful on our British shores.
The only family of Crustaceans created in the Silurian
period was that of the Trilolites, first described, upwards
of a century ago, by Edward Lhuyd, then curator of
the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
They appear to have moved only by swimming, and
to have lived very near the surface of the water. When
in locomotion they preserved an inverted position, with
the belly upwards, and on the approach of danger imme-
diately rolled themselves up into a ball, like the hedge-
hog. They haunted the vicinity of the low marshy
coasts, where they lived gregariously in countless
legions, feeding on the smaller water-animals. Bur-
meister, whose monograph on this order is remarkable
for closeness of observation and lucidity of statement,
considers their nearest type, in the present seas, to be
the Entomostraceous Crustacea known as the Phyllapoda.
Their body was covered with an ingeniously-jointed
shell, in which, says Figuier, the mediaeval armourer
might have found all his contrivances anticipated, with
not a few besides which his invention failed to discover.
The head was protected by an oval shield ; the body
composed of a certain number of rings or segments ;
the tail of many closely-fitted joints. The eyes were
sessile and compound, and of remarkable magnifying
power ; the lens in one species, Asaphus caudatus, con-
sisting of fully 400, and in another, Asaphus tyrannus,
of at least 6000 facets. This extraordinary strength of
vision was doubtless requisite to reveal to them the
minute aquatic organisms on which they preyed. *
* In reference to the eyes of the Trilobites, Dr. Bnckland has
some very just and interesting observations. He points out that
the waters wherein they maintained their existence throughout
the entire period of the Transition formation, could not have
been that imaginary turbid and compound chaotic fluid, from the
precipitates of which some geologists have supposed the materials
of the surface of the earth to be derived; because the structure
of their eyes is such, that any kind of fluid in which they could
have been efficient at the bottom, must have been pure and trans-
parent enough to allow the passage of light to organs of vision.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
The mouth was- placed forward and beneath the
head. No antennae or limbs have been recognized in
any species ; and it is probable their feet were simply
soft, leaf-like appendages, carrying the gills, which, from
their perishable nature, would leave no traces in a fossil
condition.
The Trilobites varied greatly in size. While many
were no larger than a pin's head, others — as the
Asaphus gigas — were eighteen inches long. Upwards
of 400 species have been determined. Of these forty-
six are Silurian. They wholly ceased to exist after the
Carboniferous epoch. Their structure is a beautiful
example of the articulated type, and admirably illus-
trates that unity of design which, is conspicuous through
all the diversity of nature.
Many other orders of molluscs were abundantly
represented in the primeval ocean of the Silurian period.
Among the Cephalopoda we may name the Gyroceras
and Lituites cornu-arietis, or ram's horn, which, like
Lituites corrm-arietis. One-third natural size.
the Orthoceras, were allied in many respects to our
modern Sepia and Nautilus. The Gasteropoda (belly-
footed), so called because their locomotive apparatus is
attached to the under part of the body, found a type in
the genus Bellerophon, which, with their elongated
transparent body and rudder-like fin, resembled the
existing Carinaria, and inhabited the lowest depths of
the sea. Several species of Lamellibranchiata (an
order of Acephalous or headless molluscs) also existed :
in these the shell consisted of particles of carbonate
of lime, exuded from the surface of the mantle, and
whose nature is so fully disclosed by the state of perfection in
which they are preserved. With regard to the atmosphere of
the then existing world, we may also infer that had it differed
materially from its actual condition, it might have so far affected
the rays of light, that a corresponding difference from the eyes
of existing crustaceans would have been found in the organs on
which the impressions of such rays were then received.
We may also learn, respecting light, from the resemblance of
these most ancient organizations to existing eyes, that the mutual
relations formerly existing between the eye and light were the
same at the time when crustaceans gifted with the faculty of vision
lirst flourished in the primeval seas, as at the present moment.
Hence it appears that among the earliest organic remains there
existed an optical instrument of most curious construction, adapted
to the production of a peculiar kind of vision. We do not find
this instrument undergoing a series of experimental changes from
more simple into more complex forms : we find it created at the
very outset in the fulness of perfect adaptation to the uses and
condition of the class of creatures to which this kind of eye has
ever been and is still appropriate. (See Dr. Buckland's Bridge-
water Treatise, Geology and Mineralogy considered with refer-
ence to Natural Theology, vol. i. pp. 401-403.)
contained in the cellular cavities or between the mem-
branous layers of the animal ; the size of the latter
being always proportionate to that of the shell.
Nor were specimens of the class Radiata wanting •
the Echinodermata being represented by the Hemicoa-
mites among other genera ; all of which, like existing
llemlcosmites pyriformis. One-third natural size.
types, were distinguished by their possession of a hard
coriaceous or leathery covering, a digestive and vascular
system, locomotive organs, and sexual distinctions.
" In this group," says Mr. Patterson, " we find animals
of extremely dissimilar appearance associated together.
One species is attached, for a certain period, to a stem,
and resembles a polype, with its waving and sensitive
arms. In the common star-fish, or ' five fingers,' we
have the arms radiating from a common centre. In the
sea-urchins there are no arms, and the form of the
body is globular; and passing over some intermediate
gradations of figure, we reach creatures which in external
aspect resemble worms, and have even been classed as
such. At one extremity of the range the Echino-
dermata remind us of polypes — creatures of inferior
organization ; at the other extremity they approach the
annulose animals, whose structure is of a higher grade."
In these warm shallows of the Silurian ocean flourished
also several species of Pteropods (wing-footed), Hetero-
pods (paddle-footed), Graptolites, and Cystidians ;
all having sprung into life during the earlier times
of the Silurian period. These, however, possessed
no peculiar characteristics which call for a detailed
notice ; and we shall content ourselves with indicating,
in the following summary, the general groups and classes
of animals belonging to the lower (i.e., the earlier)
Silurian period, and the strata wherein their remains
are found interred.
LACRENTIAN GROUP OF ROCKS.
Gneiss, Hornblende, and Mica-
schists,
Foraminifera."
CAMBRIAN GROUP.
I.lanberis slates, and sandy strata
Lingula flags, .
Tremadoc slates,
Annelides (worms).
1 Trilobites; Olenus; Cono-
! coryphe paradoxides ;
I Brachiopods ; Cystid-
J eans.
) Trilobites ; Bellerophon ;
I Orthoceratites ; Theca.
Foraminifera, a class of minute many-chambered shells, so
called from their perforated partitions.
L:
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
LOWER SILUKIAN GKOUP.
rssijsr-.^'srts
Dark-coloured slates, calcareous )
flags, sandstones, . . . .( D°' d°'
\ Brachiopods ; Lamelli-
Shelly sandstones; conglomerate/ branchiata; Pteropods;
and shales; Bala limestone, . ,f" Cystideans; Grapto-
) lites; Trilobites.
UPPER SILURIAN PERIOD.
During the later ages of the Silurian period some
new genera of fishes made their appearance in the
shallow ocean. " The so-called fish-bones," says Figuier,
" have been the subject of considerable doubt. Between
the Upper Ludlow rocks, opposite the castle of Ludlow,
and the next ascending stratum, occurs a thin bed of
soft, earthy shale and fine, soft, yellowish greenstone,
immediately overlying the Ludlow rock : just below
this lies a remarkable animal deposit, called the Ludlow
bone-bed, from its large deposits of the bones of
animals." Long before geology acquired form and
substance as a science, these bones attracted attention
and excited curiosity. The old poet, Michael Drayton,
refers to them in his Poly- Olbion : —
"With strange and sundry tales
Of all their wondrous things; and not the least in Wales,
Of that prodigious spring (him neighbouring as he past),
That little fishes' bones continually doth cast."
When Sir Roderick Murchison, who may justly be
entitled the great historian of Siluria, first examined
this deposit he found it to exhibit " a matted mass of
bony fragments, for the most part of small size and of
very peculiar character." These fragments were partly
of a mahogany hue, and partly of so brilliant a black, as
to convey the impression that the bed was a heap of
broken beetles.
Professor Owen has given it as his opinion that
among the remains may distinctly be recognized those
of fishes. Other naturalists have controverted the pro-
fessor's statement, which, however, is supported by Sir
Roderick Murchison. Without entering into so vexed
a question, we may turn to the consideration of those
fossil relics which all observers have agreed in pro-
nouncing of a Crustacean character.
The Trilobites, let us add, now attained their greatest
development, as in the species Calymene, Phragmoceras,
and Ilcenus.
The Silurjan crustaceans were of a very curious
form, not altogether unlike the existing prawn. They
were inhabitants of the fresh waters, and endowed with
extraordinary voracity. The Scotch quarrymen called
them " Seraphim," from the winged form and feather-
like ornament of the thoracic appendage.
The best known species are the Pterygotus lilolatus
and the Eurypterus,
Now, too, first budded on the deep-sea rocks the
innumerable members of the order Crinoidea or Encri-
nites, commonly called " Stone Lilies." " We may
judge," says Dr. Buckland, " of the degree to which the
inhabitants of these species multiplied among the first
inhabitants of the sea, from the countless myriads of
their petrified remains which fill so many limestone
beds of the Transition formations, and compose vast
strata of entrochal marble, extending over large tracts
of country in Northern Europe and North America.
The substance of this marble is often almost as entirely
made up of the petrified bones of Encrinites as a corn-
rick is composed of straws. Man applies it to con-
struct his palace and adorn his sepulchre; but there
are few who know, and fewer still who duly appreciate,
the surprising fact that much of this marble is composed
of the skeletons of millions of organized beings, once
endowed with life and susceptible of enjoyment, which,
after performing the part that was for awhile assigned
to them in living nature, have contributed their remains
towards the composition of the mountain masses of the
earth."
The Crinoidean, or lily-shaped animal, is thus de-
scribed by Hugh Miller : — " A round, oval, or angular
column, composed of numerous articulating joints,
supporting at its summit a series of plates or joints
which form a cup -like body, containing the viscera,
from whose upper rim proceed five articulated arms,
dividing into tentaculated fingers, more or less num-
erous, surrounding the aperture of the mouth."
There are several varieties, but the two most con-
spicuous and beautiful genera are —
The Encrinites, with a circular stem, very closely
resembling the external form of the lily ; and
The Pentacrinites, which have a pentagonal stem.
The former genus belongs to the older rocks, but all
its species became extinct before the Lias period, new
groups succeeding, which, in our modern seas, are
represented by only two types.
The animal lived in a fixed position, attached to the
sea-bed or to some external object, moving itself in
quest of food by bending forward or downward its
flexible column. This column, or stem, consisted of
numerous ossicula, i.e., small bones, joints, or articula-
tions, which, being perforated in the centre, may be
strung together like beads. In our northern counties
they are very frequently met with, and are commonly
called " wheel stones," or "St. Cuthbert's beads:-." To
the latter appellation Sir Walter Scott refers in his
poem of " Marmion": —
" On a rock by Lindisfarne
St. Cnthbert sits, and toils to frame
The sea-born beads that bear his name."
According to Dr. Mantell, they have been discovered
in the barrows or tumuli of the ancient Britons, who
appear to have used them as ornaments.
From the same authority we learn that the channel
formed by the united ossicula of the column has origi-
nated the curious fossils called in Derbyshire screw or
pulley stones, which are, in fact, flint casts of these
cavities. They occur in the beds of chert interstrati-
fied with the mountain limestone; the siliceous matter,
when fluid, filled up the channels and surrounded the
stems: the calcareous substance has since been dis-
solved and removed, and solid cylinders of flint, resem-
bling a pulley, remain. "In the quarries on Middleton
Moor, near Cromford, where extensive beds of limestone,
composed of crinoidal remains, are worked for chimney-
pieces and other ornamental purposes, beautiful exam-
ples of these fossils may be obtained. The cavities of
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
the column and ossicula are often filled with white
calcareous spar, while the ground of the marble is of a
dark reddish-brown colour."
Thus, then, the marble which now adorns our habi-
tations was elaborated, ages ago, by countless myriads
of ocean's living flowers — those rare and beautiful
organisms whose principal living representative is the
Pentacrinus caput Medusce, an inhabitant of the genial
waters of the Caribbean Sea.
The chief species of the Crinoideans found in the
Silurian strata are: — Encrinus liliformis, Dimencrinites
decadactylua, Cyathocrinites gonodactylus, Hypantho-
crinites decorus, and Cupressocrinus ci-assits.
The advent of coralline animals also belongs to the
period we are now considering. Of these, however, we
shall speak hereafter. A hue of reference must be given
to the genus Euomphalus, so named in allusion to the
deeply umbilicated, or navel- like, depression of its disc.
The animal inhabited an univalve shell, divided inter-
nally into several chambers. As it grew in size, it
a, I'entacrinites Brinrens, reduced ; 6. the same from the Lias of
Lyme Kegis, natural size.
abandoned the innermost chamber, which served it for
an asylum, leaving it vacant, and secreting behind itself
a partition wall. This operation was repeated at each
successive stage of its growth, so that the animal and
its house expanded simultaneously.
The fishes belonging to this period have been classi-
fied under a genus named Sphagodus, or murderous
tooth ; they were, undoubtedly, the pirates of the
Silurian seas, whose ravages confined within reasonable
limits the increase of the lower organisms.
We tabulate, as before, the rocks and fossils of the
UPPEK SILURIAN PERIOD.
Rocks. Fossils.
Hard sandstone, slates, and conglo
merate beds,
Calcareous sandstone, coarse grits,
and purple shales,
Limestone and shale;
" f Crinoideans and Corals.
Brachiopods.
tolites.
Shale, with calcareous limestone, . Marine molluscs.
Argillaceous limestone, .... Crinoideans.
Micaceous grey sandstone, and mud- > Crustaceans; Fish of the
Sphayodus genus.
;one, and mud-)
THE DEVONIAN PERIOD.
We now come to an investigation of the natural his-
tory of the Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone, so called
because the formation is very largely developed
in the county of Devon.
The seas were still of vast extent, but their
surface was diversified by scattered islets, on
whose rocky shores the Mollusca and Articulata
of the period passed through their various stages
of existence. Here the lily-like Encrinites still
bloomed and flourished ; on the sandy shore bur-
rowed enormous annelids, large as a man's arm ;
the eurypterus still paddled through the teeming
waters; and throngs of strange ganoid fishes
fluttered to and fro, in quest of food or in flight
from an enemy.
The fishes were, perhaps, the most conspicuous
members of the Devonian fauna. Uncouth were
they of form, and widely different from any of
the species which inhabit our present seas.
Many were shut up in a complete armour of
bony plates ; others glittered with strange coats
of hard enamelled scale ; not a few were fur-
nished with fin-spines and other external wea-
pons of attack and defence. So curious and
unusual was their conformation that early obser-
vers not unfrequently set them down as crusta-
ceans, reptiles, or even "huge water-beetles."
Take, for example, the Coccosteus, which may
be described as a half-armoured or partially
plated individual, only the upper part of the body
down to the fins being protected by scales. It
derives its scientific name (" berry-bone ") from
the small berry-like projections or tubercles which
studded its plated surfaces.
Still more remarkable in aspect was the Pter-
iclitJiys, or Winged Fish, whose fossil remains
were first discovered by Hugh Miller. His
description of this apparently monstrous anomaly,
which nevertheless was admirably fitted to discharge
its peculiar functions in the economy of creation, will
interest the reader. Imagine, he says, the figure of r
man roughly drawn in black on a grey ground, the
head amputated at the shoulders, the arms extended
as in the 'attitude of swimming, the body rather long
than otherwise, and narrowing from the chest down-
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
wards ; one of the legs cut away at the hip-joint, and
the other, as if to preserve the balance, placed directly
under the centre of the figure which it seems to sup-
port. Such, at a first glance, is the appearance of the
fossil in its sandstone bed.
The body was of very considerable depth, perhaps
little less deep proportionally from back to breast than
the body of the tortoise ; the under part was flat, the
upper rose towards the centre into a roof-like ridge,
Fishes of the Devonian epoch. 1, Coccosteus, one-third natural size; 2, Pterichthys,
one-fourth natural size; 3, Gephalaspis, one-fourth natural size.
and both under and upper were encased in a strong
armour of bony plates, which, resembling those of the
tortoise more closely than those of the crustacean,
received their accessions of growth at the sutures or
edges.
On the under side the plates are divided by two lines
of suture, which run, the one longitudinally through
the centre of the body, the other transversely, also
through the centre of it : they bisect one another at
right angles, but a lozenge-shaped plate intervenes at
the point of bisection.
There are thus five plates at the lower or belly part
of the animal, all thickly tuberculated outside with
wart-like protuberances ; the inner present appearances
indicative of a bony structure.
The plates on the upper side are more numerous
and less easily described ; just as it would be difficult to
particularize the forms of the various stones which com-
pose the ribbed and pointed roof of a Gothic cathedral ;
the arched ridge or hump of the back requiring, in a
somewhat similar way, a peculiar form and arrange-
ment of the plates.
A stout plate, of hexagonal form, covers and1 protects
the apex of the ridge, like a skull-cap or helmet ; and
nearly corresponds in position to the flat central part of
the under side. Around it runs a border of variously-
formed plates, diminishing in size and increasing in
number towards the head, and separated, like the
different portions of a dissected map, by deep sutures.
All present a tuberculated surface. The eyes are fixed
in front, on a prominence much lower than the roof-
like ridge of the back. As in many other fishes, the
mouth seems to have opened in the edge of the crea-
ture's snout, where a line traversing the back would
bisect a line traversing the belly. The two arms or
paddles are placed so far forward as to give the body a
disproportionate and decapitated appearance. From
the shoulder to the elbow, so to speak, occurs a swell-
ing muscular projection, as in the human arm ; the part
below is flattened so as to resemble
the blade of an oar, and terminates in
a strong sharp point. The tail is of
considerable length, more than equal
to a third of the entire figure, and of
an angular form — the base represent-
ing the part attached to the body, and
the apex its termination. It was
clothed with small tuberculated rhom-
boidal plates, like scales ; and where
the internal structure is shown, appear-
ances may be seen of a vertebrated
bone, with rib-like processes standing
out at a sharp angle.
From this life-like description the
reader will readily image to himself the
actual aspect of the Pterichthys. Its
jointed arms, or paddles, were em-
ployed in swimming; and its speed,
combined with its defensive armour,
must have rendered it a formidable
denizen of the Devonian seas.
The Cephalaspis, or Buckler-head,
bore a considerable resemblance to
the fishes of the present time. It was protected only
on the anterior part of the body; its head-plate
consisting of a single piece, shaped like a shield, whence
its scientific appellation.
Other fishes of the period were undefended by any
such armour as that which we have described, but the
strong resisting scales that enveloped the whole body
afforded, nevertheless, a considerable protection. Such
were the Acanthodians, whose fins were armed and
supported by sharp spiny bones ; the Climatius; the
Diplacanthus ; the Dipterus, or double-finned; the
Osteolepis, or bony-scale; the Holoptycliius, or all-
wrinkle, so named in allusion to the curious wrinkle-
like engraving on its large enamelled scales; and
the Asterolepis, or star-scale.
The head of the latter was encased in bony plates,
fretted with star-like tubercles (whence the name) ; and
its body was covered with bony scales, not less beauti-
fully sculptured than the marbles of Nineveh. Even
the elaborate carvings of Benvenuto Cellini seem rude
and unfinished compared with those which fretted the
armour of this inhabitant of the Devonian ocean. It
was a fish of large size, equalling in that respect, and
sometimes surpassing, a large porpoise. Its vertebral
column is supposed to have been cartilaginous, like
that of the sturgeon ; its teeth partook of the characters
both of the fish and the reptile classes — the outer row
being thickly set, as in the fish, while the inner was
thinly set, as in the reptiles.
In reference to these species, however, Dr. Page
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
observes that their forms would not startle us, notwith-
standing their apparent singularity, though they were
suddenly restored to take their pLices among existing
fishes. He reminds us that the little armed bull-
head of our British shores wears an armour as mar-
vellous as, and even more enriched than, that of the
Ccphalaspis. The Ostracion, or trunk-fish of the
Indian Ocean, is encased in a bony box as strangely
fabricated as that of the Pterichthys or Coccosteus. Not
less formidable weapons are the spines of the balistes
and sea-snipe than the ichthyodorulites of the Dipla-
canthus; and the scales of the bony pike of South
America gleam with as bright an enamel, and exhibit
as quaint a sculpturing, as those of the Osteolepis or
Holoptycliius of the old red sandstone.
In the Devonian fauna a very important place was
held by the Crustacea, and among the Crustacea by a
family named the Eurypteridce, which in some respects
resembled our existing king-crabs, as in their carapace
and organs of digestion ; in others, our present lobsters,
as in their prolonged and segmented bodies. They
were furnished with " broad, paddle-like, swimming
limbs," and frequently with huge prehensile claws ;
measured from three to six feet in length ; and acted as
the scavengers of the Devonian coasts. In the same beds
with these Crustacea have been discovered an immense
number of " dark-coloured patches of spawn-like
organisms," which palaeontologists are now agreed in
regarding as the ova or spawn of the Eurypterus and the
Pterygotus, and which bear signal testimony to the
ancient abundance and prolificness of crustacean life.
It is generally admitted that in the Devonian period
the order of reptiles first made their appearance, though
we have no certain evidence of their existence. Repti-
lian foot bones and relics have, indeed, been found in
the Elgin sandstones, but some geologists are of opinion
that these sandstones do not belong to the Devonian,
but to the early Triassic formation. As the question is
of a doubtful character, we shall defer to the newer era
our consideration of the Telerpeton and the Stagano-
lepis, though these reptiles are usually treated in con-
nection with the old red sandstone.
" Such," we may say in Dr. Page's well-considered
words, <; is a cursory glance at the life of the Devonian
epoch. As yet we know scarcely anything of its
terrestrial flora and fauna. We are like voyagers to
whom some unknown land looms in the distance through
the sea-fogs and grey of the morning. Here and there
a few gleams of light fall on hill-sides green with ferns
and club-mosses ; and as the mists roll away we catch
a passing glimpse of some river- mouth fringed with
reeds and rushes. This, however, is all ; the interior is
obscured from our vision, and no drift of fruit or forest-
growth tells of a higher flora. As we coast along we
almost think we catch the reflection of glacier and
icebergs, which would indicate in some regions a
sterility and dearth of vegetation ; but this may be a
delusion, and only the sparkle of the quartzy cliffs that
are broken into fragments by the surf that dashes
against them. When we turn to the ocean, the view
is somewhat nearer and clearer. In the warmer seas
corals of various forms and beauty are rearing their
reefs ; shell-fish of every grade, though not of great
I numerical abundance,* are busy along shore and in mid-
water ; fishes of widely different forms swarm in shoals,
generically few, but individually most numerous ; while
crustaceans of uncouth shape and gigantic growth feed
on the tide-borne garbage of the muddy creeks and
shallow lagoons. This is all ; and much as has been
made of it, all reason forbids us to accept it as more
than the merest contribution to the biology of the period."
Our investigations into the natural history of the
primeval world now bring us to the
CARBONIFEROUS PERIOD,
which is generally subdivided into two great sub-periods:
1. The Carboniferous Limestone.
2. The Coal Measures.
To the former the earth owes some of its most im-
portant marine deposits ; to the latter those enormous
treasures of coal which have been so intimately con-
nected with human progress and the development of
civilization.
The limestone deposits which underlie the coal
system, and which in many places attain a thickness of
2500 feet, are of marine origin ; have sprung from the
death and decay of innumerable myriads of zoophytes,
radiata, cephalopods, fishes, and reef-building corals.
The seas then teemed with life. Whole strata are now
composed of the calcareous remains of extinct genera,
which once trailed along the sands, or clung to the
weedy rocks, or crawled along the marshy shore, or
floated in the mid-depths of ocean. The Encrinites
were then so abundant that entire masses of limestone
are composed of their fossil relics, just as islands of
coral consist of coral animals. Nor were shell-fish less
plentiful. Orthoceratitcs, a yard in length, and Bel-
lerophons of extraordinary size, flourished in the Warm
and genial waters, which also fed and supported legions
of star-fishes (Pentrenites), sea-urchins (Palcechini),
Serpulce, and Spirorbes.
Beds of limestone occur in the weald-clay of Sussex,
which are wholly made up of the univalve called
Paludina. This was a fresh-water snail, which lived
in the rivers and lakes of the Carboniferous period.
Sometimes the shells are found wholly decomposed,
and their casts alone remain, the interstices being filled
up with calcareous deposit or indurated marl. In the
coarser varieties are cavities left by the decomposition
of the shells; in the compact masses the whole has
been permeated with a crystalline calcareous infiltration,
of various shades of grey, blue, and ochre, interspersed
with pure white. But other animal remains enter into
their composition, which the naturalist cannot fail to
regard with interest. These belong to a fresh- water
Crustacea, called Cypris, which still swarms in our.
pools and stagnant waters, and resembles a flea covered
with an oval shield, except as to the head and feet.
It swims by means of numerous cilia, which are fine
as pencils of hair. Its shield, shell, or case it sheds
annually ; and though its natural size does not exceed
that of a pin's head, yet in certain formations huge
layers of stone, massive rocks, are composed of the
* Here we venture to differ from Dr. Page. The species or
genera were not numerous, but of the abundance of shell-fish in
certain species we entertain no doubt.
8
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
consolidated remains of various species of Cyprielet,
while they also constitute a large proportion of the
mass of many beds of Sussex marble.
Contemporary with the crustaceans and molluscs now
described was the Megalichthys, a genus of Sauroid
fishes, established by the researches of Agassiz. Their
teeth equalled in size the teeth of the largest living
crocodiles : in external form nearly conical, they were
perforated by a conical cavity, like that within the
teeth of many lizards; the base was fluted, like the
base of the teeth of the Ichthyosaurus. Their immense
size is a proof of the magnitude which fishes of this
family attained at a period so early as that of the
Carboniferous formation. The object of so formidable
an apparatus seems to have been, not for mastication,
but to enable these voracious fresh-water rovers to
hold fast and swallow the slippery bodies of the fishes
on which they preyed.
Seventeen genera of Sauroid fishes have been distin-
guished by Agassiz, whose only living representatives
are the genus Lepidosleus, or Bony pike, and the genus
Polypterus ; the former inhabiting the great rivers of
North America, and the latter the Nile of Egypt, and
the Senegal of West Africa.
Another genus of fishes belonging to the Carboni-
ferous formations was the Amblypterus. From the
character of their teeth it is evident that they fed upon
decayed sea-weed, and on such soft animal substances
as they found at the bottom of the water. The teeth
are small and numerous, and set close together like a
brush. The form of the body shows that the Amblyp-
terus was incapable of rapid progression. The vertebral
column is prolonged into the upper lobe of the tail,
which is much longer than the lower lobe, and thus
was ingeniously adapted to sustain the body in an in-
clined position, with the head and mouth nearest to
the bottom.
Among existing cartilaginous fishes we find the same
prolongation of the vertebral column into the caudal fin
occurring as a distinctive characteristic of the sturgeon
and the shark. The former is one of the scavengers
of nature ; clearing the ocean and river waters of impu-
rities with its soft, leather-like mouth, which was capable
both of protusion and contraction, and feeding wholly
on soft animal substances and putrid vegetable matter.
Hence it has constant occasion to keep its body in the
same inclined position as the fossil AmUyptent-s.
The marshy river banks and stagnant forest pools of
the Carboniferous period were inhabited by certain
forms of animal life which foreshadowed the frog and
lizard of our own times. Of these some were wholly
aquatic in their habits, some were arboreal, and others
amphibious. To the first belonged the Parabatrachus,
or frog-like reptile ; to the second class, the Denclrer-
peton, or tree-lizard; to the third, the Archceogosaurus,
or ancient land-lizard. Professor Owen discovers in
these early reptiles, with their vertebral column, gill-
arches, and large throat-plates, a " linking and blending
together" of the piscine and sauroid groups, in antici-
pation, as it were, of those huge labyrinthodont reptiles
of which we shall have occasion to speak hereafter.
Thus we find each form distinct and perfect in itself,
and admirably adapted for its specia] functions, but
each presenting itself as the type of some higher and
more advanced form, to make its appearance when the
earth was duly fitted for its reception.
In the accompanying illustration (Plate 1) our artist
has endeavoured to realize a landscape of the Carbon-
iferous period ; some such picture as would have been
presented to the eye of man, had man then lived. It
is thus that imagination, aided by scientific knowledge,
is enabled to re-create the past; it is thus that the
philosopher, like the poet, can " give to airy nothings a
local habitation and a name;" can fill up the imperfect
outline with glowing colours, and clothe a barren world
with life and vigour. Geology supplies us with the
foundation on which, as naturalists, we build up the
wondrous structure. We know that to certain condi-
tions of our globe belonged certain organisms, certain
forms of animal life; that those forms and those organ-
isms could only flourish while the earth preserved a
certain temperature, and exhibited a certain charac-
teristic vegetation. The view, then, which we set
before the mind's eye may be ideal, but it is not ficti-
tious; in its general features, if not in its particular
details, it will be unquestionably correct.
During the Carboniferous period a tropical heat must
have prevailed over our world. There would be long
days of burning sunshine, followed by glorious cloudless
nights, "clad in the beauty of a thousand stars." There
would be heavy dews, descending in the darkness, like
pearly mists, to fertilize and refresh the thirsty soil.
There would be torrents of appalling rains, accompanied
by terrible electric discharges, forked lightnings, and
the sound of rolling thunder. The globe at this epoch
was probably one vast archipelago ; the waters every-
where dimpling round the shores of ferny islands ; or
if any larger tracts of land existed, we can fancy them
intersected by broad rivers, whose banks were hung
with luxuriant forests, and whose interior was occupied
with far-spreading marshes. Under the shade of tell
trees, and arborescent ferns taller than our tallest oaks,
throve an infinite variety of aquatic plants, equiseta,
and club-mosses ; and in every dell and hollow waved
the fronds of the most gorgeous and magnificent ferns.
Lilies gleamed among the dense rank grasses; rich,
rare heaths adorned the open clowns with their delicate
hues ; and many a pillar-like palm reared its crest of
fan-shaped leaves in the warm glow of a cloudless sun.
We are told of one strange plant, named the SpJieno-
phyllum, which resembled an immense asparagus,
twenty-five to thirty feet in height. Stigmaria and
sigillaria attained to proportionally gigantic dimen-
sions. All vegetation, terrestrial and marine, was on
a colossal scale; we have nothing now to compare
with it except the luxuriant and lofty growth of the j
virgin forests of the Brazils.
The general character of this vegetation will be j
understood from the following tabular classification : —
Dr. Lindley. Brongniart. Natural Families.
II. Cryptogamous amphio-^ ^ gea.weed
I. Thallogens. < gens, or cellular cryp- > fa^
( togains. )
i Clnb-mosses, equi-
I seta, ferns, Ivco-
II. Acrogens. 2. Cryptogamous acrogens. « ^ iepidoden.
( dra.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
IlLGyinnogeus. |3- ^«»tjrl«ioa«l.aniili.K> Conifers&cycadi
i Composite, legn-
(4. Dicotyledonous angio- J minosa?, unibel-
IV. Exogens.
V. Endogens. 5. Monocotyledons.
) liferae, cruci-
( feras, hea
jPalms,lilies,aloes,
( rushes, grasse
A recent writer has attempted to describe a carbon-
iferous forest. The grass would be composed, he says
of herbaceous ferns and mare's-tail — a lacustrine vege-
tation shaded by the boughs of lofty trees. Here
would tower a huge lepidodendron, with naked leafless
trunk, and there a sigillaria, with a stigmaria at their
foot, stretching its long roots covered with reproductive
spores into the muddy, reeking waters. Numerous
sphenophyllums raise their graceful pyramidal-shaped
masses, terminating in a bud not unlike the cabbage-
palm. Ah1 this rich, vegetable growth, under the
influence of a hot sun and heavy rains, is constantly
decomposing, and so gradually forming a rich, fertile
humus or mould, to provide for the development of an
entirely new generation of plants in a succeeding age.
From their partial decomposition were also being
produced vast stores of fuel for the future benefit of
the coming Man. These great forests, these wide
tracts of ferns and grasses, were the origin of coal.
At first the submerged plants would be a light spongy
mass, resembling very closely the peat-moss of our
northern moors and marshes. While under water
these underwent a partial decomposition — a fermenta-
tion, whose different chemical phases, we are told,
cannot be exactly defined. It is certain, however,
that this decomposition and fermentation of the peat-
mosses of the primeval world was accompanied by the
production of considerable quantities of carburetted
hydrogen, either in a gaseous or a liquid form. Thence
result the hydrocarbon with which all coal is impreg-
nated, and the tar oils which have penetrated the
bituminous schists. " This emission of bicarburetted
hydrogen gas," says M. Figuier,* " would probably
continue until after the peat-beds were buried beneath
the strata eventually deposited upon them. The mere
weight and pressure of the superincumbent mass, con-
tinued at an increased ratio during successive ages,
have given to the coal its characteristic density, and
its state of aggregation."
But though, owing to the wonderful luxuriance of
vegetation then prevailing, the greater portion of our
coal-beds seem to have been formed in the period we
are now describing, we must remind the reader that
they have also been found in other formations, as in
the oolite, the wealden. and the tertiary. In truth,
as Dr. Page has justly remarked, coal is the product of
every period, because it is simply the mineralized result
of vegetable accumulation, and that accumulation is
due to immensity of time rather than to rapidity of
growth.
The difference existing in the mineral characters of
various kinds of coal is partly attributable to the
amount of pressure, and partly to the greater or lesser
heat given out by the central fires of the earth. The
inferior beds are invariably drier and denser than the
* Fignier : The World Before the Deluge.
upper ones, or less bituminous, because "their mineral-
ization, so to speak, has been completed under the
influence of a higher temperature, and, at the same
time, under a greater pressure."
It may be of service to the reader if we here intro-
duce an estimate of the
AREA OF THE COAL MEASURES OF THE WORLD.
Square Miles.
North America (chiefly in the United States), . . 310,500
Great Britain, 6,200
France 1,550
Rhenish Prussia and Saarbrtick. .... 1,550
Belgium, ........ 775
Bohemia, . V> 620
Westphalia, 590
Spain (in the Asturias) 310
Russia, .... . .160
Saxony, 66
New Zealand, Polynesia, and East Indian Islands, Unknown.
These considerations have led us to digress from
our more immediate subject of the landscapes of the
Carboniferous period, though indirectly connected with
it, and, in fact, of essential service in illustrating their
general characters.
In the accompanying illustration some of the more
remarkable species of animal life which inhabited the
warm carboniferous ocean are represented. On the
right a tribe of polypi sparkle with reflections of silvery
lustre, the species nearest the margin being the Las-
mocyathus, the Chcttetes. and the Phytopora. The
mollusc which occupies the extremity of the elongated
conical tube, resembling the sheath of a Turkish sabre,
is an Aploceras. It seems to be the rudimentary
form of an ammonite : coil this elongated shell around
itself, like a coil of bell- wire, and you would have at
once before you the ammonite or the Nautilus. Nearly
in the centre, reposing on the ocean-bed, are a Belle-
rophon hiulcus, a Nautilus Koninckii, and a Productus,
the latter easily recognized by the numerous spines
which surround its shell.
Other polypi are spreading out their greedy tentacles
on the left. The Chonetes rise to the surface, furnished
with small spines. You may distinguish the Cyatho-
phyllum by their straight cylindrical stems ; and some
encrinites, or stone-lilies, winding round the trunk of a
tree, or reposing their flexible stems upon the water.
Among all this varied and characteristic life, immov-
ably attached, for the most part, to the rocks on which
it has first budded, move various fishes of the AnMyp-
terus genus.
The teeming waters ripple on the low shores of
many a pleasant island, most of them covered only
with a dwarf rank vegetation, but others with vast
'orests of fern-trees and cycads, stigmaria and sigillaria,
deficient in bud and bloom, but richly adorned with
.ight, symmetrical, feathery fronds. " The trunks of a
modern forest are rough and gnarled ; those of the
Carboniferous period sprung up like the sculptured
shafts of a mediaeval temple, graceful in proportion,
and rich in ornament through the endless repetition of
lutings, spirals, zigzags, lozenges, ovals, and other
geometrical designs — these designs being the persistent
eaf-scars of a vegetation simpler in structure and more
)rimitive in plau."
b
10
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
THE PEliMIAN PERIOD.
The Permian period was not remarkable for the
introduction of new forms of animal life. Its principal
features were the swift decadence of the luxurious flora
which had embellished our earth during the gradual
formation of the coal measures, and the upheaval of
lofty highlands, of hills, and steep banks, which con-
tracted the broad river estuaries and wide-spreading
lakes within more moderate limits. Dome-shaped
eminences of porphyry and syenite were raised on the
earth's surface. Vast columns of steam and vapour
rose from the midst of the sea, and condensing in the
cooler atmosphere, fell in heavy torrents of rain. The
evaporation of water on so extensive a scale was accom-
panied by an equally extensive
disengagement of electricity,
which illuminated the grey
shadows of the world with
incessant flashes of brilliant
lightning, while over the boil-
ing sea rolled peal upon peal
of reverberating thunder. The
Permian ocean, it is unques-
tionable, overspread an im-
mense area of the globe. It
stretched from Ireland to the
Ural mountains, and probably
to Spitzbergen, while its nor-
thern boundary would be
defined (as geologists tell us)
by the Carboniferous, Devon-
ian, Silurian, and igneous
regions of Scotland, Scandin-
avia, and Northern Russia;
its southern limits apparently
extending far to the south of
Europe. "The chain of the
Vosges, stretching across
Rhenish Bavaria, the Grand
Duchy of Baden, as far as
Saxony and Silesia, would be
under water. They would
, communicate with the ocean which covered all the mid-
land ami western counties of England and part of Russia.
In other regions of Europe the continent varied little
since the Devonian and Carboniferous ages. In France
the central plateau would form a great island, which
extended towards the south, probably as far as the foot
of the Pyrenees : another island would consist of the
mass of Brittany. In Russia the continent would have
extended itself considerably towards the east : finally,
it is probable that at the end of the Carboniferous period
the Belgian continent would stretch from the depart-
ments of the Pas-de-Calais and Du Nord, in France,
and would extend up to and beyond the Rhine."
The Permian formation is usually divided by geolo-
gists into three series of strata : —
The New Red Sandstone (the lowest) ;
Magnesian Limestone, or Zechstein (next in order) ;
and
Permian, or Sandstone of the Vosges (uppermost).
The fossil remains of the new red sandstone, which
attains a thickness of from 300 to 600 feet, and is found
over great part of Germany, in the Vosges, and in
England, are very few.
The dark schist beds of the magnesian limestone,
which both in England and Germany attains a thick-
ness of about 450 feet, are remarkably rich in the
memorials of peculiar genera of fishes.
The Permian strata, which also occur in England,
and in the government of Perm, in Russia (whence their
name), on a very extensive scale, are characterized by
scattered evidences of past organic life.
The principal points to which the attention of the
naturalist may here be directed are :-—
Certain forms of Sauroid fishes, as the Pulcwnisctis
and Platysomus /
Laliyrinthodon restored. One-twentieth natural size.
The Lahyrinthodont reptiles ;
The Bird-like and Reptilian footprints (Ichnites) on
the new red sandstone ; and
The first appearance of Mammalian life, under a
marsupial form, in the Dromatherium.
In the Palceoniscus, the Platysomus, and other fishes
of the Permian period, we find the upper tail-fin much
longer than the lower, the vertebral column being con-
tinued in the upper caudal lobe, as in the Amblyptents
of the coal measures, and the sturgeon and shark of
existing seas. This arrangement Agassiz calls "hetero-
cercal." These genera, in all probability, lived in the
shore-waters, and never ventured far out into the wide
ocean.
The Labyrinthodon. — Geologists were moved to
wonder some years ago when they discovered the im-
pressions of the foot of a strange animal in the new red
sandstone — impressions closely resembling the marks
that would be made in soft clay by the outstretched
fingers and thumb of the human hand.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
it
It was evident from their form that they were much
too short for the feet of crocodiles, or any other known
Saurians; and that they more probably belonged to
some species of the Testudinata, or Tortoises. But the
head, pelvis, and scapula of the animal being afterwards
found, it was pronounced to be a huge air-brealhing
reptile closely connected with the Batrachians, an order
now represented among us by frogs, toads, and water-
newts. In Japan, however, a gigantic species still
exists, called the Sieboldtia; but if a giant compared
with the croaking inhabitants of our English marshes,
it was a dwarf contrasted with the new red sandstone
monster.
Judging from the impressions of its hand-like feet,
Dr. Kaup, one of their early discoverers, considered it
to be a marsupial animal, and named it Cheirotlierium;
but its Batrachian affinities have been determined by
Professor Owen, who, in allusion to the complex struc-
ture of its teeth, christened it the Labyrinthodtm. These
teeth were situated both on the proper jaw-bones, and
on the bone of the roof of the mouth called " vomer."
The head was not naked, but defended by a bony
cushion, and attached to the neck-bones by two joints.
Its two fore feet were larger than its hind feet; the
former seem to have been twelve inches long, the latter
eight inches long by five inches wide. There were five
toes, of which the first or great toe was bent inwards
like a thumb. Each toe was armed with a nail. Its
hind legs were much longer than its fore legs, in which
respect it resembled the Batrachians ; but its head and
teeth were more like those of a shark. Altogether it
was an uncouth-looking animal, but must have been
singularly agile in its movements, capable of astounding
leaps, and endowed with peculiar voracity.
The historian or the antiquary, says Dr. Buckland,
commenting on these strange footprints on the sands
of time, may have traversed the fields of ancient or of
modern battles ; and may have pursued the line of march
of triumphant conquerors, whose armies trampled down
the most mighty kingdoms of the world. The winds
and storms have utterly effaced the fugitive impressions
of their devastating course. Not a trace remains of a
single foot, or a single hoof, of all the countless millions
of men and beasts whose "storm-march," resistless and
unresting, spread desolation over the earth. But the
reptiles that crawled upon the half-finished surface of
our infant planet, while its plastic substances were still
being moulded into shape and form by the divine hand,
have left on record the eternal and indelible memo-
rials of their existence. No pen of poet or historian
has told of their creation or destruction ; their very
bones are found no more, or only partially and rarely
found, among the fossil treasures of the primeval earth.
Thousands of years have passed away, and the world
has undergone convulsion after convulsion, since the
remote age when these footprints were first engraven on
the yielding sand; yet there they are now, distinct and
clear, exposed to our curious and wondering eyes, and
stimulating our minds to dwell upon the wonders of an
almost forgotten past. There they are now, stamped
upon the rock, as legible as the recent track of man or
animal in newly-fallen snow ; there they remain, as if
in proof that thousands of years are but as a link in the
grand chain of eternity: as if in mockery of the tran-
sitory character of the heroes and heroic achievements
of mankind.
Ichnites. — The consideration of these fossil foot-
prints, or Ichnites, has become a distinct section of
Palaeontology, to which the name of Ichnology has been
given. Our knowledge of many extinct animals wholly
depends on the more or less distinct traces of their pas-
sage which have been discovered on the rocks which
once formed the plastic sands or mud of the sea-shore
or the river side. They are not numerous, however,
in sandstone ; most generally they occur in rocks origin-
ally deposited as mud, or in argillaceous beds lying
between an upper and under sandstone layer. We
may suppose, therefore, that anciently the bed of mud
or clay formed an extensive level shore, exposed by the
receding tide. Across this shore passed the primeval
animals, and their footprints were immediately baked
and hardened by the influence of a tropical sun. When
the waters again came up, they would deposit a thin
layer of sediment, which would be augmented by every
successive flow of the tide, until the footprints were
securely protected from any accident whatever. It is
clear that this process would be most effectual in locali-
ties only submerged at spring- tides ; and in this very
manner, as Sir Charles Lyell tells us, the impressions
of numerous wading-birds are preserved, at the present
day, in the plastic mud which covers the flat shore of
the Bay of Fundy, where the tide sometimes rises sixty
and seventy feet.
Another method of preserving the impressions would
be independent of the solar influence, as where, on an
ordinary muddy shore, during the ebb of the tide, the
footprints were filled up with blown sand, and the
waters, on their return, overspreading the level, deposited
upon it a fresh stratum of silt.
In one or other of these fashions, certain animals of
the primeval world have been enabled to transmit to us
these curious memorials of their existence ; and we can
trace the sinuous wriggling progress of various species
of Annelids, the crawling movements of huge Crustacea,
the slow heavy track of immense Chekmians, the jerking
motions of vast Labyrinthodonts, besides the various
processions and retrocessions of other reptiles and ani-
mals, engaged in their daily task of purification and
destruction. Who can contemplate without emotions
of awe, wonder, and admiration, this vivid testimony
of the rocks to the plenitude of Creative Power ? Who
can read these records of the ages without a sense of
divine grandeur as compared with human impotence?
The footprints endure in the muds and sands of a half-
finished world, when Tadmor is a howling waste, and
of all the mighty civilization of ancient Egypt only a
few shattered pillars and ruined temples remain !
The Dromatherium. — The earliest terrestrial Mam-
malia as yet discovered are of the marsupial order;
small pouched animals allied to the existing opossum.
It was generally considered that these did not make
their appearance on- our globe until the Oolitic period ;
but American geologists believe that they have found
the fossil remains of a species, to which they have given
the name of Dromatherium sikestre, in the new red
sandstones of North America.
12
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
All the existing genera of the marsupial order, both
herbivorous and carnivorous, are now peculiar to North
and South America, and to New Holland, with the
adjacent islands. The name Marsupialia is derived
(as we shall hereafter more fully explain) from the
presence of a large external marsupium, or pouch,
attached to the abdomen, wherein the foetus is placed
after a very brief period of uterine gestation, remaining
suspended to the nipple by its mouth, until sufficiently
matured to come forth to the external atmosphere.
This order occupies an intermediate place between
oviparous and viviparous animals. Hence it naturally
formed a link between the Reptiles and the Mammals.
It is interesting to observe, as Professor Owen re-
marks, that the Marsupials present a very complete
series, adapted to the assimilation of every form of
organic matter ; and no doubt they possessed a suffi-
ciently powerful instinctive precaution to preserve them-
selves from extermination, when surrounded with
enemies of no higher intellectual capacity than the
Reptilia.
The Permian period closes what may be called the
Primary Epoch of our world, when it was appropriated
chiefly to animals living in the waters, and, especially,
to crustaceans and fishes. As we have seen, the forms
of the Reptilia were few in number, and of the Mam-
malia only one genus had appeared. We now arrive
at the Secondary Epoch, which, before all things, was
the epoch of reptile life.
ANIMAL LIFE IN THE SECONDARY EPOCH.
The Secondary Epoch is subdivided by geologists
into three periods :— 1. The Triassic ; 2. The Jurassic ;
3. The Cretaceous.
THE TRIASSIC PERIOD.
The Triassic period is so named because the rocks of
which it is composed, and which are more extended in
Germany than in England or France, were denomi-
nated the trias or triple group by German writers.
They form, in fact, three groups, which, in ascending
order, are as follows : —
England.
France.
Germany.
Sandstone and qnart-
zose conglomerate.
Ores bigarr^.
Mnschelkalk or
Bunter sandstein.
Mnschelkalk.
Gypseous shales and
sandstone.
Calcaire coqnilier.
Marne irisee.
Keuper.
Neic Red Sandstone. — In this new phase of the
revolutions of the globe, says a recent writer, the
animated denizens of its surface differ greatly from
those summoned into existence during the Primary
Epoch. Those curious crustaceans, the Trilobites,
have disappeared ; the Cephalopods and Brachiopods
have dwindled in numbers; the ganoid and placoid
fishes gradually decline, and finally become extinct.
But the life of the Ammonites now begins, and attains
at once to a surprising development. In like manner,
while some genera of terrestrial animals have passed
away, others now, for the first time, " live, move, and
have their being." The huge Chelonians now surge
through the seas, and bask in the sunshine on the
borders of the great lakes. The saurian reptiles assume
colossal proportions, preparing the way for those yet
more gigantic Saurians which belong to the follow-
ing period, and whose enormous skeletons and laidly
aspect excite the awe and astonishment of all who gaze
upon their marvellous remains.
Few animal relics, however, are found in the Bunter
sandstone, although it bears numerous traces of the
Labyrinthodon.
The Muschelkalk is so named from the multitude of
shells which it embodies, and of which, in truth, it
consists; including vast numbers of Molluscs, twelve
different genera of saurian reptiles, some Cheloniae, or
turtles, and six new genera of cuirassed or armour-
plated fishes.
Let us pause, for a moment, to gain some conception
of the molluscous varieties.
The Brachiopods are still represented by Terebratula,
Lingula, Spirifer;
The Conchifcra, by Trigonia, Mya, Flngiostoma,
Ostrea, Airicula;
The Gasteropods, by Turbo, Tw-ritella, Buccinum,
Natica, RosteUaria ;
The Cephalopods, by Ceratites, Nautilus, Belemnite,
Rhyncholite, Orthoceras.
The Mytilus, or Mussel, which properly belongs to
this sub-period, is the acephalous (or headless) Mol-
lusc, with elongated triangular shell, of which many
species inhabit our existing seas. Other acephalous
Molluscs of the same time were the Lima, Myophonia,
Posidonia, and Avicula.
Among the Cephalopods we select the Belemnites
as worthy of more particular notice. They differ from
other fossil chambered shells in having their chambers
inclosed within a cone-shaped fibrous sheath, resem-
bling in form the point of an arrow, whence they derive
their name.
A Belemnite may be described as a compound inter-
nal shell, consisting of three essential parts :—
First, a fibro-calcareous cone-shaped shell, termi-
nating at its larger end in a hollow cone.
Second, a conical thin horny sheath, or cup, com-
mencing from the base of the hollow cone of the fibro-
calcareous sheath, and rapidly enlarging as it extends
outwards to a considerable distance. This cup-like
sheath formed the anterior chamber of the Belemnite,
and contained the ink bag and some other viscera.
Third, a thin conical internal chambered shell, called
the alveolus, placed within the hollow calcareous cone
already described.
This portion of the shell is closely allied in form and
construction to the Nautilus and Orthoceratite. Thin
transverse plates divide it into a series of narrow air-
chambers, or areola, resembling a pile of watch-glasses,
gradually diminishing towards the apex. Outwardly
these plates are concave, inwardly convex ; and a con-
tinuous siphuncle, or locomotor tube, runs through all
of them.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
Every animal was provided, like the modern Sepia*
with an ink-bag nearly a foot in length. Hence we
may conclude that they had an internal shell ; the ink-
bag being a defensive provision entirely confined to
naked Cephalopods.
From the weight of their internal shell we may sup-
pose that they usually maintained a vertical position ;
lleleimiite restored.
and as their chambered portion was supplied with a
locomotor tube, or siphuncle, like the Nautilus, they
probably rose and sunk in the water with the utmost
facility.
These fossils are popularly known as Arrow-heads,
Thunderstones, and Fingerstones. The species are
nearly 100 in number. The reader should remember
that they are not the animals themselves, but the
internal organisms of those animals ; naked cephalo-
pods, which protected themselves by clouding the water
with discharges of inky fluid, just as Homer's gods and
goddesses, when threatened by any danger, surrounded
themselves with an impenetrable cloud or mist.
The numerous family of the Ammonites now demands
our notice. Their essential parts, it will be seen, were
so similar in principle to those of the Nautili shells,
that we cannot doubt they answered a like purpose in
the economy of the extinct species of cephalopodous
molluscs from which these Ammonites have been
derived.
They received their name from the resemblance of
their beautiful shell to the ram's-horn decorations which
symbolically enriched the front of the Temple of Jupi-
ter Ammon, and the bas-reliefs and statues of the Pagan
deity. Shells are all that remain of them. The living
organism has long since disappeared.
Like the Belemnite, and like the Nautilus, the Am-
monite consisted of three essential parts-
First, an external shell, usually of a fiat, disc-like
form, having its surface strengthened and ornamented
with ribs.
Second, a series of internal air-chambers formed by
transverse plates intersecting the inner portion of the
shell.
Third, a siphuncle, siphon, or locomotor tube, which
began at the bottom of the outer chamber, and per-
* Professor Owen has demonstrated that the animal of which
the Belemnites was the internal bone, was, in reality, a di-
branchiate eight-armed cuttle-fish, like the modern genus Ony-
c/ioteuthis.
forated the entire series of air-chambers to the inner-
most extremity of the shell.
The uses of the shell of the Ammonites — an exter-
nal, not internal shell, let it be remembered — have
been frequently discussed. They have been demon-
strated by Dr. Buckland with a truth and clearness
Ammonites restrains.
unsurpassed by any later writer, and our description
will closely follow his very graphic and interesting
account.
As the shell served the twofold office of affording pro-
tection to the internal organism, and enabling it to float,
it was necessary that it should be thin, or its weight
would prevent it from rising to the surface. But it was
not less necessary that it should be strong enough to
resist the pressure of the mass of waters at the bottom,
or in the mid-depths of the sea. Accordingly, we find
that its Creator has admirably adapted it for its double
function by so disposing its materials as to combine
strength and firmness with lightness and buoyancy.
Let it be noticed, in the first place, that the entire
shell is one continued arch — and no form, as any archi-
tect will tell you, is better fitted to resist superincum-
bent pressure — is one continued arch, we say, coiled
spirally around itself in such a manner, that the base
of the outer whorls rests upon the corner of the inner
whorls, and the keel or back is thus calculated to resist
weight, on the same principle that the shell of a com-
mon hen's egg will endure considerable force, if that
force be applied in the direction of its longitudinal
diameter.
Let it be noticed, secondly, that, in addition to this
general arch-like form, the shell is further strengthened
by the insertion of ribs, or transverse arches, which
give to many of the species their characteristic feature,
and in all produce that peculiar beauty which, for every
artist's eye, invariably distinguishes the symmetrical
repetition of a series of spiral curves.
From the disposition of these ribs over the surface
of the external shell, mechanical advantages are obtained
u
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
for increasing its strength, founded on a principle that
we see everywhere practically Applied in works of
human art and science — the principle, namely, by which
the strength and rigidity of a thin plate of metal are
considerably enhanced by corrugating, or fluting, the
surface.
A common pencil-case, if made of corrugated or
fluted metal, is stronger than if the same quantity of
metal were disposed in a simple tube.
Similarly, culinary moulds of tin or copper are
strengthened by arranging folds, or flutings, around
their margin, or upon their convex surfaces.
The application, now so general, of thin plates of
corrugated iron or zinc to the purpose of building self-
supporting roofs, in which the corrugations answer the
purpose and supply the place of beams or rafters, is
actually founded on the very same principle that
strengthens the vaulted shells of the Ammonites.
For in all these cases the ribs, or elevated portions,
bestow upon the layers of shell or plates of metal all
the extra strength which results from the convex form
of an arch, without materially increasing the burthen ;
while the intermediate depressed parts between these
arches are at once suspended and supported by the
tenacity and substantialness of the material.
The general principle of dividing and subdividing the
ribs, in order to multiply supports as the vault enlarges,
is conducted nearly upon the same plan, and for the
same purpose, as the divisions or subdivisions of the
ribs beneath the groin work, in the flat vaulted roofs of
the later Gothic architecture.
But many species of Ammonites are further strength-
ened by the elevation of parts of the ribs into little
dome-shaped tubercles, or bosses, thus superadding the
strength of a dome to that of the simple arch, at each
point where these bosses are inserted. This contrivance
has also been imitated by the Gothic architects, who
have applied the bosses to the intersections of the ribs |
in their highly ornamented roofs.
Bearing in mind, then, all these extraordinary
instances of a surpassing skill and foresight, may we
not say, with Dr. Buckland, that we reverently recognize
the exercise of discretion and economy in the midst of
abundance; distributing internal supports but sparingly
to parts which, from their external form, were already
strong, and dispensing them abundantly beneath those
parts only which without them would have been weak.
" We find," says the eminent geologist we have
referred to, " an infinity of variations in the form and
sculpture of the external shell, and a not less beautiful
variety in the methods of internal fortification, all
adapted, with architectural advantage, to produce a
combination of ornament and utility. The ribs also
are variously multiplied, as the increasing space
demands increased support ; and are variously adorned
and armed with domes and bosses, wherever there is
need of more than ordinary strength."
The utility, of the transverse plates and air-chambers
of the Ammonites will be readily comprehended. The
former are intended to increase the strength of the
external shell by multiplying the subjacent points of
resistance to outward pressure. At no great depth the
weight of the sea will force a cork into a bottle filled
with air, or crush a hollow cylinder or sphere of thin
copper. As the air-chambers of the Ammonites were
subject to a similar burthen when at the bottom of the
sea, they could only be preserved from destruction by
some peculiar provision.
The reader will now inquire, how or in what manner
the little ocean-roamer ascended or descended in the
deeps at will ?
This valuable power was obtained by the agency of
the siphuncle, or, as we would call it, locomotor tube,
which, as in the case of the Nautilus, was virtually a
pipe, ejecting or admitting the sea-water according as
the animal wished to rise or sink. When it desired to
retire to the depths it took on board, so to speak, the
necessary quantity of sea-water; of which it duly
relieved itself when it wished to ascend.
The manner in which the shell of the Ammonite
was adapted to the twofold purpose of acting as a float,
and protecting the body of its inhabitant, displays the
wisdom and power of the Creator no less signally than
the structure of the elephant's trunk. As the animal
increased in size, and advanced along the outer chamber
of its shell, the spaces which it left behind were suc-
cessively converted into air-chambers, thus increasing
simultaneously the potency and efficiency of the float.
This float, regulated by the siphuncle. and penetrating
the entire series of the chambers, formed an hydraulic
instrument of extraordinary delicacy.
To sum up : —
To creatures that occasionally floated, a thick heavy
shell would have been wholly inapplicable. On the
other hand, a thin shell, inclosing air, would have been
subject to a pressure that must have proved fatal to
it. A series of provisions, therefore, was designed by
the Creator to secure the necessary strength while
preserving the necessary lightness.
First, the shell was made up of a tube coiled round
itself and externally convex.
Secondly, it was fortified by a series of ribs and
vaultings disposed in the form of arches and domes on
the convex surface of this tube, and still further aug-
menting its strength.
r
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
15
And, thirdly, the transverse partitions which formed
the air-chambers provided also a continuous succession
of supports, extending their ramifications, with many
mechanical advantages, beneath the weakest portions
of the shell.
The Ceratites, which were very abundant in the
Triassic ocean, formed a genus closely allied to the
Ammonites.
In the Muschelkalk, the formation we are now
considering, are found the teeth and skull of the Pla-
codus gigas, a saurian reptile of peculiar character.
Another reptile of great dimensions, which may be
regarded as a kind of fore-shadowing, or antetype, of
the huge Saurians of the Jurassic period, was a marine
crocodile, named the Nothosaurus,
To this period also belonged the Telerpeton, so called
by Dr. Mantell, but referred by Professor Owen to a
genus which he denominates Leptopleuron. Its charac-
teristic is the slenderness of its ribs, of which there are
four and twenty pairs, and which seem to have been
attached by a simple head, as in the lizards. It was
probably amphibious in its habits, though exhibiting its
affinity to our existing land-lizards in the development
of its limbs, the situation of its pelvis, and other general
features.
Among Triassic reptiles of a sauroid character we
may also name the Phytosaurus, the Thecodontosaurus,
the Hyperodapedon, and the crocodile-like Staganolepis.
Among the Triassic Echinoderms may be mentioned
the Encrinus moniliformis and Encrinus liliformis, the
latter a wonderfully beautiful imitation of the lily,
whose remains in some districts compose whole masses
of rock, and illustrate the slow progress with which this
zoophyte developed the limestone beds in the bright
transparent Triassic seas.
In the keuper formation of the Triassic there do
not occur any new forms of organic life. Cephalo-
pods, Ceratites and Ammonites, Gasteropods, Lamelli-
branchs, Echinoderms, were singularly abundant ; the
Labyrinthodonts crawled on the sandy shore ; and the
great Saurians wallowed among the slime and sedge.
The accompanying engraving (Plate 2) is an attempt
to reproduce the characteristic scenery of the Muschel-
kalk sub-period. This belongs to the Triassic, or New
Red Sandstone period, but is a group of strata wholly
wanting in England. German writers divide the
Triassic (trias, or triple) into three groups, as follows,
in descending order: — Keuper, answering to the French
Marne irisee, and our English "gypseous shales and
sandstone ;" Muschelkalk, answering to the French
Calcaire coquilier; and Bunter sandstone, answering
to the French Ores bigarre, and our English " sand-
stone and quartzose conglomerate."
The Muschelkalk, it is necessary to explain, con-
sists of beds of compact limestone, often greyish,
sometimes black, alternating with marl and clay, and
generally containing such numbers of shells that it
has received from the Germans the name of shelly
limestone (Muschelkalk).
The seas of this sub-period included, not only hosts
of molluscs, but twelve different genera of saurian
reptiles, some turtles, and six new genera of cuirassed
or armour-clad fishes. We have already indicated
some of the more remarkable species — the Ceratites, the
Mytilus or mussel, the Lima lineata, the Sphcerodus,
and the Pycnodus. The vegetation had also its dis-
tinctive characters : large-leaved Haidingeras, not
unlike our New Zealand araucarias, but more closely
resembling the damara ; cone-pointed Voltzias, a
genus of Cupressinacese, now extinct In his "Botanic
Geography " M. Lecoq observes : —
"While the variegated sandstones and mottled clays
were being slowly deposited in regular beds by the
waters, magnificent ferns still exhibited their light
and elegantly-carved leaves. Divers Protopteris and
majestic Neuropteris mingled in vast forest-like masses,
where also flourished the Crematopteris typica of
Schimper, the Anomopteris Mougeotii of Brongniart,
and the pretty Trichornanites nigrophyllum. The
conifers of this epoch attain a very considerable devel-
opment, and would form graceful forests of verdurous
trees. Elegant monocotyledons, representing the forms
now prevalent in tropical climes, seem to appear for
the first time. The Tuccites Vogesiacus of Schimper
constituted groups at once very extensive, and ranged
in densest order.
" A family, hitherto doubtful, shows itself under the
elegant form of Nilssonia Hogardi. It is still recog-
nizable in the Zamites Vogesiacus ; and the varied
groups of the cycads, organized like conifers and beau-
tiful as palms, now decorate the earth, which in these
new types manifests its inexhaustible fecundity.
"The most remarkable of the herbaceous plants
which then composed the forest undergrowth, or luxuri-
antly overspread its tepid marshes, is the ^Ethophyllum
speciosum. In organization it approximates to the
lycopods and Thyphacese, the ^Ethophyllum stipula?-e,
and the curious Schizoneura paradoxa. Thus we can
trace the commencement of the reign of the dicoty-
ledonous plants, with naked seeds, which afterwards
became so widely distributed. A few angiosperms,
belonging principally to the families of the conifers
and Cycadeaceae, were still represented in the vegeta-
tion of this sub-period. The first, very abundant at
the outset, associated themselves with the cellular
cryptogams, which, though decreasing, were still
numerous ; and, at a later date, with the Cycadeacea3,
which present themselves but slowly, though in due
time taking no unimportant share in the great work of
harmonizing the vegetable kingdom."
These details will enable the reader more easily to
understand our ideal landscape.
A violent but transient storm has convulsed the sea
of the Muschelkalk, and its waters break on the shore
in clouds of foam and spray. As they recede into the
depths, we catch sight of numerous aquatic animals.
These are the Encrinites, with their long flexible stems,
like coils of rope ; some few My til i and Terebratulae.
In search of prey the Nothosaurus has dragged his
huge bulk to the beach, and on the same surf-beaten
rock crawl several of his congeners, but of a smaller
species. The sandy dome is crowned with a vigorous
group of Haidingeras, whose large trunks, drooping
branches, and inclined foliage remind us of our modern
cedars. The elegant Voltzias enhance with their |
beauty the charms of this striking vegetation. The
10
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
reptiles which haunted the shadows of these primeval
forests are represented by the Labyrinthodon, which
descends towards the sea on the right, and whose curi-
ous footprints have been preserved, imprinted in the
indurated sand, down to our own days, as if designed
to answer the interrogations of science by their strange
memorials of a long-vanished age.
THE JURASSIC PERIOD.
We now come, in our survey of the animal life of
the primeval world, to the Jurassic period, so named
from the Jura mountains in France, which consist of
the rocks deposited by the seas of this era.
It is subdivided into two sub-periods : the Lias and
the Oolite.
Both in its fauna and its flora it displays " a very
striking assemblage of characteristics : " many genera
of animals belonging to the preceding formations have
disappeared, and their places been filled up by new
genera, comprising a very peculiarly organized group,
which included not less than four thousand species.
The Lias. — This is the name given by English geo-
log'sts to an argillaceous limestone, mixed with marl
and clay, which forms the base or lower stratum of the
Jurassic formation, and have a mean thickness of about
three hundred feet.
Herein the naturalist meets with zoophytes, molluscs,
and fishes of a singular organization; but, above all,
with reptiles of a size so extraordinary and a structure
so marvellous, as to give the Liassic seas an interest and
a character of their own.
First let us examine the Plesiosaurus, which Cuvier
pronounced the most monstrous animal that has yet been
dug out of the ruins of a former world.
We gather from its name — ^rXjjff/os, "near," and
ffxijeog, "lizard "—that it was nearly allied by its organi-
zation to the Saurians. But in appearance it seemed
a compound of many animals ; it had a lizard's head,
a crocodile's teeth, a neck of excessive length resem-
bling a swan's, the ribs of a chameleon, a body and tail
whose proportions were those of an ordinary quadruped,
and, finally, the paddles of a whale. Such was the
apparently grotesque and fantastic monster which roamed
through the Liassic ocean, seeking what it might devour.
The head of the Plesiosaums, says Figuier, in his
popular history of "The World before the Deluge,"
presented a combination of the characters belonging to
the ichthyosaurus, the crocodile, and the lizard. Its
long neck consisted of a greater number of vertebrae
than the neck of either the camel, the giraffe, or even
the swan, which of all the feathered race has the longest
neck in proportion to the bulk of its body. And in
birds it is to be noted, that contrary to the structure of
the Mammalia, where the vertebrae of the neck are never
more or less than seven, their vertebrae increase in
number as the neck increases in length.
The body of the Plesiosaurus was rounded and
cylindrical, like that of the Chelonia:, or great marine
turtles. Some authors suppose it to have been invested
in a carapace or scaly armour ; but of this there is no
proof, and no traces of any such covering have been
recognized with the fossil remains hitherto examined.
In its breast, pelvis, and the bones of its anterior and
posterior extremities, the Plesiosaurus possessed an
apparatus which permitted it, like the Cetacea of our
present seas, to sink in the water or ascend to the sur-
face at pleasure. That they were air-breathing and
cold-blooded animals is proved, as Professor Owen
shows, by the position and conformation of the nasal
Ichthyosaurus platydon.
passages, as well as by the bony mechanism of the
thoracic duct and abdominal cavity.
Many points in the anatomical structure of this huge
animal are particularly worthy of the naturalist's atten-
tion. The vertebrae of its back were not arranged, as
is the case with fishes, in hollow cones, but their surfaces
were nearly flat, and thus the column had a firmness
and solidity like that which exists in the back of terres-
trial creatures. Such a contrivance was rendered neces-
sary by its immense length and bulk. For the same
purpose the articulating processes were locked into one
another, just as the architect, in erecting a column,
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
clamps together the massive stones as he rises stage
by stage. Rapidity of motion was not essential for
| the Plesiosaurus, whose colossal proportions rendered
it formidable to nearly all then existing animals, and
which, for offensive and defensive purposes, could trust
to its size and strength. Its tail, therefore, was com-
paratively short, and not used, like the tail of a fish, as
an instrument of swift impulsion ; but rather as a steer-
ing apparatus, by which it directed its course along the
water, and its movements of ascent and descent.
Rapidity of motion was, in truth, impossible for an
animal with so elongated a neck, situated at such a dis-
tance in front of the anterior paddles.
The total number of vertebrae in the entire column
was about ninety.
If we now turn to the structure of its ribs, we shall
see that they were admirably adapted to give it the
power of compressing air within its lungs, and con-
sequently of remaining for a lengthened time at the
bottom of the water.
They consisted of two parts, one vertebral and one
ventral ; the ventral portions of one side uniting with
those on the opposite by an intermediate transverse
bone, in such wise that each pair of ribs girdled the
huge body with an unbroken belt, made up of five
parts. A close similarity of structure may be observed,
among existing animals, in the chameleon, and in two
species of iguana, the Lacerta marmorata, and Lacerta
anubis.
It has been conjectured, from the great size of the
lungs of the Plesiosaurus, as shown by this conforma-
tion of the ribs, and the varied intensity of its inspira-
tions, that it possessed the power of changing at will the
colour of its skin. We have no means of verifying this
conjecture, but admit that such a provision would have
been invaluable for an animal so heavy and unwieldy,
which,
" Like a wounded snake, drew its slow length along,"
as defending it by concealment from its most formid-
able antagonist, the Ichthyosaurus. In any contest
with the latter, its chances otherwise must have been
very few : it could not cope with it in assault, owing to
its diminutive head and long slender neck ; it could not
escape from it by flight, owing to its limited powers of
locomotion.
The Plesiosaurus being an air-breathing animal,
would require to ascend to the surface frequently for
respiring purposes. This was effected by the agency
of an ingenious apparatus in the chest and pelvis, and
in the bones of the arms and legs, which enabled it to
ascend and descend in the " fluent tracts of ocean " like
our modern Cetacea — its legs being converted into long
and very powerful paddles.
If we compare these extremities with those of other
vertebrated animals, we shall discern a perfectly regular
series of "links and gradations," from the corresponding
parts of the highest Mammals to their rudimentary forms
in the fins of fishes.
The fore paddle of the Plesiosaurus presents us,
typically, with all the essential parts of the fore-leg of
a quadruped, even of a human arm. First, the scapula,
or shoulder-bone; then the humerus, or arm -bone;
next, the radius and the ulna, which are succeeded by
the bones of the carpus and metacarpus ; and these
followed by five fingers, each composed of a continuous
series of phalanges, or joints. Similar analogies to the
leg and foot of the Mammalia may be detected in the
posterior paddle : the pelvis and femur, or thigh-bone,
are succeeded by tibia and fibula, which duly articulate
with the bones of the
tarsus and metatarsus, ft
followed by the numerous
phalanges of five long
toes.
Founding his conclu-
sions upon these inter-
esting data, Professor
Conybeare remarks : —
That the Plesiosaurus
was aquatic is evident
from the form of its pad-
dles ; that it was marine,
is almost equally clear
from the remains with
which it is universally
associated; that it may
have occasionally visited
the shore, we infer from
the resemblance of its
extremities to those of
the turtle. On land,
however, its motion must
have been singularly
awkward; its long neck
must have impeded its
progress through the
water; presenting a re-
markable contrast to the
organization which so
admirably fitted the Ich-
thyosaurus for cleaving
the waves.
May it not, therefore,
be concluded — since, in
addition to these circum-
stances, its respiration
must have necessitated
frequent supplies of fresh
air — that it swam upon,
or near, the surface;
arching back its long
neck like the swan, and
occasionally darting it
down at the fish which
Came within its reach ? Skeleton of Plesiosaums dulicho-
At times, too, it may J^^' ^^
have lurked in the weedy
shoals along the coast, where, -buried among the rank
luxuriance of the aquatic plants, and raising its nostrils
to a level with the surface from a considerable depth, it
may have found a secure asylum from the attacks of its
formidable enemies. The length and flexibility of its
neck must to a great extent have counterbalanced the
deficient strength of its jaws, and its incapacity for rapid
motion on land or water, by the suddenness and direct-
18
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
ness of the assault they enabled it to deliver against
every animal fitted for its prey which was swept within
the range of the destroyer.
Thus, then, though Cuvier might characterize it as
one of the most anomalous and monstrous productions
of the ancient systems of creation, a close investigation
reveals the fact that these apparent anomalies consist
only in the diversified arrangement and varied proportion
of parts, which, fundamentally, are the same as those
occurring in the most harmoniously-formed creatures
of the present world. There are no anomalies in the
economy of Nature. The bee is not more ingeniously
fitted for its peculiar functions in sipping the honied
sweets of nectared flowers, and storing them up in its
beautifully devised cells, than was the mighty Plesio-
saurus, with its lizard's head, its serpentine neck, its
chameleon ribs, and cetacean paddles, for the part it
played in the shallow waters of the Liassic seas.
Pursuing the analogies of construction, says Dr.
Bnckland,* that connect the existing inhabitants of the
earth with those extinct genera and species which pre-
ceded the creation of our race, we find an unbroken
chain of affinities pervading the entire series of organized
beings, and connecting all past and present forms of
animal existence by close and harmonious ties. Even
our own bodies, and some of their most important
organs, are brought into close and direct comparison
with those of reptiles, which, at first sight, appear the
most terrific birth of primeval creation ; and in the
very hand and fingers with which the palaeontologist
records their history, we recognize the type of the pad-
dles of the Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus.
If we extend a similar comparison through the four
great classes of vertebrated animals, we discover in each
species a marvellously varied adaptation of analogous
parts to the different circumstances and conditions under
which it was destined to live, move, and have its being.
Ascending from the lower orders, we trace a gradual
advancement in structure and office, until we arrive at
those whose functions are the loftiest and most com-
prehensive. Thus, the fin of the fish developes into the
paddle of the reptiles Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus.
The same organ is converted into the wing of the
Pterodactyle, the bird, and the bat. It becomes the
fore foot, or paw, of terrestrial quadrupeds, and attains
its highest consummation in the arm and plastic hand
of rational and inventive Man.
Another reptile of remarkable dimensions belong-
ing to the Oolitic period was the Ichthyosaurus. f
As -in the modern Cetacea, its structure underwent
such modifications as would adapt it for an aquatic
life. If it possessed a lizard-like tail, it possessed
also the body of a fish, and limbs developed into
paddles. If its snout resembled that of a porpoise,
its teeth were those of a crocodile ; and while it had
the vertebrae of a fish, it had the head of a lizard and
the sternum of an orniihorhynchus. At first sight
* Notwithstanding the researches of modern geologists and
palaeontologists, Dr. Duckland's admirable work remains a
standard authority, and should be perused by every student who
would trace in the past history of creation the ever-recurring
evidence of divine wisdom, power, and goodness.
f From ,xtvt, a fish, uud raZoes, a lizard; i.e., "fish-lizard,"
or '"fish-reptile."
such a combination seems deserving of the appellation
"monstrous;" but our previous studies have prepared
us to recognize that this combination was admirably
designed for certain peculiar conditions.
In its general outline the Ichthyosaurus must have
borne a rough resemblance to the modern porpoise and
grampus. It had four broad feet, or paddles, and
terminated behind in a long powerful tail, which Pro-
fessor Owen believes was placed vertically, because
the vertebrae are compressed vertically, and also because
it is frequently found disarticulated a short distance
from its extremity, as if the weight of the upright tail
had induced its fall on the commencement of the
animal's decomposition. More than thirty species
have been discovered, some of which must have
exceeded thirty feet in length. Their principal points
of difference are in the form of the head ; some pos-
sessing short broad skulls, like the common crocodile,
others, a long slender snout, like the gavial of the
Ganges.
In the head of the Ichthyosaurus the most remark-
able feature was the eye. which in magnitude exceeded
that of any living animal, and in some specimens has
been found to measure fourteen inches in diameter. From
the quantity of light admitted by this prodigious lens,
the Ichthyosaurus must have been gifted with extra-
ordinary powers of vision. It was equally well adapted
for use in air or water, and for quickly changing the
focal distance when in pursuit of prey. On the front
of the orbital cavity in which it was placed, a circular
series of thirteen or more petrified thin bony plates
were disposed around a central aperture in which was
lodged the pupil ; the form and thickness of each plate
closely resembling the scales of an artichoke. This
circle had a telescopic effect, and enabled the Ichthyo-
saurus to discover its prey at great or little distances.
It does not occur in fishes, but is found in many birds,
and the bony sclerotic of the great fish-lizard very
nearly approached in form the bony circle in the eye
of the golden eagle.
The important advantage resulting from this curious
optical apparatus was, that it strengthened the surface
of the enormous eye-ball, so that it might resist the
pressure of the deep water to which it roust frequently
have been exposed. Further, it protected the all-
important organ from injury by the ocean waves; to
which injury an eye, sometimes larger than a man's
head, must often have been subject, when the nose was
brought to the surface for the necessary purpose of
respiring air. The position of the nostrils, close to the
anterior angle of the eye, rendered it impossible for the
Icltthyosaurus to breathe without raising its eye to the
surface of the water.
Its jaws were composed of many thin plates, so dis-
to combine strength with lightness and elas-
ticity, in a greater degree than would have been effected
by single bones, like those in the jaws of a mammal.
An under jaw so slender and so elongated as that of
the Ichthyosaurus, employed in seizing and retaining
the large and powerful animals which formed its prey,
would have been comparatively weak, and liable to
frequent mishaps, if composed of a single bone. Each
side of the lower jaw, therefore, was made up of six
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
separate pieces, in the same way that several thin pieces
of steel are set together in the springs of carnages.
The reptile's short thick neck was continued back-
wards, from behind the eyes, in a vertebral column of
more than one hundred vertebrae. As it was adapted,
like the whale, for rapid motion through the sea, its
vertebrae did not possess the invariable solidity of those
of the crocodile, but rather the structure and lightness
of those of fishes. The section of these vertebrae
presents two hollow cones, connected with the centre
of the vertebrae by their summits only, so as to permit
the utmost flexibility of movement. " Between these
hollow vertebrae a soft and flexible intervertebral sub-
stance, in the form of a double solid cone, is so placed
that each hollow cone of bone plays on the cone of
elastic substance contained within it, with a motion in
every direction, thus forming a kind of universal joint,
and giving to the entire column great strength and
power of rapid flexion in the water. But as the
inflections in the perpendicular direction are less
necessary than in the lateral, they are limited by the
overlapping, or contiguity of the spines. This mode
of articulation gives mechanical advantage to animals
like fishes, whose chief organ of progressive motion is
the tail, and the weight of whose bodies, being always
suspended in water, creates little or no pressure on
the edges, by which alone the vertebrae touch each
other."
The ribs were slender, mo?t of them bifurcated at
the top, and extended along the entire length of the
vertebral column, from the head to the pelvis.
As the Ichthyosaurus was a massive animal, it
required the means of facile descent and ascent in the
water. This was provided by the construction of its
anterior paddles, which were half as large again as the
posterior, and by the no less extraordinary combina-
tion of bones that formed the sternal arch, or that part
of the chest on which these paddles rested.
It has been remarked as a curious fact that this
structure is found repeated in the ornithorhynchus of
New Holland, an animal presenting the anomalous
combination of a furred, duck-billed quadruped, with
four webbed feet, suckling its young, and most pro-
bably ovoviviparous, which dives to the bottom in
quest of food, and returns to the surface to breathe the
air. In this living animal the Divine Maker appears
to have repeated the organic contrivances which He
had originally designed for the Ichthyosaurus!
To enable the animal to move in the water, both its
anterior and posterior extremities were converted into
fins and paddles, which must have much resembled
externally the undivided paddle of a porpoise or
whale. Internally the difference was considerable.
The phalanges of the fingers were made up of ninety
to one hundred polygonal bones. A specimen of the
posterior fin of the Ichthyosaurus commwiis. discovered
at Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, in 1840, exhibited
on its posterior margin the remains of cartilaginous
rays, which bifurcated towards the edge, like those in
the fins of a fish. It had previously been supposed,
remarks Professor Owen, that the locomotive organs j
were enveloped, while living, in a smooth integument, I
like that of the turtle and porpoise, which has no other I
support than is afforded by the bones and ligaments
within ; but it now appears that the fin was much
larger, expanding far beyond the osseous framework,
and deviating widely in its fish-like rays from the
ordinary reptilian type. It is the opinion of our great
comparative anatomist that these stiff-necked Saurians
were furnished, in addition to the anterior paddles,
with a tail-fin, possessing no radiating bones, and purely
tegumentary, which expanded vertically to assist them
in turning, and not horizontally, as in the whale.
The teeth of the Ichthyosaurus are conical, and
resemble those of the crocodile, but are considerably
more numerous, amounting in some individuals to a
hundred and eighty. They vary in each species. Not
inclosed in deep and separate sockets, like those of the
crocodile, they bristle along one continuous furrow of
the maxillary bone, where the rudiments of a separa-
tion into distinct alveoli (or cavities) may be detected
in slight ridges extending between the teeth, on the
sides and bottom of the furrows. The contrivance by
which the old teeth give place to new is analogous
in the Ichthyosauri to that existing in the crocodiles.
In both the young tooth begins its growth at the base
of the old one, where, by pressure on the side, it causes
first a partial absorption of the base, and, finally, a
total removal of the body of the older tooth which it
is intended to replace.
From their predatory habits these huge reptiles of
the secondary epoch were exposed to frequent loss of
teeth ; but as we have seen, an abundant provision was
made for their renewal.
These details will suffice to convince our readers
that they were animals potently armed either for
attack or defence. Whether their skin was smooth
like that of the whale, or covered with scales like that
of the crocodile, we cannot absolutely determine ; but.
it is probable that the former condition existed.
Popularly speaking, we may say, with Bayle, that
the Ichthyosaurus was the whale of the Saurians, the
Cetacean of the primeval seas. " It was, in fact, an
animal exclusively marine, which on shore would rest
motionless, like an inert mass : its whale-like paddles
and fish-like vertebrae, the length of the tail, and other
parts of the structure, prove that its habits were aquatic,
while the remains of fishes and reptiles (discovered in
its intestines), and the form of its teeth, show that it
was carnivorous. Like the whale, also, the Ichthyo-
saurus breathed atmospheric air ; so that it was under
the necessity of coming frequently to the surface of the
water, like that inhabitant of the deep." We can even
believe, with Bayle, that it was provided, like the
whale, with vents, or blowers, through which it ejected,
in columns into the air, the water it had swallowed.
The Liassic formations which occur in Dorsetshire,
in the vicinity of Lyme Regis, have long been famous
among geologists for the fossil treasures which they
have yielded to the persevering jnquirer. Their
quarries form the cemetery of the Ichthyosauri,
the sepulchre which has long entombed those strange
creations of the ancient seas. It was in 1811 that
Mary Anning, a young peasant woman who gained a pre-
carious livelihood by collecting fossils, first discovered
the Ichthyosaurian skeleton. She hired workmen
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
to excavate the immense block of Lias wherein it lay
embedded, having endured the changes of unnum-
bered years, and slept the stony sleep of ages. Thus
was the first of these colossal reptiles exposed to the
wondering gaze of science ; a reptile some thirty feet
long, with jaws nearly two yards in length, and huge
saucer-like eyes ; eyes which have since been found so
perfect, that the petrified lenses have been disengaged,
and employed PS magnifiers.
In the same strata have been found the half-digested
remains of the prey of these voracious creatures, and
more, their faecal debris, or to use the scientific term,
their Coproliies, or petrified fseca, from which we are
able to determine their intestinal conformation, and the
character of their usual food.
On the shore at Lyme Regis these coprolites are so
abundant that they lie in some parts of the Lias scat-
tered over the ground like potatoes. In the Lias of
the Severn estuary they are yet more abundant, being
disposed in strata of many miles in extent, and mixed
so plentifully with teeth and rolled fragments of the
bones of reptiles and fishes, as to prove beyond question
that this region, having been the bottom of an ancient
sea, was for a long period the cloaca maxima — the
grand receptacle of the bones and faecal remains — of
its inhabitants.
In variety of size, and in external form, the copro-
lites resemble oblong pebbles or kidney potatoes.
For the most part they vary from two to four inches
in length, and from one to two inches in diameter.
Some few are of much larger dimensions, and bear
a due proportion to the gigantic calibre of the largest
Ichthyosaurians ; others are small, and bear a similar
ratio to the more infantine members of the same
species, and to the smaller fishes. Some are flat and
amorphous, as if the substance had been ejected in a
semi-fluid condition ; not a few have been flattened by
the pressure of the superjaceut slate. Their usual
colour is an ashen grey, but sometimes they are
grey and black, and sometimes wholly black. Their
material, so to speak, is of a compact earthy texture,
resembling indurated clay, and marked by a con-
choidal and glossy fracture.
Of the coprolites at Lyme Regis the structure is
usually tortuous, but the number of coils is very irre-
gular. In most cases there are three coils, in no
instance do they exceed six; the variations probably
depending on the various species of animals from which
they are derived.
The section of one of these faecal balls exhibits the
interior arranged in a folded plate, wrapped spirally
round from the centre outwards, like the whorls of a
turbinated shell. Their exterior also retains the corru-
gations and minute impressions which, in a plastic
condition, they received from the intestines of the
living animals.
Irregularly but abundantly scattered throughout
these fossilized faeces are the scales, and occasionally
the teeth and bones, of fishes, which seem to have
passed undigested through the bodies of the Saurians ;
just as the enamel of teeth, and sometimes fragments
of bones, are found undigested both in the recent and
fossil album grcccum of hyaenas. The bones are
chiefly vertebrae of fishes and of small Ichthyosauri.
Hence we must conclude that these monsters of the
ancient deep, like many of their successors in our pre-
sent seas, habitually devoured the smaller and weaker
individuals of their own race. Probably they swal-
lowed their victims whole, without dividing them; in
which case the stomach and intestines must have
formed a kind of voluminous pouch, filling entirely
the abdominal cavity, and corresponding in size to the
immense development of the teeth and jaws.
From the contents of the coprolifes we may indi-
rectly infer that in the conformation of their intestinal
canal the Ichthyosauri resembled the voracious shark and
dog-fish, which they also resembled in their destructive
propensities and powers. In the intestines of these
fishes we find existing an arrangement not unlike that
of the interior of an Archimedean screw ; an arrange-
ment most ingeniously adapted to increase the extent
of internal surface for the absorption of nutriment from
the food, during its passage through a coiled and con-
tinuous spiral tube.
There is also abundant evidence to show the very
form of the minute vessels and folds of the mucous
membrane which lined the intestine — this evidence
consisting of a series of vascular impressions and corru-
gations on the surface of the coprolite, that could only
have been communicated during its passage through
the convolutions of the intestinal tube.
Do we ask what was the utility of these curious
provisions in the bowels of the extinct monsters of the
ancient seas? A satisfactory reply is easily given.
Owing to their insatiable voracity, it was needful the
stomach should be both large and long, leaving but
little space for the smaller viscera. These, therefore,
were reduced, as we have seen, nearly to the state of
a flattened tube, coiled like a corkscrew around itself.
While their bulk was thus materially diminished, the
amount of absorbent surface remained almost the same
as if they had been circularly disposed.
Had a considerable expansion of intestines been
superadded to the enormous stomach and lungs of
the Ichthyosaurus, the consequent enlargement of the
body would have diminished the power of progressive
motion, to the serious detriment of an animal which
depended on its swiftness for the capture of its prey.
These considerations will teach us that even small
and apparently mean and insignificant objects are
frequently well deserving the minute attention of
science. In the intestinal structure of the Ichthyo-
saurians we find an analogous system of organs to that
which obtains in living animals, and are thus enabled
to establish the continuity of the divine work, to trace
the links of an unbroken chain from the earliest ages
of creation down to the present time. The mind is
carried back over the waste of years to the dawn of
time, to the gradual formation of our planet, and
its alow adaptation to the wants and necessities of
man, its last and greatest inhabitant. '' When we
discover," says an illustrious geologist, " in the body
of an Ichthyosaurus the food which it has engulphed
an instant before its death, when the intervals between
its sides present themselves still filled with the remains
of fiahes which it had swallowed some ten thousand
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
21
years ago, or a time even twice as great, all these
immense spaces vanish, time disappears, and we find
ourselves, so to speak, thrown into immediate contact
with events which took place in epochs immeasurably
distant, as if we occupied ourselves with the affairs of
the previous day."
It has been justly said, by a recent writer, that there
are no monsters in nature ; that in no animal organism,
past or present, have the laws of being ever been posi-
tively infringed; that the antediluvian animals were
neither the mistakes nor the freaks of Providence ; but
that in all the proofs of divine intention are indis-
putably evident. To this conclusion the reader will
have been led by our previous investigations. Yet he
might almost be forgiven if, at his fin-t sight of a Ptero-
dactyle, either in a woodcut, or in one of Mr. Water -
house Hawkins' ingenious reproductions, he pronounced
it a monstrous birth of creation, the realization of some
wild and weird dream, a frightful and a perplexing
anomaly ! In strangeness of construction, and hideous
impressiveness of aspect, it assuredly surpasses all its
Liassic contemporaries. Even the Megalichthys and the
Plexiosaurus cannot compare with it in these respects.
The Pterodactyle* — Its fossil remains were first dis-
covered in 1828, and the discovery induced Cuvier to
withdraw the sentence he had pronounced upon the
Ichthyosaurus, and award to the new-found •' the palm
of monstrosity."
Pterodactvlus crassirostris.
Naturalists at the outset were greatly perplexed in
deciding to what natural order it belonged. Some
looked upon it as a bird, others as a species of bat, and
others, more accurately, as a flying reptile.
This discordance of opinion respecting a creature
whose skeleton was found almost entire originated in
the presence of characteristics apparently belonging to
each of the three classes to which it was referred.
Thus, in the form of its head and the length of its neck
it resembled a bird ; in the shape and proportion of its
wings it might fairly be likened to a bat ; while, again,
its tail and body approximated to those of ordinary
Mammalia. Add to these strangely diverse features a
small skull, like a reptile's, and a beak armed with not
less than sixty pointed teeth, and a combination of
apparent anomalies is attained which only the genius
of a Cuvier could reconcile. In the hands of the great
French naturalist every obscurity was swept away ;
every discord reduced to harmony; and the seeming
monster of the ancient world converted into one of the
most striking examples yet afforded by comparative
* From !rrf£5», a wing, and Saxrt/A.e/j, a finger.
anatomy of the exquisite oneness that inspires and
informs all nature, in its adaptation of the same parts
of the animal frame to infinitely varied conditions of
existence.
The Pterodactyle, then, belongs to an extinct genus
of the order Saurians, in the class Reptiles ; a genus
adapted by certain peculiarities of structure for motion
in the air. That anterior extremity which, in the fore-
leg of existing lizards and crocodiles, forms a terrestrial
locomotive organ, was, in the Pterodactyle, converted
into a memjraniferous wing; while other parts of the
body underwent such modifications as adapted the entire
animal machine for the functions of flight.
Of all the creatures whose existence Geology has
revealed to us, says Cuvier,* the Pterodactyle is incon-
testably the most extraordinary, and that which, if we
saw it alive, would appear to us the most opposed to the
present animal creation.
* " Ce sont incontestablement de tous les etres dont ce livre
nous revele Fancienne existence, les plus extraordinaires, et cenx
qui, si on le.s voyait vivans, panitroient les plus etrangers a toute
la nature actueile." — Cuvier, Ossemens Fossiles, vol. ii. 379.
•22
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
In external form it might generally be compared to
our modern bats and vampires. But most species had
the nose elongated like the snout of a crocodile, and
armed with conical teeth. Their eyes were of enormous
size, apparently to provide for their nocturnal wander-
ings. From their wings projected fingers, terminated
by long hooks, like the curved claw on the thumb of
the bat; the whole enabling them to creep, or climb,
or suspend themselves from the boughs of trees, with
admirable facility.
It is probable also that these strange " anomalies "
possessed the power of swimming, with which so many
reptiles are endowed, and which is now an attribute of
the Vampire Bat (Pteropus pselaphon) of the Island of
Bonin.
"Thus, like Milton's fiend, qualified for all services and
all elements, the creature was a fit companion for the
kindred reptiles that swarmed in the seas, or crawled on
the shores of a turbulent planet : —
' The Fiend,
O'er bog, or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare,
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way,
And swims, or sinks, or wades, or creeps, or flies.' *
With flocks of such-like creatures flying in the air, and
shoals of no less monstrous Ichthyosauri and Plesiosauri
swarming in the ocean, and gigantic crocodiles and
tortoises crawling on the shores of the primeval lakes
and rivers, air, sea, and land must have been strangely
tenanted in these early periods of our infant world."
From its teeth to the end of its claws, however, in
all its osteology, the creature, as Cuvier pointed out,
presents the features of the Saurians ; nor may it be
doubted that their characteristics existed in its integu-
ments and softer parts, in its scales, its circulation, its
generative organs. It was provided with the means of
flight, it is true, but when stationary could have made
but little use of its anterior extremities, even if it did
not keep them always folded as birds fold their wings.
It employed its small anterior fingers, as we have already
hinted, in suspending itself from the branches of trees,
but when at rest must generally have placed itself on
its hind feet, like the birds again ; and like them it
must have carried its neck half-erect and curved back-
wards, so that its enormous head should not disturb
its equilibrium.
From the birds the Pterodactyle was separated by
the form of its pelvis, the narrowness of its sides, the
small number of its cervical vertebrae, and the long
rows of teeth which armed its jaw. From the bats it
was distinguished by the peculiar shape of its head
and teeth.
It was, then, a lizard-like reptile, provided with bat-
like wings; the largest species not exceeding ten or
twelve inches in length, while the smaller were about
the size of the snipe. Its head was out of all propor-
tion to the rest of the body. The vertebra of the neck
were six or seven in number. The ribs were thin and
thread-shaped, like those of lizards. Its extremities
terminated in five fingers, the joints of the fifth being
lengthened so as to become expansions of the mem-
branous wing.
* Milton, Paradise Lost, bk. ii. 1. 947.
If we compare the foot of the Pterodactyle with that
of the bat, we perceive that the latter, like most other
mammals, has three joints in every toe, excepting the
first, which has only two. These two, however, in the
bat, are equal in length to the three bones of the other
toes, so that the five claws of its foot range in one straight
line, forming altogether the compound hook by which
the animal suspends itself in its dusky retreats, with its
head downwards, during its long periods of hybernation.
By this contrivance the burthen of its body is equally
divided between each of the ten toes. But owing to
the unequal length of the toes of the Pterodactyle, the
animal must have found it well nigh impossible to range
its claws uniformly in line, like those of the bat, and as
no single claw could have supported for any long time
the entire weight of the body, we are forced to the con-
clusion that thePterodactyles did notsuspend themselves
after the manner of the flying Mammalia. From the
size and form of the foot — from the size and shape, too,
of the leg and thigh — we conclude that they had the
power of standing firmly on the ground, where, with
their wings folded, they possibly moved along after the
manner of birds. They could also perch upon trees,
and climb up the steep face of perpendicular cliffs, with
their hind and fore feet conjointly, like bats and lizards.
It is supposed by Cuvier that they fed on insects,
and that their habits were nocturnal. We know that
large insects existed at the same time, large fossil Libel-
lulcE, or Dragon-flies, and many other species, having
been found in the strata which have given up to our
examination the remains of these flying reptiles. Many
of the smaller existing lizards are insectivorous ; some
are also carnivorous, and others omnivorous; but, ac-
cording to Dr. Bucklaud, the head and teeth of two
species of Pterodactyle are so much larger and stronger
than is needful for the capture of insects, that we can
scarcely come to any other conclusion than that they
fed on fishes, darting upon them from the air, just as
the solan goose or the sea-swallow catches its prey.
The enormous size and strength of the head of the
Pterodactylus crassirostris would not only have ren-
dered it a formidable adversary to the piscine tribes,
but also to the few small marsupial mammalia which
flourished during the Liassic period.
Thus, then, while all u the laws of existing organ-
ization in the order of lizards" were strictly followed
out and fulfilled in the Pterodactyles of the ancient
world ; still as lizards designed to move in the regions
of the atmosphere like birds and bats, they received,
in each part of their wonderfully constructed frame, a
complete adaptation to this novel condition. Here we
devoutly recognize the same foresight and care of a
common Creator, which we perceive also in the mar-
vellous mechanism of our own bodies, and in that of
the myriads of inferior creatures whose "lords and
masters" we style ourselves ; a sufficient proof that the
monstrous is nowhere an element of creation.
To sum up: the Pterodactyle, as a recent writer
remarks, cannot fail to remind us of the dragon which
played so conspicuous a part in classical and mediaeval
poesy, and figures in so many of the old legends of
chivalry. It is an animal which might, indeed, respond
to this fabulous type ; but we see the dragon greatly
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
23
curtailed in the paltry climbing and leaping reptile
which lived in the Jurassic period. Among existing
animals only a single reptile has been found supplied
with wings, or digital appendages analogous to the
membraniferous wings of the bats, and bearing a faint
resemblance to the Pterodactyle. This is called the
Dragon, or Draconidce, a family of S'aurians, hereafter
described, distinguished by the first six ribs, instead of
circling the abdomen, extending in nearly a straight
line, and sustaining a prolongation of skin which forms
a kind of wing like that of the Pterodactyle. Without
assistance from the four feet, this wing sustains the
animal like a parachute, as it leaps from branch to
branch ; but the creature has no power to beat the air
with it as birds do during their aerial flights.
Returning to our general survey of the animal life of
the Lias, we notice that in its strata fully two hundred
and forty-three genera, and four hundred and sixty-
seven species of zoophytes and molluscs have been
discovered. Among the former we may particularize
Asterias lumbricalis and Palceocoma Fwstembergii as
constituting a genus not unlike the Star-fishes (Radiatu)
of existing seas. The Encrinites were replaced
by other species of the same genus, the Astro-
pecten, the Amphlura, and the Ophioderrna.
Annelids, like the Serpula; barnacles, or Pol-
lici'pes; bivalve crustaceans, such as the Cypris,
Cypridea, and Estheria ; and the higher crus-
tacea, Eryon, Megacheirus, and Glyphcea,
were also abundant. The molluscan genera
included the delicate polyzoans, or sea-mats,
such as Cenopora and Diastopora ; the deep-
sea brachiopods, Terebratula, Spirifera, and
Discoria; and some species of the oyster
(Ostrea), which now first made its appearance.
The sea-shores were thronged with the gas-
teropods, Trochus, Turbo, Pleurotomaria, and the like.
Legions of belemnites and ammonites, also, swarmed
in the warm waters of the Oolitic ocean.
That ocean also contained a great number of the
fishes called Ganoids ; that is to say, with hard glit-
tering scales. One of the largest species was the Le-
pidotus gigas. We frequently meet with the teeth of
the Acrodus nobilis, popularly known by the name of
" fossil leeches," but never with its entire skeleton.
The same is the case with the Hybodus reticulatus.
The bony spines forming the anterior part of the dorsal
fin of this fish, had long attracted the curious attention
of geologists before their true character was ascertained,
and had received the distinguishing appellation of Ich-
tlnjodorulites. By some naturalists they are conjectured
to be the jaw of an animal ; by others, the weapons,
offensive and defensive, of a genus resembling the living
Silurus or Balistes; but Agassiz has satisfactorily de-
monstrated that they were the bony spines of the fin.
as in our modern genera of Astraceins and Chimceras,
whore the fin's concave face is similarly armed. The
spines were simply embedded in the flesh, and attached
by strong muscles, serving, as in the Ckimcera, to
raise or depress the fin ; their action resembling that
of a movable mast lowering backward.
But we must not omit a few details in reference
to the gigantic land Saurians of the Oolitic era — the
Megalosaurus, Hylreosaurus, and Iguunodon; or the
insectivorous quadrupeds — the Amphitherium, Pftas-
colotherium, Stereognathus, Trionodon, and Plugiau-
lax, which have been exhumed in the upper Oolitic
formation.
The Megalosaurus,* or Great Lizard, was a terres-
trial saurian, about forty feet in length. It seems to
have combined many of the characters both of the
iguana and the monitor ; the latter a lacertian reptile
which flourishes in tropical India and on the banks of
the Nile. That it was carnivorous in its habits is
evident from the complicated structure and arrange-
ment of its teeth, which may be described as a com-
pound of the knife, the sabre, and the saw.
" When first protruded above the gum, the apex of
each tooth presented a double cutting edge of serrated
enamel. In this stage its position and line of action
were nearly vertical, and its form like that of the two-
edged point of a sabre, cutting equally on each side.
As the tooth advanced in growth, it became curved
backwards, in the form of a pruning knife, and the edge
of serrated enamel was continued downwards to the
Jaw of the Megalosaurua.
base of the inner and cutting side of the tooth ; whilst,
on the outer side, a similar edge descended, but to a
short distance from the point, and the convex portion
of the tooth became blunt and thick, as the back of a
knife is made thick, for the purpose of producing
strength. The strength of the tooth was further
increased by the expansion of its sides. Had the ser-
rature continued along the whole of the blunt and
convex portion of the tooth, it would, in this position,
have possessed no useful cutting power ; it ceased pre-
cisely at the point beyond which it could no longer be
effective. In a tooth thus formed for cutting along its
concave edgf, each movement of the jaw combined
the power of the knife and saw ; whilst the apex, in
making the first incision, acted like the two-edged point
of a sabre. The backward curvature of the full-grown
teeth enabled them to retain, like barbs, the prey which
they had penetrated. In these adaptations we see
contrivances which human ingenuity has also adopted
in the preparation of various instruments of art."
We have hitherto been treating of carnivorous rep-
tiles ; but there were species of the same great family,
in the Oolitic period, which assumed the character and
office of Herbivora. Such was the Iguanodon, whose
fossil remains were first discovered by Dr. Mantell in
the Wealden fresh- water deposits of Tilgate Forest,
* From jK^aXof, great, and aa.v^es, lizard.
24
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
Sussex. From the similar construction of the teeth of
this ancient genus with that of the teeth of the modern
iguana, there can be no doubt of their near connection.
But while the iguana rarely exceeds five feet in length,
its congener of the Oolitic period must have been
nearly five times as long. Its thigh-bone exceeded in
bulk that of the largest elephant! Presenting a circum-
ference of twenty-two inches in its smallest part, its
entire length must have been between four and five
feet. If we compare the proportions of this colossal
bone with those of the animal's fossil teeth, we find that
they bear to one another nearly the same ratio which
the femur of the iguana bears to its similarly-con-
structed and peculiar teeth. We thus obtain a stand-
ard of comparison which justifies us in estimating the
dimensions of the lyuanodon as follows* : —
Length from snout to extremity of the tail, . 70 feet.
Length of tail, 6'2| "
Circumference of body, 1-JJ; "
The teeth of the Iguanodon were not lodged in dis-
tinct sockets, like those of crocodiles, but fixed, like
those of lizards, along the internal face of the dental
bone, to which they adhered by one side of the bony
substance of their root.
As the reptile fed upon tough vegetable food, its
teeth were admirably fitted for this purpose by their
cutting edges, form of curvature, and points of enlarge-
ment and contraction. They were each furnished with
a sharp serrated edge, extending on either side down-
wards to the broadest portion of the body of the tooth,
and thus preserving its utility until worn down to the
very stump. To compensate for the gradual destruc-
tion of this serrated edge, a plate of thin enamel was
placed on the front of the tooth. As the softer mate-
rial of the tooth itself must have worn away more readily
than this enamel, and most readily at the part remotest
from it, an oblique section of the crown was constantly
maintained with a keen-cutting front edge, not unlike
(if the reader will permit the comparison) that of a pair
of strong iron pincers, or nippers.
The structure of the skeleton is remarkable. The
head, it is evident, must have been produced into a
short snout, supporting a nasal horn. The vertebral
column in some respects might be compared to that of
a fish, but was distinguished from it by its lofty mural
arches. The sacrum, wholly unlike that of any other
reptile, consisted of five anchylosed joints. The body
did not creep upon the ground, but was raised above it
by long and robust limbs ; each terminating in a three-
toed foot, about twenty-one to twenty-four inches in
height, and nine and-a-half to ten inches in breadth.
The huge tridactyle impressions discovered in the argil-
laceous Wealden beds, and long supposed to have been
produced by some colossal bird, are considered by some
geologists to be the footprints of the Iguanodon. Pro-
fessor Huxley has recently sought to prove, and with
considerable success, that they were produced by the
Pterodactyle.
Another large and singular Oolitic reptile, found in
* Professor Owen, however, disputes these conclusions, and
places the entire length of the lyuanodon at nut above twenty-
eight feet.
the Wealden strata of Kent and Sussex, has been named
the Hylccosaurus, or Forest-lizard. From the frag-
ments exhumed at different times, and in different
localities, we gather that it was herbivorous in its
habits; with a broad long body, terminating in a long,
flexible, slender tail, and resting on short but solid
limbs ; a tuberculated and scaly skin ; small, close-set
teeth ; and a ridge, or crest, along the back, of thin
angular, bony spines. This dermal fringe reminds the
naturalist of the horny crest on the back of the iguana.
They varied in height from five to seventeen inches,
and in width from three to seven and-a-half inches at
their base.
This extraordinary lizard was probably about twenty-
five feet long. Only one species has been discovered,
which is known by the scientific appellation of llylcno-
saurus Oweni.
Contemporary with these strange reptilian forms were
certain mammals of a peculiar type, as, for instance,
the Amphitherium, which is supposed to be the most
ancient representative of its order on the globe. Cuvier
first determined, from the examination of the jaw of a
fossil specimen, that it was a marsupial ; whence another
French naturalist proposed to call it Thylacoihcrium,
or Pouched Wild-beast, while Phascolutheriuin was
also suggested as a suitable designation. Its present
name, given by Blainville, has been adopted by Pro-
fessor Owen, and, on his authority, by most English
writers. From the structure of its teeth it would seem
to have lived upon insects ; and remains of beetles occur
in the Oolitic slate of the Stouesfield quarries, where it
was first discovered.
Two species of this interesting mammal have been
distinguished.
The Phascolotherium is now acknowledged as a dis-
tinct genus, whose fossil relics were also first found, like
those of the Amphiiherium, in the Stonesfield quarries
of Oxfordshire. It is only known by the jaw, pre-
served in the British Museum, but was undoubtedly a
marsupial animal, and in structure and habits closely
analogous to the living marsupials of Australia.
Before quitting the Oolitic strata we must refer to its
remains of Fishes, Molluscs, and Zoophytes.
Among the Fishes the predominant types were the
Ganoids and Ophiopsis. Among the Ammonites we
meet with Ammonites, Humphry sianus, A. lullatns,
A. Brongniartii, Nautilus, lineatus, and many other
representatives of the Cephalopods. Tercbrotulce still
flourished, and among Gasteropods the Pleurotomaria
conoided was remarkable for the elegance of its shape
and the variety of its markings. Among the Acephala
were the Ostrea Marshii and Lima j^roboscidea, and
the species of molluscous Polyzoa were as numerous as
they were beautiful. Echinoderms and Polyps swarmed
in the warm genial seas ; most noticeable among the
latter, the Eunomia radiata.
This strange zoophyte is found in great masses many
feet, nay, yards in circumference ; each mass containing
myriads of the animal, and implying a long series of
years to account for its formation. The Eunomia
lived under the waters, but only at a comparatively
small depth below their surface, and in this position
accumulated large far-stretching banks and entire islets,
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
25
which at one time rose above the rolling waves. These
reefs, however, were principally constructed in the
Jurassic period, and their number and extent are one
of the characteristics of that age, or ccon. A similar
phenomenon continues in our own time through the
never-ceasing labours of the corallines, whose opera-
tions, as shown in the atolls of the Pacific, may be
destined one day to create a new continent.
We pass now to the sub-period known as the Middle
Oolitic. Then first appeared on the fluent earth cer-
tain new types of hemipterous insects, and the Bees
wandered from flower to flower in quest of honied trea-
sures. Then, too, among the Lepidoptera, came the
bright glancing wings of the Butterflies, and among the
Neuroptera, the sparkling Dragon-flies shot through
the warm air like sparks of light. The Pterodactyle
still perched on its leafy boughs ; in the ocean-waters
roamed the voracious Ichthyosaurus and Plesiosaurus;
on the marshy shore wallowed the huge Megalosaurus ;
the gigantic Chelonia haunted the river banks, and the
woods and plains were tenanted by Iguanodons, Am-
phitheria, and Phascolotheria.
At this epoch, moreover, flourished a reptile allied
to the marvellous and apparently anomalous Pterodac-
Ramphorynchus restored. One quarter natural size.
tyle. This was the Ramphorhynclius, distinguished
from the latter by its long tail. In size it resembled
the existing crow. Its powers of flight, however, were
very limited ; it did not really fly, but making use of
the natural parachute formed by the membrane which
connected its fingers with its body, it flung itself from
a height upon its prey.
Of another family of reptiles, abundant in the Middle
Oolite, we had a glimpse in the earlier age of the Great
Oolite, the Teleosaums, which a German writer has de-
scribed as " the great baron of the kingdom of Neptune,
armed to the teeth, and clothed in an impenetrable
panoply; the true pirate or freebooter of the primeval
seas."
In its anatomical structure it bore a close resem-
blance to the existing Gavial, or Gangetic crocodile,
but certain modifications peculiarly adapted it for a
marine life. Both surfaces of the vertebrae were slightly
concave. Its hind legs were singularly large and strong,
the anterior portion of its huge body tapered off with
long slender jaws bristling with a formidable array of
sharp teeth, slightly recurved, and admirably fitted for
the capture of its fishy prey. The nasal aperture,
instead of being oblique, as in the crocodile of the
Ganges, opened vertically on the truncated end of the
upper mandible.
The Teleosaums was about thirty feet in length, of
which the head consumed some three or four feet. Its
colossal jaws were well protected beyond the ears, and
yawned sometimes, with an opening of six feet, through
which it could entomb, in the depths of its huge palate,
animals of the size of an ox. Its body was protected
by a cuirass, both on the back and belly. Twenty
species of the Teleosaums have been described, and
these exhibit so many distinctive characteristics that
they have been arranged into six sub-genera.
At the same time the seas teemed with fishes, with
Crustaceans, Cirripedes, Molluscs, and Zoophytes.
Passing from these to the Polyps, we are astonished at
their abundance, and are inclined to regard them as
peculiar, in the main, to the Oolitic age. They are
discovered in vast aggregated masses at a considerable
depth beneath the soil. Of old they played the same
part in the economy of creation which in our own day
is played by the coral animals. To a certain extent
their mode of production must always remain a problem,
but a flood of light has recently been thrown upon this
interesting subject through the exertions of Charles
Darwin. Describing what he believes to be a sea-pen
(Virgularia Patagonica), he says : —
" The zoophyte consists of a thin, straight, fleshy
stem, with alternate rows of polypi on each side, and
surrounding an elastic stony axis. The stem at one
extremity is truncate, but terminates at the ofher in a
vermiform fleshy appendage. The stony axis which
gives strength to the stem may become at this extremity
a mere vessel, filled with granular matter. At low
water hundreds of these zoophytes may be seen pro-
jecting, with the truncated end upwards, a few inches
above the surface of the muddy sand. When touched
or pulled they suddenly draw themselves in, so as nearly
or quite to disappear. By this action the highly elastic
axis must be bent at the lower extremity, where it is
naturally slightly curved ; and I imagine it is by their
elasticity alone that the zoophyte is enabled to rise
again from the mud. Each polypus, though closely
united to its brethren, has a distinct mouth, body, and
tentacula. Of these polypi in a large specimen there
must be many thousands. Yet they act by one move-
ment. They have also one central axis, connected
with a system of obscure circulation."
In the sub-period of the Upper Oolite flourished
some marsupial mammals of the genus Spalacotherium.
Among the huge griffins with sharp, trenchant teeth,
was the Pcedlopleuron ; among the crocodiles, the
Macrorhynchus ; among the chelonidse, the Emys and
Platemys. And then appeared the first type of bird-
life on the globe, the Archceopteryx, or Bird of Solen-
hofen, as it is sometimes designated, from the locality
where its fossil remains were discovered.
Such were the principal forms of animal life which
inhabited our world during the Liassic period. How
strange, how impressive must the scene have appeared?
If it could be reproduced before our eyes in all its
actual vividness, in all its exuberant vigour, and with
d
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
all its glowing hues, we should stand silent with awe
and wonder ! Strange birds wandered over the sandy
. shores or waded through the silt and mud of the estu-
aries; huge reptiles lurked among the herbage in quest
of prey; horrible vampire-like pterodactyles whirled
and veered from tree to tree; gigantic crocodiles basked
in the shallow waters ; and huge tortoises loitered in
the recesses of lonely islands. Shark-like genera of
fishes swarmed in the seas, defending themselves with
their bristling fin-spines against the attacks of the ocean
monsters, or crushing their crustacean victims between
their corrugated teeth. But of these we have already
spoken. What shall we say of the vegetation of the
period ? The continents, then slowly rising above the
waters, were enriched with a prodigality of verdure of
which the earth in our own days nowhere presents an
example or a counterpart. The atmospheric and cli-
matic conditions then prevailing were highly favour-
able to this luxuriance. The temperature was still of
great elevation ; the atmosphere humid, with frequent
rains and mists ; and when these passed away a glori-
ous sun shone in a cloudless burning sky. The Voltzias
of the Trias have disappeared, but the palms have
grown more numerous, and convert the forest glades
into still, shadowy avenues of graceful columns ; the
gigantic calamites likewise remain ; and though the
arborescent ferns have lost the enormous dimensions
of their predecessors in the Carboniferous period, they
preserve their fine and delicately chiselled leaves.
An entire family, the Cycads, now make their first
appearance, and develop themselves in three predo-
minant genera — the Zamites, the Pterophyllum, and
the Nilssonia. The trunk of the Zamites, simple, and
covered with the scar-like memorials of old foliage,
supports a thick crown of leaves, more than six feet in
length, which are disposed like plumes around a com-
mon centre.
The Pterophyllum is a tall, robust tree, clothed in
large pinnated leaves from top to bottom. Their thin
membranous leaves, trembling in the lightest breeze,
are provided with truncated leaflets, traversed by fine
nervures, not convergent, but all abutting on the ter-
minal truncated edge.
The Nilssonia somewhat resembles the Pterophyl-
lum, but its leaves are thick and leathery in texture,
with short leaflets contiguous, and, in part, attached
to the base ; at the summit they are truncated, or, more
correctly speaking, obtuse, with nervures arching or
confluent towards that summit.
But let us picture to ourselves the Liassic world, not
with its forests of cycads and conifers, its masses of
ferns and equiseta, its rolling rivers, or its tepid
marshes; let us call up before our inner vision the
billows of the seething ocean, with a dull, cloudy heaven
bending over them, and the ichthyosaurus and the
plesiosaurus contending for their prey. The latter
arches its long neck to pounce suddenly on its mighty
antagonist, which spouts from its blow-holes, like our
modern whale, incessant jets of water, mucus, and
vapour (Plate 3). *
We may next permit ourselves a glance at the flora of
* Such is the opinion of Bayle, hut we do not think it is held
by the best living palaeontologists.
this period. As in the Triassic age, terrestrial vegeta-
tion mainly consisted of ferns, cycads, and conifers.
The first was represented by the Pachypteris micro-
phylla , the second by the Zamites Moreana ; among
the conifers were conspicuous the Brachyphyllum
Moreanum and Brachyphyllum majus. We find
palms, lilies, and similar monocotyledonous plants
largely on the increase; and dicotyledonous types
exhibiting themselves in fragments of wood, leaves,
and inflorescence. This change in the character of
the terrestrial vegetation was necessitated by the
change which had taken place in the conditions of
our planet. The seas were more connected, and
showed a tendency to spread southward, while the
land assumed a more continental aspect, and the
channels of the great rivers and the boundaries of
inland lakes became more closely defined.
Of the .marine flora our knowledge is imperfect.
Aquatic plants, not unlike the pond-weeds of our own
days, seem to have flourished abundantly. Among the
cryptogams, equiseta (or mare's-tails) and lycopods (or
club-mosses) still preserved their vitality. Tree-ferns,
such as the Sphenopteris, Tseniopteris, and Peropteris,
accumulated in warm humid places; while coni-
ferous trees began to predominate in the forests. So
nearly do these resemble, in many important respects,
the cypresses, araucarias, screw-pines, yews, and
thujas of New Zealand and other southern regions,
that they have received botanical names indicative of
these affinities — cupressites, araucarites, pinites, tax-
ites, and thujites. Just such a landscape as a modern
naturalist shows us in the neighbourhood of Para (in
Brazil),* we may imagine to have been frequent enough
in the Middle Oolitic globe : — " We found ourselves,"
he says, "in a moderately broad pathway, or alley,
where the branches of the trees crossed overhead and
produced a delightful shade. The woods were at first
of recent growth, dense, and utterly impenetrable ; the
ground, instead of being clothed with grass and shrubs
as in the woods of Europe, was everywhere carpeted
with Lycopodiums (club-mosses). Gradually the scene
became changed. We descended slightly from an
elevated, dry, and sandy area to a low and swampy one;
a cool air breathed on our faces, and a mouldy smell
of rotting vegetation greeted us. The trees were now
taller, the underwood less dense, and we could obtain
glimpses into the wilderness on all sides. The leafy
crowns of the trees, scarcely two of which could be
seen together of the same kind, were now far away
above us, in another world, as it were. We could only
see at times, where there was a break alaove, the tracery
of the foliage against the clear blue sky. Sometimes
the leaves were palmate, or of the shape of large out-
stretched hands ; at others, finely cut or feathery, like
the leaves of Mimosse. Below, the tree trunks were
everywhere linked together by sipos ; the woody, flexi-
ble stems of climbing and creeping trees, whose foliage
is far away above, mingled with that of the smaller
independent trees. Some were twisted in strands,
like calles; others had thick stems contorted in every
variety of shape, entwining snake-like round the tree
trunks, or forming gigantic loops and coils among the
* Bates, The Naturalist on the Amazons.
NATURAL TTTSTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
27
larger branches ; others, again, were of zig-zag shape,
or indented like the steps of a staircase, sweeping from
the ground to a giddy height"
Some such scene, allowing for differences of form
and colour, and a more monotonous vegetation, we
may fancy to have been presented by a Middle Oolitic
landscape.
Let us suppose that we have made our way through
this dense growth of cyeads and conifers, palms and
ferns, and are standing on the brink of a limestone cliff,
looking out afar upon a wide expanse of sea. The
animal life that meets our gaze, and which our artist
has endeavoured to reproduce in the engraving (Plate
4), greatly differs from any of the forms to which
we are now accustomed. The strange, cuirassed,
crocodile-like creature that has just emerged from the
waves and advances towards us, carrying in its mouth
a freshly captured victim, is the Teleosaurus, and its
prey a Geot/ieutis, a kind of calarnary. The teleo-
saurus, as already stated, carried a coat of mail both
on back and belly, and of this we are made certain by
the dead monster floating on its back in the shallow
water, and so exposing its ventral cuirass.
At the foot of the cliff, where it slopes towards the
beach, stands a Ilylmosaurus — a great land-saurian —
with bristling back, whose numbers, as yet, are very
limited.
The tide is up, but if we waited until it receded we
should find the shore covered with animal life — nautilus
and ammonite, turbo, nerinsea, and pleurotomaria;
pecten, ostrea, and avicula; encriuites, and legions of
polyzoans.
Our artist has presented us in the accompanying
illustration with an ideal landscape peculiar to the
period we are now describing (Plate 5).
Rightly to understand its principal features, we must
digress from the immediate subject of this chapter, and
glance, as we have previously done, at the prevailing
forms of vegetable life.
The terrestrial flora of the period consisted of ferns,
cyeads, and conifers; zosterse flourished in the ponds
and morasses. The zosterse are monocotyledonous
plants of the family of the Naiadacese, which thrive in
the sandy mud of maritime or littoral regions, and form,
with their long, narrow, and ribbon-like leaves, vast
prairies of emerald green. These masses of verdure
. appear partly exposed at low tide, and provide nourish-
ment and an asylum for numerous marine animals.
At Portland, on the Dorsetshire coast, the character-
istics of the Oolitic vegetation may be examined by the
student with peculiar facility. Its quarries reveal in
section the strata of the primeval world. On the well-
known Portland stone rests a bed of limestone formed
in lacustrine waters; and on this bed another, of a dark
bluish substance, which, on examination, is found to be
a well-preserved vegetable earth or humus, resembling
our vegetable soil, from fifteen to eighteen inches thick,
and abounding in the silicified remains of conifers and
other plants, analogous to the Zamia and Cycas. Herein
the trunks of great numbers of silicified trees and tropi-
cal plants are found, standing erect, their roots struck
deep into the soil.
" The ruins of a forest upon the ruins of a sea," says
Esquiros, " the trunks of these trees were petrified while
still growing. The region now occupied by the narrow
channel and its environs had been at first a sea, in
whose bed the Oolitic deposits which now form the
Portland stone accumulated: the bed of the sea gradu-
ally rose and emerged from the waves. Upon the land
thus rescued from the deep, plants began to grow; they
now constitute with their ruins the soil of the dirt-bed.
This soil, with its forest of trees, was afterwards plunged
again into the waters — not the bitter waters of the
ocean, but in the fresh waters of a lake formed at the
mouth of some great river."
We may now turn to our ideal landscape.
Amongthe tree-ferns we recognize the Sphenophyllum
as still predominant in this vegetation, and investing it
with an air of peculiar elegance.
No palms are visible, but in their place spring the
tall stems of the pandanas, the zamites, and the
branching conifers.
A coral islet rising above the azure waves, like a
Polynesian atoll, reminds us of the importance now
assumed by the labours of the coralline animals, which
have ever played so conspicuous a part in the creation
of our modern globe.
The animals represented are the Crocodileinus, the
Ramplwrynchus, and certain invertebrata, such as the
Asteria, Comatula, Hemicidaris, Pteroceras. In the
genial air flies the bird of Solenhofen, the Archseop-
teryx* which has been reconstructed from the skele-
ton; the head, however, has not been discovered. The
footprints on the sand may be those of the rampho-
rynchus, or, perhaps, of the pterodactyle (Plate 6).
We now proceed to a consideration of the types of
organic life peculiar to the Cretaceous period.
THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD.
The strata of the Cretaceous period, or the Chalk
formations, form the upper strata of the Secondary
series ; and while resting upon the Oolite, are them-
selves the base of the Tertiary or more recent beds.
They cover an extended area in Europe and the east
of Asia, and have also been found in North and South
America. In the south-east of England they occur
in those rounded and grassy downs which are so char-
acteristic a feature of Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hamp-
shire, Dorsetshire, and the Isle of Wight, and stretching
along the coast in a line of lofty and glittering cliffs,
to which England owes her ancient name of A llion.
These beds are connected with similar beds in Den-
mark, Germany, and the north of France; and it is
surmised, from the masses of chalk and flint thrown
upon the shores of the Shetland Isles after a storm,
that the bed of the German Ocean is composed of the
rocks of this formation.
The strata are arranged by most geologists in the
following order : —
Maestricht,
Chalk with flints,
Chalk without flints, .
Chalk marl,
Upper greensand,
• See page 25.
Maximum Thick-
ness in Feet.
. 100
. 500
. 600
. 100
. 100
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
Gault,
Lower greensand,
Wealden beds, .
Maximum Thick-
ness in Feet.
. 150
. 850
. 1300
The Maastricht beds consist of pisolitic limestones*
in the north of France, and of loose yellowish sand-
stones in Holland.
The chalk with flints abounds in the south-east of
England, the flints occurring in long parallel lines of
remarkable regularity ; so that a section of the rock,
viewed from a distance, looks as if it had been scored
with the help of a ruler. The limestone is of a pure
white, pulverulent quality; and as it is usually too soft
for building purposes, is chiefly quarried for the lime-
kilns. The layers of flints never exceed a few inches
in thickness. They are often found in nodules at
intervals of from two to four feet. Iron pyrites is
frequently met with in radiated nodules, which readily
decompose, and colour the rock with rusty hues, as if
from a chalybeate spring.
Chalk without flints differs from the upper chalk only
in the absence of the flints.
Chalk marl is the white chalk indurated by a gra-
dual admixture of argillaceous matter, and transformed,
as it were, into a " pale, buff-coloured marl," or argil-
laceous limestone, generally of sufficient firmness and
hardness for the builder's use.
The upper greensand is composed of alternating
layers of sands, clays, and limestones, frequently
coloured green, as its name indicates, by the presence
of a chloritic mineral.
Gault is a dark tenacious clay used for brickmaking.
Its occurrence between the strata of the chalk is a
cause of the numerous landslips that occur on the
southern coast and in the Isle of Wight The action
of subterraneous springs reduces it to a soft consistent
state, and it then oozes gradually through the chalk,
whose upper strata are consequently precipitated for-
ward. It is in this way the wild romantic region of
the Undercliff, in the Isle of Wight, was formed.
The lower greensand resembles the upper in every
particular.
The Wealden, which in England occupies a district of
Kent and Sussex long known as the Weald, is divided
into two groups, the Wealden clay and the Hastings
sand. It consists of a series of shales and sandstones,
in which some highly interesting fossil remains have
been discovered.
From these brief remarks it will be seen that the
characteristic feature of the Cretaceous formation is
the chalk (crefa), whence it derives its name. This
chalk is a white, soft, and friable or pulverulent sub-
stance, almost wholly composed of limestone ; the only
foreign matter which occurs in any abundance being
the silex, which forms its nodules or regular layers of
flint. The question now arises, Of what does this
chalk or limestone consist ? Hitherto our remarks will
have been of interest only to the geologist; but the
question we have just proposed concerns the naturalist.
For limestone consists of comminuted shells, such as
* Pisolitic, from pisitm, a. pea, in reference to the size of the
component parts.
Foraminifera, mixed with the disintegrated prisms of
larger shells, Piunse, Cytherinae, Diatomace8e,and Ento-
mostraceee.
It is a difficult problem, says a distinguished geolo-
gist, to account for the source of the enormous masses
of carbonate of lime that compose nearly one-eighth
part of the superficial crust of the globe. Some have
referred it entirely to the secretions of marine animals,
and to such an origin we must obviously assign tho
Cretaceous strata composed of comminuted shells and
corallines ; but until it can be shown that these animals
had the power of forming lime from other elements, we
must suppose that they derived it from the sea, either
directly or through the medium of plants.
In either case it remains for us to discover the
source whence the sea obtained, not only these supplies
of carbonate of lime for its animal inhabitants, but also
the still larger quantities of the same substance that
have been precipitated in the form of calcareous strata.
It is impossible to suppose that it resulted, like sands
and clays, from the mechanical detritus of the granitic
rocks, because the quantity of lime which they contain
bears no proportion to its large amount among the
derivative rocks. The only remaining hypothesis seems
to be " that lime was continually introduced to lakes
and seas by water that had percolated rocks through
which calcareous earth was disseminated."
The origin of these large quantities of silex which
constitute the chert and Bint beds of stratified forma-
tions, Dr. Buckland refers to the waters of hot springs,
holding silicious earth in solution, and depositing it on
exposure to reduced degrees of temperature and pres-
sure, as silex is deposited by the hot waters of the
Iceland geysers.
From these particulars the reader will infer that the
Cretaceous formation abounds in fossils. Vegetable
remains, indeed, are seldom met with, except in the
AVealden beds, but all the divisions of the animal
kingdom, except the warm-blooded vertebrata, occur
in profusion. The marine fauna presents a copious
abundance of Sponges (Spongia, Siphonia, and the like)
converted into flints; whence Dr. Bowerbank suggests
that their " mission " in the primeval world was to
cause the deposit of silicious matter from the ocean
waters, just as the corals induce the consolidation of
its calcareous constituents. Foraminifera (as the Tex-
tttlaria, Bulima, and Dentalina) must have literally
swarmed ; the greater portion of the Cretaceous strata,
as we have already remarked, consisting of their exuviae.
This period was, in fact, the noonday of foraminiferous
life ; it existed in hundreds of species and genera,
which, flourishing through their brief career, afterwards
covered the ocean bed for leagues upon leagues with
their calcareous cases.
Corals were still met with, but not so p'entifully as
in the Oolitic seas. Radiata increased in number and
developed in beauty, and among the most characteristic
fossils of the period are the Diadema, the Goniaster,
the Galeriles, and other genera of Echini, or Sea-
urchins. The exquisite lily-like forms of the Encrinites
were now on the wane; but annelids, like the tortuous
Vemiicularia and winding Serpula, teemed in the still
genial waters.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
lu the Crustacea the principal existing genera would
seem to have been the Cytheris, Cythere, and Banilia;
among the Malacostraceans, those huge lobsters and
sea-crabs known as the Pagurus, Notopocorystes, and
Myeria.
A deservedly-popular writer shall complete for us
the picture of Cretaceous life : — •
It was now, he says, that the minute Polyzoa, or
Sea-mats, wove their delicate tracery of network in a
thousand forms (Flustra, Eschara, Diastopora, Actino-
pora, Idmonea), spreading it over corals, dead shells,
and crustaceans, as if their function had been to shroud
in beauty the worthless and decaying wreck of the
Cretaceous sea-shore.
The higher Mollusca also appear in vast profusion —
many of the Oolitic genera having departed or being
on the decline, while other forms peculiar to the chalk
begin to make their appearance. The deep-sea Bra-
chiopods are represented by species of Terebratula,
Terebratella, and Rhynconella; the true Bivalves by
Inoceramus, Lima, Ostrea, Pecten, Astarte, Cardium,
Trigonia, Venus, and many others, whose specific
forms are new and peculiar to the period ; while Gas-
teropods, like Natica, Littorina, Cerithium, Rostellana,
Solarium, Pleurotomaria, and others, mark a busy
sea-shore of herbivorous and carnivorous activity.
The Cephalopods, though numerically fewer than in
the Lias and Oolite, now appear in curiously fantastic
forms. The chambers of the shell-clad genera had
previously been straight as an arrow, like the Orthoceras,
or coiled on the same plane, like the Nautilus and
Ammonite. But now some of them appear bent like
a hook (Hamites), curved like a boat's prow (Scaphites),
incurved like a crosier (Ancyloceras], twisted like a
ram's horn (Crioceras), spun round a straight axis,
and tapering like a spire or a pagoda (Turrilites), or in
some other fanciful and simulative guise. Examining
these elegant memorials of the past, we are reminded
of the poet's exclamation : —
" See what a lovely shell,
Small and pure as pearl,
Lying close to my foot ;
Frail, but a work divine
Made so fairily well,
With delicate spire and whorl,
How exquisitely minute,
A miracle of design !
The tiny cell is forlorn,
Void of the little living will
That made it stir on the shore.
Did he stand at the diamond door
Of his house in a rainbow frill?
Did he push, when he was uncurl'd,
A golden foot or a fairy horn
Through his dim water-world ? "
This abundance, this wonderful profusion of generic
types, and that on the very eve of their decline, has
originated numerous hypotheses. Those writers who
consider the modification of form to depend upon
physical conditions, suppose that certain obnoxious
changes in the waters of deposit were the proximate
causes of these fantastic and singular forms. " It is
true," says Dr. Page, "that an influx of fresh water
into a marine area, or vice versa, is often attended by
curious changes in the indwelling Mollusca, and that
new conditions of cultivation produce strange sports
among the varieties of the gardener ; but the forms of
these Cretaceous shells are too decisive and persistent
to be otherwise explained than by supposing the intro-
duction of new genera, in obedience to some great but
unknown law of creation."
The fishes of the chalk formation include many of
the old Placoids and Ganoids (the Sharks, Rays, and
Sauroids) of the Oolitic, but with new and peculiar
genera of the same great divisions ; while for the first
time the Ctenoids and Cycloids, which in our present
seas are the prevailing orders of ichthyic life, make
their appearance.
Among the Placoids the dominant genera were —
Ptychodus, Hylodus, Acrodus, and Lamna; among
the Ganoids — Gyrodus, Pycnodus, and Macropoma ;
among the Cycloids — Osmeroides, Hypsodus, Sauro-
cepkalus; among the Ctenoids — Beryx and Berycopsis.
We now turn to the Reptiles, and find a few species
of the Plesiosaurus and Ichthyosaurus still dragging their
huge bulk through the ocean waters. On the land an
Iguanodon or two still crawls among the herbage, and
from the sea-cliffs the ungainly Pterodactyles still
essay their awkward, dropping flight. The Crocodiles,
Lizards, and Turtles are represented by several genera ;
but it is evident that, on the whole, the meridian of
reptile life is past, and that if the colossal types of the
Oolitic are not wholly extinct, they are rapidly dis-
appearing. Few and faint are the traces as yet dis-
covered in the chalk of birds and mammals, and in this
direction there remains much valuable and important
work to be accomplished by the future geologist and
paleontologist.
Our description of the series of Secondary strata
may fitly conclude with Dr. Buckland's summary : —
The peculiar feature in the population of these
series was, as he points out, the prevalence of numerous
and gigantic forms of Saurian reptiles. Many of these
were exclusively marine ; others amphibious ; others
were terrestrial, ranging in savannahs and jungles,
clothed with a tropical vegetation, or basking on the
margins of estuaries, lakes, and rivers. Even the air
was tenanted by flying lizards, under the dragon form
of Pterodactyles. The earth was probably at that
time too much covered with water, and those portions
of land which had emerged above the surface were too
frequently agitated by earthquakes, inundations, and
atmospheric irregularities, to be extensively occupied by
any higher order of quadrupeds than reptiles.
It is worthy of notice that, in the Cretaceous period,
the forms of vegetable life begin to approximate very
closely to those which now obtain. The types may
now be recognized of the maple, the alder, the walnut,
the wych-elm, and other dicotyledons; and the palms
include several species which differ but little from those
now flourishing under tropical skies.
" As we retire from the days of the primitive creation,"
says Lecoq, " and gradually approach those of our own
era, the sediments seem to withdraw themselves from
the polar regions, and we find them restricted to the
temperate or equatorial zones. The great beds of sand
I and limestone constituting the Cretaceous formation,
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
announce a condition of things very different from any
that has hitherto prevailed. No indications of central
heat now mark the seasons; already zones of latitude
show signs of their existence; already the biological
relations of living beings are such as man can under-
stand, and vegetation assumes a truly peculiar form."
Prior to this epoch two classes of vegetation have
predominated — the cellular cryptogams at first; and
secondly, the dicotyledonous gymnosperms. But now,
in the transition age of vegetation, these two classes
begin to fail, and a third, the dicotyledonous angio-
sperms, " timidly take possession of the earth;" con-
sisting, primarily, of a small number of species, and
occupying only a limited portion of the soil. In later
periods, as in our own times, we shall find their sup-
remacy firmly established.
Some arborescent ferns still maintain their position,
and the graceful Protopteris Singeri and Protopteris
Buvigneri unfurl their light fronds, like banners, to the
breeze. Some Pecopteri, differing from the Wealden
species, flourish in their company. Zamites, and cycads,
and Zamiostrobi prove that the temperature of the Cre-
taceous period was still almost tropical. New varieties
of PalmacecB reveal themselves, and among others, the
Flabellaria chamceropifolia is distinguished by the
majestic diadem at its summit.
The conifers have withstood the lapse of time and
the influence of change more successfully than the
cycadeae; then, as now, they were gathered together
in vast forests, where Damarites, Cunninghamias,
Araucarias, Eleoxylons, Abietites, and Pintles remind
us of numerous forms still existing, but distributed all
over the earth.
From this epoch, moreover, date the Comptonius, a
genus of the natural order Myricacece; the Almites
Fresii, a member of the Betulacece; the Carpinties
arenacetis, which is one of the Cupuliferce; the Salicites,
now represented by the long, drooping, arborescent
willows; the Aceritis cretacece, belonging to the Ace-
lina; and the Juglandites elegans to the Juglanditce.
But unquestionably the most interesting botanical
event of this period is the advent of the Crednaria,
with its triple- veined leaves, of which no less than
eight species have been found and described, but
whose place in the scientific systems of classification
remains undetermined. The Creduarias, like the Sali-
cites, were certainly trees, as were most of the species
of this remote epoch.
These details will enable the reader to understand
the accompanying illustration (Plate 7), in which
our artist has presented a landscape of the Cretaceous
period. Through an opening in the dense wood we
obtain glimpses of the radiant heavens beyond; and
we can imagine the sunlight playing upon the quaint,
vigorous foliage of the pillared trees, and tipping with
golden hues the feathery fronds of the ferns. Tall
palms in the distance wave in the passing wind their
fan-shaped leaves, which ever and anon droop like the
plumes of a knightly crest in the rush of battle. Rich
grasses and exquisite mosses clothe the living sward,
and the murmur of insects fills the air, their monotonous
hum being occasionally interrupted by the crash of an
aged tree in a distant forest glade, or the cry of some
listless, lizard-like reptile, or the hoarse roar of ignanodon
and megalosaurus, as they engage in furious combat.
Leaving these huge monsters to contend for suprcmacjr,
we wander far away into a still and shadowy avenue,
where the walnut, the maple, and the alder rear their
well-known trunks. We note with surprise a vegetation
at once temperate and tropical, but feel that the tem-
perature, if fresh, is also genial, and admirably adapted
to the growth of the more vigorous forms of vegetable
life. And so we bid adieu to the ideal solitudes of the
Cretaceous forest.
THE TERTIARY SYSTEM.
Also called Qie Cainozoic, or Recent Life Period.
"With the Tertiary series we enter upon the consider-
ation of an order of entirely new phenomena, presenting
formations in which the remains of animal and vegetable
life gradually approximate to the species of our own
epoch. We are in the position of a traveller who,
after long wandering through remote and previously
unknown landscapes, finds himself rapidly approaching
his own home, and everywhere recognizes the features
of a familiar scenery.
For the convenience of comparison the Cainozoic is
usually subdivided into Eocene, Miocene, Pliocene, and
Pleistocene ; words of Greek origin which respectively
signify the earliest, less recent, more recent, and most
recent life-stages. But the reader must remember that
these distinctions are entirely arbitrary, and that no
definite line of demarcation has been drawn between
them by the hand of nature. There are not vast
impassable gulfs separating the one period from the
other. The animal and vegetable forms of the Eocene
pass into the Miocene, and are even protracted into the
Pliocene ; and no error could be more disastrous than
to suppose that either of these divisions represents, as
it were, a sole and independent world, with a fauna
and a flora entirely its own. To return to a previous
image, the palaeontologist, in tracing the growth and
development of created life, is like a traveller who
passes from the icy regions of the north into the glow-
ing and luxuriant climes of the south. In so doing
he traverses numerous countries, not separated by any
conspicuous barrier or boundary, but gradually melting
into one another, so that the transition is everywhere
accomplished without any sudden or violent change.
As we have said, the term Eocene implies the earliest
stage, or dawn of the existing state of the animal crea-
tion, and the strata of this series contains but a very
small proportion of shells referrible to living species.
As types of these series we shall take the London
clay and the Calcaire grossier, or marls and gypsums
of the Paris basin. For a detailed account of their
nature and relations we are indebted, primarily, to the
exhaustive labours of Cuvier and Brongniart.
After describing how slowly the cabinets of Paris
had been filled with innumerable relics of unknown
animals, exhumed from the gypseous beds of Mont-
martre, Cuvier graphically describes the manner in which
he addressed himself to the task of making these " dry
bones" live, of reconstructing from apparently shape-
less fragments the complete and perfect skeletons.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
Having speedily recognized the existence of numer-
I ous species, belonging to many distinct genera, " I at
length found myself," he says, " in a kind of charnel-
house, surrounded by the mutilated debris of hundreds
of skeletons, of more than twenty separate orders, all
piled around me in confused heaps : it was my task to
restore them to their original position. At the voice
of comparative anatomy every bone, and every frag-
ment of a bone, fell into its appointed place. I cannot
describe the pleasure I experienced in seeing, as I dis-
covered one character, how all the consequences which
I predicted from it were successively confirmed ; how
the feet were found to correspond in detail with the
facts ascertained from the teeth ; how the teeth were
in harmony with those indicated beforehand by the
feet ; how the bones of the legs and thighs, and every
connecting portion of the extremities, were set together
precisely as I had conjectured, before my conjectures
were verified by the discovery of the parts entire : in
short, how each species was, as it were, successfully
reconstructed from a single one of its component
elements."
The character of the animal life of the Eocene stage
may be readily understood from a glance at the sub-
joined
LIST OF VERTEBRAL, ANIMALS FOUND IN THE PARIS BASIN.
Extinct Species of Extinct Genera.
Paclnjderm.ata : —
Palseotherium, Anoplotherium, Chseropotamus, Adapis.
Extinct Species belonging to Existing Genera.
Carnivora : —
Bat.
Canis (large wolf, differing from any existing species), fox.
Coatis (Nasua), large coati, now inhabiting tbe tropical
regions of America.
Racoon (Procyon), North America,
Genette (Viverra Genet/a of Linne, Genetta of Cuvier), now
extending from Southern Europe to Cape of Good Hope.
Marsupialia : —
Opossum, small (D'ulel phis), allied to the opossum of North
and South America.
Rodentia : —
Dormouse (^fl/oxus of Gmelin), two small species; squirrel
(j&dnnu\
Bird*.—
Nine or ten species, referrible to the following genera:— Buz-
zard, owl, quail, woodcock, seaback, curlew, and pelican.
Reptiles : —
Fresh-water tortoises, trionyx, emys, crocodile.
Fishes.—
Seven extinct species of extinct genera.
A remarkable feature in this list is the numerical
preponderance of Pachydermata among the earliest
fossil Mammalia, beyond the proportion they bear
among existing quadrupeds ; and it will be observed
that they supply, from the relics of a former world,
many intermediate forms wanting in the present distri-
bution of that important order. "As the living genera
of Pachydermata," remarks our authority, " are more
widely separated from one another than those of any
other order of Mammalia, it is important to fill these
vacant intervals with the fossil genera of a former state
of the earth; thus supplying links that appeared deficient
in the grand continuous chain which connects all past
and present forms of organic life as parts of one great
system of creation."
We proceed to a brief description of the principal
pachydermatous species ; of those curious creatures,
simulating every form — tapir, llama, rhinoceros, sea-
cow, hog, antelope, ass, and camel — and apparently
fulfilling the various functions now assigned to those
later families, which roamed at will in the dense forest,
and over the grassy plain, and along the reedy, swampy
bank of rolling river and ample lake, during the early
ages of the Cainozoic period.
The Anoplotherium* — This genus was established
by Cuvier from bones discovered in the Eocene strata,
near Paris; but its remains have also been found in
the same strata in the Isle of Wight, and elsewhere.
The animal's teeth are wholly unlike those of any other
Anoplotherium commune. One-tweutiath natural size.
pachyderm, past or present. They are arranged as in
the human jaw, in a continuous series without intervals
— a circumstance distinguishing the Anoplotherium from
all quadrupeds ; and consist of six incisors, two molars,
two canines, eight pre -molars, and six molars in each
jaw. The upper molars are quadrangular ; the lower
marked with prominent ridges of enamel. It is sup-
posed that the Anoplotherium was partly carnivorous
in its food. It had no proboscis, nor was its snout
considerably elongated. The feet, as in the Ruminan-
tia, terminate in two toes, but have always separate
metacarpal and metatarsal bones. Numerous species
have been discovered, varying in size from that of a
small ass to that of a guinea-pig ; whence it is evident
that the smallest species must have been more diminu-
tive than any known hoofed quadruped. As great a
difference prevailed in shape and appearance, some
having graceful forms and slender limbs, others being
solidly and even inelegantly built. A few would seem
to have been adapted for a purely aquatic life ; but the
Anoplotherium proper was, in all probability, the type,
in manners and habits, of the modern tapir.
The recognized genera are : — Dichodon, Dichobune,
Microtherium, and Xiphodon.
The Adapis, in form, resembled the hedgehog, but
was three times its bulk. Dr. Buckland is of opinion
that it formed a link connecting the Pachydermata with
the insectivorous Carnivora.
* From the Greek, « privative; WAov, armour; and li^m
beast.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
The Chceropotamm is a genus of Pachyderms,
founded by Cuvier on fossil remains associated in the
Paris basin with those of the Anoplotherium and
Palseotherium. Some remains have also been dis-
covered at Winstead, near Ryde, in the Isle of Wight.
This interesting animal seems to have been closely
allied to the Peccaries which now inhabit the virgin
forests of Equatorial America. According to Professor
Owen, in the structure of some of their teeth, and the
conformation of their lower jaw, they approximate
decidedly to the ferine type. Alluding to the car-
nivorous propensities of our common hog, he points out
that the extinct Chseropotamus was still better adapted
by its dentition for predaceous habits, and pronounces
it " an interesting example of one of those links,
completing the chain of affinities, which the revolu-
tion of the earth's surface have interrupted, as it
Paiseotheriuiu magnum restored.
were, and for a time concealed from our view."
He adds, that it is curious to notice that the living
Kub-genus of the family to which the Chseropotamus
is most nearly allied, is an inhabitant only of South
America, where the llama and the tapir, the nearest
living analogues of the anoplotherian and palseotherian
associates of the Chseropotamus now exist, and which
was formerly the native habitat of a genus, Macrau-
chenia, connecting the llama with the palseothere.
Dr. Buckland is of opinion that the Chaeropotamus,
in some respects, resembled the Babiroussa (£«.? Babi-
russa), a gregarious animal, found in the wooded
islands of the Indian Archipelago.
The Palceotherium, or ancient wild beast, in gene-
ral appearance resembled the tapir, especially in having
the snout terminated by a short proboscis. It was
characterized by the following arrangement of teeth :—
Incisors.
3-3
3-3
Canines. Pre-molars.
1—1 4-4
1—1 4^4
Molars.
3-3
= 44.
It had three toes on each foot, each terminated by a
hoof. Like the tapir, it frequented the banks of rivers
and large lakes, was nocturnal in its habits, and lived
upon herbivorous food, such as fruits, buds, and the
young shoots of trees.
Eleven or twelve species of the Palseotherium have
been discovered ; some as large as a rhinoceros, others
varying from the size of a hog to that of a horse.
The Lophiodon is another extinct genus of Pachy-
derms, allied most nearly to the tapir and rhinoceros ;
in some respects, to the hippopotamus ; and in others
to the Palceotherium and Anoplotherium. Fifteen
species of Lophiodon have been distinguished.
The Hyracotherium is a pachydermatous genus,
belonging to the division Perisodactyla, the animals
of which are characterized by possessing an uneven
number of toes. It was founded by Professor Owen
on the remains of two species
discovered in the Eocene strata.
A third species was afterwards
exhumed from the Roman
cement bed of the London clay,
near Harwich. This fossil con-
sisted of an entire skull, of the
right humerns and femur, the
ft femur (nearly complete),
the left tibia, three metatarsal
bones, and fragments of the ver-
tebrse, ribs, and pelvis. The
head, which was slender and
tapering, like that of the exist-
ing tapir, measured five inches
in length, and a little more
than two inches in breadth. Its
straight contour, and the con-
formation of the nasal aperture,
allied the animal to the horse
and the hyrax. From the
structure of its teeth, it is evi-
dent that its habits were herbi-
vorous, while the form and
proportions of its limbs were
midway, so to speak, between the hyrax and the tapir.
The three species at present known are called
respectively the Hyracotherium (or Pliolophus) vulpi-
ceps, Hyracotherium leporinum, and Hyracotherium
caniculus. This latter species was founded on several
teeth belonging to a smaller animal than the others,
discovered in the Eocene sand at Lynn in Suffolk.
They were considered by Professor Owen to belong to
a quadrumanous animal, which he named Macacus
eoccenus, and described as " at once the first terrestrial
mammal found in the London clay, and the first
quadrumanous animal hitherto discovered in any
country in tertiary strata so old as the Eocene period."
On further examination, however, our great palaeon-
tologist recognized that the two teeth belonged, not to
a monkey, but to a third species of Hyracotherium.
The Anthracothenum was so called because first
discovered in the Tertiary coal, or anthracite, of Cadi-
bona in Liguria. It presents seven species, some of
them approximating in size and character to the hog,
others more nearly approaching the hippopotamus.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
While the Eocene sub-period was thus prolific of
pachydermatous forms, it nourished in its seas, and
e 'tuaries, and rivers, a vast number of new types of
life. Then first appeared the corresponding species of
our existing Lyinneaj, Paludiuse, Planorbes, and other
fresh-water shells. The terrestrial snails, Helix, Pupa,
Clausilia, and the like, so rare in earlier epochs, now
became abundant. The gasteropods and cephalopods
increased in number and variety, and the ocean waters
swarmed with busy legions of foraminiferous organisms,
whose destiny it was to build up immense masses of
nummulitic limestone, rivalling in extent and thickness
the coral reefs of the present day.
Of the shells of the cephalopodous molluscs belong-
ing to the tertiary formations, D'Orbigny distinguished
between six hundred and seven hundred species. The
only genus which our limits will allow us to notice is
the Nummulite, so named from the resemblance of the
animal to a piece of money. In
size it varied from that of a
crown piece to microscopic
minuteness. It occupies an
important place in the history
of fossil shells on account of the
prodigious numbers in which it
is found accumulated in the ter-
tiary strata— often piled upon
one another in as close contact
as the grains in a heap of corn.
In this state the Nummulites
form a considerable portion of
the entire bulk of many lofty
mountains; as in the tertiary
limestones of Verona and Monte
Bolen, and in secondary strata
of the Cretaceous period in the
Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpath-
ians. Some of the Pyramids,
adds Dr. Buckland, and the
celebrated Sphinx, are com-
posed of limestone loaded with
these Nummulites.*
It is impossible, says the same distinguished geolo-
gist, to see such mountain masses of the remains of a
single family of shells thus added to the solid materials
of the globe, without recollecting that each individual
shell once held an important place in the body of a
living animal. And thus may we carry back our
imagination to those remote and dim mysterious ages
when the ocean waters, which then overflowed the
European continent, teemed with swarms of these extinct
molluscs, thick as the countless myriads of Berbe and
Clio Borealis now living their little life in the polar seas.
Like the Nautilus and Ammonite, the Nummulites
were enabled to float by means of the air-chambers
into which the shell was divided. The chambers
were numerous, and minutely divided by transverse
partitions ; they had no siphuncle. In form the shells
were orbicular, convolute, without any trace of spire ex-
ternally, and composed of contiguous whorls. Scarcely
any of them exceed an inch in diameter.
We now pass on to the second, or Miocene system of
* Of the species Nummulina discoidalis.
Tertiary deposits, containing an admixture of the extinct
genera of lacustrine mammals, with the earliest forms of
existing genera. Thus, in the marine formations of
Tourainej the fossil remains of Lophiodon, Anoplo-
therium, and Palajotherium have been discovered
mingled with bones of the tapir, mastodon, horse,
hippopotamus, and rhinoceros.* We shall see, how-
ever, that new genera now first made their appearance
on the earthj and that the Eocene mammals rapidly
became extinct. " One or two of the generic forms,"
says Professor Owen, " most frequent in the older ter-
tiary strata still lingered on the earth, but the rest of
the Eocene Mammalia were superseded by new forms,
some of them presenting characters intermediate be-
tween those of Eocene and those of Pliocene strata.
Among the Miocene types of life we give the fore-
most place to the Dinotherium, as the largest of
terrestrial mammalia. It holds an intermediate place
between the tapir and the mastodon, and thus supplies
another valuable extinct link in the great pachyder-
matous family.
The largest species of this genus, Dinotherium
giganteum, is calculated by Cuvier to have attained
the extraordinary length of eighteen feet. A skull
disinterred at Epplesheim, in Hesse Darmstadt, in
1836, measured four feet long by three feet broad.
* Near Darmstadt, in Miocene strata, were found the follow-
ing remains: —
Species.
Dinotherium, ... 2 Gigantic herbivorous animals, fifteen
and eighteen feet in length.
2 Lnrgerthan any living species.
2 Allied to the tapir.
"2
Allied to mastodon.
Allied to the horse.
Hog.
Large cats, some as big as a lion.
Allied to bear ( Ursus cultrideits).
Tapirus, . .
Chalicotherium,
Rhinoceros,
Tetracaulodon,
Hippotherium,
Sus, ....
Felis, . . .
Machairodus, .
Gulo (Glutton),
Agnotherium, .
1 A canine genus, as large as a lion.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
The most remarkable bone of the body yet found is
the shoulder-blade, which, in form, more nearly resem-
bles that of the mole than of any other animal, and
seems to indicate a peculiar adaptation of the fore-leg
to the purposes of digging — an indication confirmed
by the singular structure of the lower jaw.
The form of the animal's molar teeth approximates
to that of the molar teeth of the tapir; but a noticeable
deviation from the character of the tapir, as well as
of every other quadruped, consists in the presence of
two enormous tusks, placed at the anterior extremity
of the lower jaw, and curved downwards like the uppef
tusks of the walrus.
" It is mechanically impossible," says Dr. Buckland,
" that a lower jaw, nearly four feet long, loaded with
such heavy tusks at its extremity, could have been
otherwise than cumbrous and inconvenient to a quad-
ruped living on dry land. No such disadvantage could
have attended this structure in a large animal destined
to live in water ; and the aquatic habits of the family
of tapirs, to which the Dinotherium was most nearly
allied, render it probable that, like them, it was an
inhabitant of fresh-water lakes and rivers. To an
animal of such habits, the weight of the tusks sustained
in water would have been no source of inconvenience;
and if we suppose them to have been employed as
instruments for raking and grubbing up by the roots
large aquatic vegetables from the bottom, they would,
under such service, combine the mechanical powers
of the pickaxe with those of the horse-harrow of
modern husbandry. The weight of the head, placed
above these downward tusks, would add to their
efficiency for the service here supposed, as the power
of the harrow is increased by being loaded with
weights.
"The tusks of the Dinotherium may also have been
applied with mechanical advantage to hook on the head
of the animal to the bank, with the nostrils sustained
above the water, so as to breathe securely during sleep,
whilst the body remained floating at perfect ease
beneath the surface; the animal might thus repose,
moored to the margin of a lake or river, without the
slightest muscular exertion, the weight of the head and
body tending to fix and keep .the tusks fast anchored
in the substance of the bank; as the weight of the
body of a sleeping bird keeps the claws clasped firmly
around its perch. These tusks might have been furtheV
used, like those in the upper jaw of the walrus, to assist
in dragging the body out of the water; and also as
formidable instruments of defence.
" The structure of the scapula, already noticed, seems
to show that the fore-leg was adapted to co-operate
with the tusks and teeth in digging and separating large
vegetables from the bottom. The great length attri-
buted to the body would have been no way inconvenient
to an animal living in the water, but attended with
much mechanical disadvantage to so weighty a quad-
ruped upon land. In all these characters of a gigantic,
herbivorous, aquatic quadruped, we recognize adapta-
tions to the lacustrine condition of the 'earth, during
that portion of the tertiary periods to which the exist-
ence of these seemingly anomalous creatures appears
to have been limited."
A genus of carnivorous Mammalia belonging to the
Miocene period has been named the Machairodus, from
(j,&ya.ipd, " a sword," and odov;, a " tooth;" in allusion
to its distinguishing characters, its long, curved, com-
pressed teeth, the crowns of which have finely serrated
margins. The fossil lemains of this quadruped have
been discovered in this country, and in several parts of
Europe. In this island, says Professor Owen, anterior
to the deposition of the drift, there was associated with
the great extinct tiger, bear, and hysfiua of the caves,
in the destructive task of controlling the numbers of the
richly developed order of the herbivorous Mammalia, a
feline animal, the Machairodus, as large as the tiger,
and, to judge by its instruments of destruction, of even
greater ferocity. When we read that, in certain districts
of India, whole villages have been depopulated by the
destructive incursions of a single feline species, the
tiger, we can scarcely conceive it possible that man, in
an early and rude condition of society, could have
resisted the attacks of the more formidable tiger, bear,
and machairodus of the cave epoch. And this consider-
ation may lead us the more readily to accept the
negative evidence of the absence of any well-authenti-
cated human fossil remains, and to conclude that man
did not exist on the earth which was simultaneously
ravaged by these formidable Carnivora, aided in their
mission of destruction by herds of savage hyaenas.
The fossiliferous deposits of the Siwalik hills in India,
which were so thoroughly explored by Dr. Falconer and
Major Cautley, and which include remains of a giraffe,
an ostrich, three large Carnivora, and other animals,
also belong to the sub-period we are now considering.
Among these animals, one of the most interesting seems
to have been the Sivatherium, so named from Siva, an
Indian deity, and 0r,pi6v, "a wild beast." It resembled
a gigantic antelope iu the shape of its body, but its
head must have borne some likeness to that of an elk :
for it was short and thick, with 'two pairs of horns ;
the front pair small, the hind pair much larger, and pro-
bably palmated and set behind. The eyes were small,
and placed on either side of the head.
Huge must have been the lips iu proportion to its
other physiognomical features; and from the large pro-
jecting bone over the nasal aperture, it is evident that
this strange creature was furnished with a proboscis,
an organ not found in any existing species of the
Ruminantia, and which it availed itself of, we may
infer, to bring within its reach the young shoots and
boughs of the loftier trees.
In bulk the skull was scarcely inferior to that of an
elephant; the neck was shorter than in the giraffe,
much stronger, and admirably adapted to sustain the
weight of the heavy head and its two pairs of massive
horns.
There seems to have been two species of this extra-
ordinary genus. The larger is called by Dr. Falconer
Sivatherium giganteum; the smaller, Sivatherium Peri-
nse.
We only notice further the Galecymis, the genus
of fossil carnivorous Mammalia, also belonging to the
middle Tertiaries, and founded for the reception of a
singular fossil, discovered in a quarry at (Eningen.
When first obtained, and presented to the British
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
85
Museum, it was invested with a haul calcareous incrus-
tation; so that a rude imperfect outline was only visible.
This crust was carefully and skilfully removed by Dr.
Mantell, whose labours developed the skeleton of an
extinct fox-like animal ; differing from the existing
fox in the greater robustness of its limbs, and the
elongation of its feet. Its habits and general charac-
teristics, however, wonld seem to have been identical.
The seas at this period were inhabited by numerous
marine Mammalia, such as whales, dolphins, seals,
walruses, and the lamantins, manati, or sea-cows, whose
existing species are chiefly found near the coasts and
estuaries of the torrid zone. The presence of the
lamantin may be accepted as an additional argument
to that suggested by the tropical character of many
other animals, even of the latest Tertiary strata, in
favour of the opinion, that the climate of Europe main-
tained a high, though probably a gradually decreasing
temperature, eyen to the latest period of the Tertiary
formations.
The accompanying illustration (Plate 8) presents
us with an {deal landscape of the Miocene period ; but
before we can fully realize it in ail its details, we must
glance at the conditions of vegetable life which then
prevailed.
The lover of Shelley will remember, in "Alastor," the
poet's fine description of a tropical forest : —
" One vast mass
Of mingling sliade, whose brawn magnificence
A narrow vale embosoms.
" More dark
And dark the shades accumulate; the oak,
Expanding its immense and knotty arms,
Embraces the light beech,. The pyramid^
Of the tall cedar, overarching, frame
Most solemn domes within ; and far belovy,
Like clouds suspended in an emerald sky,
The ash and the acacia floating hang,
Tremulous and pale, like restless serpents, clothed
In rainbow and in fire. The parasites,
Starr'd with ten thousand blossoms, flow around
The grey trunks; and, as gamesome infants' eyes,
With gentle meanings and most innocent wiles,
Fold their beams round the hearts of those that love,
These twine their tendrils with the wedded houghs
Uniting their close union ; the woven leaves
Make network of the dark blue light of day,
And the night's noontide clearnesSj mutable
AS shapes in the weir(l clouds."
Allowing for the different types of vegetation, we can
recognize that the scene painted so eloquently by the poet
was everywhere visible in the luxuriant woodlands of
the Miocene world. The vegetation which then prevailed
was such as one might expect to. meet in a poet's dream
of Arcadian fairyland, a mixture of the plants which
nowadays flourish only under "hot Afric's sky," such as
palms, and bamboos, and Terminalia, the grand, Legu-
minosse of warm climates (as Phaseolites, Evythrina,
Bauhinia, Mimosites, Acacia), Apocynese analogous to
the genera of our tropical regions, and a Rubiacea
altogether tropical, with the genera now confined to
temperate and even inclement regions, as maples, wal-
nut trees, beeches, elms, oaks, and wych elms.
During the Miocene period also flourished mosses and
mushrooms, evergreens, charas, fig trees, planes, and
poplars.
At this epoch of the world's history the algae and
marine monocotyledons were less abundant than in a
preceding age ; the ferns and the conifers declined in
numbers, and the palms multiplied in species. Some of
those cited before seem still to belong to this period; and
the magnificent Flabellaria, with the noble fhoenicites,
which now appears for the first time, gave animation to
the landscape. Among the conifers, we recognize some
new genera ; especially fodocarpens, a southern form
of vegetation of the present age. Almost all the arbo-
rescent families have their representatives in the Mio-
cene forests, where for the first time the widely different
types are united. The waters are covered with aquatic
plants, Nymphcea Arithnaoe, and Myriophyllites capilli-
folius; Culmites of various species profusely adorn their
banks ; and the great Bambusinites sepultana flings
across the rippling wave the slender shadow of its long
articulated stem. Some analogous species occupy the
margin of the great rivers of the New World.
Arborescent vegetation seems at this epoch to have
attained its highest development. Numerous Smilacites
interlaced, like the wild vines, the trunks of the grand
forest trees, which fell on the ground, decayed and
rotten, where they had previously thriven and waxed
strong. T^ese rich scenes of abundant vegetable
growth, of parasites and epiphytous plants and creep-
ers, are familiar to travellers in tropical regions, where
nature often wears her gayest livery under a curtain of
clouds which the sun is unable to penetrate.
" I have reached a zone," says D'Orbigny, speaking
of Rio Chapura, in South America, " where it rains
regularly all the year round. We can scarcely perceive
the rays of the sup at intervals through the cloudy screen
which almost constantly veils it. This circumstance,
added to the heat, gives an extraordinary development
to. the vegetation. The wild vines droop on all sides in
wreaths and festoons from the topmost branches of
trees whose summits a.re lost in the clouds."
Thus then, we find tropical plants associated with
the vegetables of temperate climates, though they are
not yet the same as existing species. Oaks grow side
by side with palms, the birch in strange companionship
with the bamboo, the laurel vies with the stately elm,
and the maples mingle with the Combretace?e, the Legu-
minosse, and the tropical Rubiaceae. The forms of the
species belonging to temperate regions are, however,
rather American in character than European.
Professor Heer, a German botanist, lias identified
three thousand species as belonging to the Miocene
period. Among these European plants occupy a
secondary rank, while an important position is held by
the evergreen oaks, maples, poplars, and plane trees,
Robinias and Taxodiums of America.
The reader will now appreciate our ideal landscape
of the Miocene period, which in luxuriance resembles a
tropical, and in character a temperate region. In many
respects the vegetation reminds us of that of the Car-
boniferous period. It is, in truth, a continuation of the
characteristics of that period, and from the same cause,
namely, the submersion of land under marshy waters,
which has originated a sort of coal, often found in the
Miocene formation, and known as lignite. This imper-
fect coal differs from that of the Carboniferous, or true
NATURAL H1ST01JY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
coal-measure period, because it is of too recent date,
and because it has not undergone the same pressure of
superincumbent beds and the same force of internal
heat.
The animals represented in our landscape are — the
dinotherium, basking in the rank, marshy grass; the
gigantic mastodon; the rhinoceros; and an ape of great
stature, the DryopitJiecus, swinging from the branches
of a tree. The river winds far away through the leafy
valley, almost arrested in its course, and broken up
into still lakelets and sleepy ponds, by dams and weirs
of aquatic plants ; and against the horizon towers the
huge bulk of a lofty mountain range. The earth is
losing its air of mystery and strangeness, and the land-
scapes are gradually assuming a familiar character. On
every hand we see the signs of a coming change which
shall fit the earth for its lord and master — Man !
The next sub-period, belonging to the upper Ter-
tiaries, has been named by Sir Charles Lyell
THE PLEIOCENE,
or '* more recent," because the organic remains trea-
sured up within its strata number between sixty and
seventy per cent, of living species ; that is, more than we
find in the older Miocene, and less than we find in the
next and last sub-period, the Pleistocene.
In Great Britain the Pleiocene strata are only found
in Suffolk, where they are superimposed on the upper
beds of the London clay. Locally, they are known
as ''crag." Consisting of shelly sand, they have been
advantageously employed in manuring soils which are
deficient in calcareous matter, and they are subdivided
into the red crag and the coralline crag, each with an
average depth or thickness of fifty feet.
The former consists of beds of quartzose sands and
gravel, mixed with shells, generally rolled and com-
minuted into sand, the whole of an ochreous or deep
ferruginous colour. The fossils are chiefly molluscous,
but the bones and teeth of skates, sharks, and other
fish, have been discovered, and the ear-bones of one
or more true whales.
The coralline crag is generally calcareous and marly.
and composed of numerous shells and Polyzoa, sepa-
rated in many places by thin strata of hard limestone,
and coralline masses in the position in which they
formerly lived. It is white in colour, and would
seem to have been deposited in deeper and less dis-
turbed water than the red crag. From the character
of its fossils it may be inferred that the temperature
of the ocean was still high. The calcareous Polyzoa
are abundant and beautiful.
About three hundred and forty-five species of Tes-
tacea have been procured from the coralline, and two
hundred and thirty from the red crag, of which about
one hundred and fifty are common to both. About
seventy per cent, of the newer division, and about
sixty per cent, of the older, are also recent.
The terrestrial animals of the Pleiocene period in-
clude several species remarkable from their proportions
and from their structure. Both the mammals and the
batrachian reptiles are worthy of pur attention.
Among the former we refer, in the first place, to
the Mastodon, which would seem to have very nearly
resembled our present elephant, both in size and form,
except that the body was somewhat longer and the legs
a little thicker. He had tusks, and probably a trunk,
but was characterized by the peculiar structure of his
molar teeth. These are nearly rectangular, and in their
upper surface exhibit a number of great conical tuber-
osities, with rounded points disposed in pairs to the
number of four or five, according to the species. Their
form, says Figuier, is very distinct, and may easily be
recognized. They bear no resemblance to those of the
Carnivora, but are like those of herbivorous animals,
and particularly those of the hippopotamus. The molar
teeth are at first sharp and polished, but the conical
points are worn down by the constant process of
mastication.
The Mastodon first attracted the attention of Euro-
pean men of science towards the middle of the last
century. Some bones had been previously discovered
at Albany, in the United States, but without receiving
much consideration. In 1739 M. de Longneil, while
exploring the immense forests on the river Ohio, in
order to reach the Mississippi, came upon a deposit of
bones, some of which, on his return to France, he pre-
sented to the great naturalists, Daubenton and Buffon :
they consisted of a gigantic femur, one extremity of a
tusk, and three molar teeth. Buffon, after a careful
examination of them, declared them to be the bones of
a primeval quadruped, from six to eight times the size
of our existing elephant. He named it the Animal or
Elephant of the Ohio.
In 1801 were first discovered the remains of the
perfect skeleton ; and at a later period it was ascertained,
from the exhumation of a mass of vegetable matter
in the stomach of the animal, that its habits were
unquestionably herbivorous.
The North American Indians called the Mastodon
" the father of the ox." In one of their most popular
traditional songs occurs the following passage : " When
the great Manitoti descended to the earth in order to
assure himself of the happiness of the beings he had
created, he questioned all the animals upon their wants
and desires. The bison, in his turn, replied that he
should be quite contented with his lot in the grassy
pastures, where the rich herbage reached his belly, if
lie were not compelled to keep his eyes constantly
turned towards the mountains to descry the approach
of the Father of oxen, as he descended with fury to
devour him and his companions."
Among the Chavanais Indians a tradition lingered
that these huge animals lived long ages ago, contem-
poraneously with a race of gigantic men, and that both
were destroyed by the Great Being with his annihilating
thunders. The native Indians of Virginia had a some-
what similar legend. As these huge elephants preyed
pon all the other animals created to supply the wants of
the Indians, God the Thunderer destroyed them, onlv
one succeeding in escaping the terrible bolts. This was
the " great male, which presented its head to the thun-
derbolts, and shook them off as they fell ; but being at
ength wounded in the side, he fled towards the great
Sakes, where he remains concealed unto this day."
From these simple fictions we may, at all events,
nfer that the Mastodon has flourished upon earth at no
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
37
very remote epoch. In truth, it was contemporaneous
with the mammoth, and the latter, if he did not live at
the same time as the earliest human races, preceded
them but by a very brief interval.
It was Cuvier who distinguished the great quadruped
from the living elephant by pointing out its osteological
Mastodon restored.
differences, and appropriately named it the Mastodon,
or teat-like toothed animal, from the Greek fiaaroc,
" a teat," and odovg, " a tooth."
As we have said, its habits were herbivorous. It
doubtlessly lived on the banks of great rivers and on
moist and marshy lands. Besides the Mastodon gigan-
teus there flourished a less formidable species, one-third
smaller than the elephant, which ranged over nearly
all Europe.
At this period (and also in the Miocene) the Apes
make their appearance. In the ossiferous beds of Sau-
sun were discovered the Pithecus antiquus, and the
Dryopithecus. At Pikerni, in Greece, have been found
the entire skeleton of a Mesopithecus, whose general
organization resembled that of the dog-faced baboon,
or mandrill.
The hippopotamus, tapir, and camel of the Pleio-
cene period were not distinguished by any remarkable
characters. The horse, the ox, and the deer resembled
their successors of the same genera in all important
features; the horse, however, did not exceed in size the
ass of the present epoch.
The species of rhinoceros belonging to the upper
Tertiaries is the Rhinoceros tichorhinus, the Latin adjec-
tive referring to the peculiar bony partition which
separated its two nostrils. Its nose was surmounted
with two horns ; its huge body clothed with very thick
hair; while its skin lacked the rough callous scales
which are found on that of the living African species.
The traveller Pallas furnishes a very interesting
account of a Rhinoceros tichorhinus which he saw ex-
humed from the ice, wherein its skin, hair, and flesh
had been preserved. This occurred on the banks of the
Viloui, a Siberian tributary of the Lena, in December,
1771.
'.' The remains appeared to me at first glance," he
said, " to belong to a rhinoceros ; the head especially
was quite recognizable, since it was covered with its
leathery skin, and the skin had
preserved all its external char-
acters, and many short hairs.
The eyelids had even escaped
total decay, and in the cranium
:. here and there, under the skin,
I perceived some matter which
was evidently- the remains of
putrified flesh. I also remarked
in the feet the remains of the
tendons and cartilages where the
skin had been removed. The
head was without its horn, and
the feet were without hoofs.
The place of the horn, and the
raised skin which had sur-
rounded it, and the division
which existed in both the hind
and fore feet, were evident proofs
of its being a rhinoceros. . .
The skin and tendons of the
head and feet still preserved
considerable flexibility, imbued
as it were with moisture from
the ground; but the flesh exhaled
a strong ammoniacal odour.
"The rhinoceros to which the different members
belonged was neither large for its species nor advanced
in age, as the bones of the head attested ; yet it was
evidently an adult, from a comparison made of the size
of the cranium with that of others of the same species
more advanced in age, which were afterwards discovered
in a fossilized condition in divers parts of Siberia. The
entire length of the head, from the upper part of the
nape of the neck to the extremity of the denuded bone
of the jaw, was thirty inches ; the horns were not with
the head, but we could still see evident traces of two,
the nasal and frontal. The front, unequal and a little
protuberant between the orbits, as well as of a rhom-
boidal shape, was deficient in the skin, and only covered
by a light horny membrane, bristling with hard straight
hairs. The skin which clothed the greater portion of
the surface of the head was, in the dried state, a tena-
cious fibrous substance, like curried leather, of a brown-
ish black on the outside and white in the inside— when
burnt, its odour was that of common leather; the mouth,
in the place where the lips should have been soft and
fleshy, was putrid and greatly lacerated; the extremities
of the maxillary bone were bare.
" On the left side, which probably had been longest
exposed to atmospheric action, the skin in some places
was decomposed and rubbed on the surface. Yet, on
the right side, most of the mouth was so well preserved
that the pores or little holes, from which doubtless the
hairs had fallen, were still visible all over that side, and
even in front. In certain places on the right side of
the jaw numerous hairs were still grouped in tufts;
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
most of them were rubbed down to tbe roots, but a
few still retained their full length. They stood erect, are
stiff, and of an ashen colour, but in each bunch were
two or three quite black, and more rigid than the others.
" The most surprising fact, however, was that the skin
which covered the orbits of the eyes, and formed the
eyelids, was so well preserved and so healthy that the
openings of the eyelids could be seen, though deformed
aud scarcely penetrable to the finger ; the skin which
surrounded the orbits, though desiccated, formed cir-
cular furrows. The cavities of the eyes were filled with
matter, either argillaceous or animal, such as still par-
tially filled the cranium. Under the skin the fibres and
tendons still remained, and, above a]l, the remains of the
temporal muscles ; finally, in the throat hung some
great bundles of muscular fibres. The denuded bones
were young, and not so solid as in other fossil crania of
the same species. The extremities of the jaws pre-
served no trace either of teeth or sockets, but were
covered here and there with the remains of the integu-
ment. The first molar was distant about four inches
from the exterior edge of the jaw."
Contemporaneous with these large mammals were
great numbers of reptiles, of which the most remark-
able was the Salamander. The Salamanders of the
present epoch are amphibious Batrachians, with smooth
skins, and rarely attain the length of twenty inches ;
but the Salamander of the upper tertiaries was as large
as a crocodile. When first discovered, and for some
time afterwards, until Cuvier and Camper showed its
true character, it was supposed to be a human victim
of the Deluge, and christened, " homo diluvii testis."
" It is certain," wrote the learned Scheucbzer, in his
"Physica Sacra," "that this schist"- — he referred to the
schistose limestone quarries of (Eningen, in Switzerland
— " contains the half, or nearly the half, of the skeleton
of a man ; that the substance even of the bones, and
what is more, of the flesh and of parts still softer than
the flesh, are there incorporated in the stone r in a word,
it is one of the rarest relics -which we have of that
accursed race which was buried under the waters.
The figure shows us the contour of the frontal bone,
the orbits with the openings which give passage to the
great nerves of the fifth pair. We see there the remains
of the brain, of the sphenoidal bone, of the roots of the
nose, a notable fragment pf the maxillary bone, and
some vestiges of the liver." And our enthusiastic
author exclaims, in bad rhyme and rhythm—
" Botriibtes Beingeriist voi) einem altem Sander
Erweiche, Stein, das Herz der neuen Boskeitskinder-! '•
which has been thus Englished :—
*' Qh deplorable skeleton of an accursed ancient,
May the sinner on beholding thee repent ! "
An examination of any engraving of this ancient
animal will show the reader how utterly fanciful was
the resemblance which Scheuchzer's heated brain pro-
fessed to discover between the Pleiocene fossil and the
human skeleton. Cuvier convincingly exposed the
absurd error, and restored the primeval animal to
its proper place in creation, as an amphibious Batra-
chian of the order Salamander.
Birds were also very numerous during the Pleiocene
perk»d, cheering the solitudes with their songs, and
enlivening them with their brilliant plumage. Among
the most conspicuous genera were eagles, vultures,
gnlls, swallows, pies, parroquets, jungle-fowl, ducks,
and pheasants.
We have now arrived at the last period of the
primeval world, and we find the characters of its
vegetation and the general features of its landscapes, as
may be seen in our illustration (Plate 9), more and
more closely approximating to those which now obtain.
Vast physical changes have taken place in the physical
relations of the globe, corresponding to the mutations
we have described as being effected in the organization
and disposition of animal life. The dinornjs and
palsepteryx, the megathere, the toxodon, and the mylo-
don, the camel, the giraffe, the rhinoceros — these animals
could not have existed on the earth of the Cretaceous
or Oolitic ages; our planet had to. be fitted for their
reception, preparatory to the appearance of humanity
on the wondrous theatre designed by Almighty Power.
In the northern hemisphere, therefore, a cooler tem-
perature prevailed; many of the principal mountain-
chains, the Himalayas, the Alps, the Apennines,
having been elevated into their present position, and
the large inland seas which had occupied the central
plains of Europe, Asia and Africa, having gradually
been transformed into lake, swamp, and dry land.
In th,e Pleiocene period, therefore, though the tem-
perate zones are still adorned by tropical forms of
vegetation, we find them slowly declining before the
influences of a colder climate and the encroachments
pf hardier species. We find everywhere the signs
pf great terrestrial commotions ; the continents now
assume their final configuration ; the great rivers arc-
confined within well-marked channels; and lofty
mountain peaks, crowned with eternal snow, tower far
above the clouds.
Two hundred and twelve species, we are told, com-
pose the rich Pleiocene flora. The huge ferny growth
of the earlier ages is scarcely indicated ; many of the
varieties of Palmapeae have wholly passed away ; and
the forms generally prevailing are absolutely identical
with the species which now embellish our forests,
meadows, and smiling valleys. The Citlmites arundi-
naceus abounds near the water's edge, where also
flourishes the Cyperjtes tertiarius ; on the surface of
the stream floats the Dotamogelon, and beneath it waves
the Isoetes Braunii. Stately conifers still compose the
dense, shadpwy, pathless forests. This noble family
has passed, as we have seen, through every epoch,
every chance and change of the history of the primeval
world, and still enriches the landscape with its graceful
forms and evergreen foliage ; Taxodiles, ThuyoxyJum,
Abietites, Eleozylon, Taxiles, and Pinites, being still
the most abundant forms in our natural forests.
" The predominating character of this period," says
Lewy, "is the prevalence of the group of the Amen-
tace_se. While the Conifers are only thirty-two in num-
ber, we reckon of the other two and fifty species, and
among these many European genera, such as Alnvs ;
Q'tercus, the oak ; Salix, the willow ; Fagus, the beech ;
, the bircb^.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
" The following families constitute the arborescent
flora of the period, in addition to those already men-
tioned : —
Amygdaleae.
Aceraceie.
Anacardiaceae.
Balsaminaceaa.
Calycanthacese.
Oapparidaceae.
C'elastrinaceae.
Ericaceae.
Jnglandacea;.
Leguminoss.
L:mracese.
Magnoliaceae.
Meliacese.
Myrtaceae.
Oleaceoe.
Pinnaceae.
Rosaceae.
Santalaceae.
Sapindacese.
Sapoteaceae.
Styracaceae.
Tiiiacea.
'• In all these families great numbers of European
genera are found, even more subdivided into species
than is now the case. Thus, as Brongniart observes,
we reckon in this flora fourteen species of maple ; three
species of oak ; and these species are found in two or
three very circumscribed localities, that, at the present
time, would probably not represent, in a radius of
several leagues, more than three or four species of
these genera."
Such is the character of the vegetation which the
artist has represented in his ideal landscape. In the
background he shows us a mountain of recent eleva-
tion, to remind us that the epoch was one of frequent
convulsions, that the soil was subjected to violent
changes, and mountains and mountain ranges then
rose above the waters. In the foreground a rhinoceros
rises from the marshes of the river-bank ; an elephant
calmly surveys the scene before him ; a horse gallops
in unrestrained liberty over the grassy plain ; and thirsty
cattle come down to the stream fur refreshment and
repose.
We now arrrive at the
POST-PLEIOCENE PERIOD,
also called the Pleistocene, and sometimes described as
the introductory age of the Quaternary, or, as Sir Charles
Lyell would call it, the Post -tertiary epoch.
The earth in those remote days presented a strange
but animated aspect, which a writer already quoted has
described in graphic terms.
The reader, with the help of fancy, may discern a
panorama of shallow seas swarming with humble forms
of animal life ; islands covered with bushy palms ; banks
on which turtles basked in the sand; vast basins of
fresh or brackish water, in which the tide made itself
felt, and which abounded with various species of sharks;
rivers in which crocodiles increased and multiplied ;
woods which sheltered numerous mammals and some
serpents of large size ; fresh-water lakes which received
the spoils of numerous shells. Dry land has increased
immensely. Groups of ancient isles have united into
continents, with lakes, bays, and perhaps inland seas.
Gigantic elephants, considerably larger than any now
existing, terminate the epoch, and probably usher in the
succeeding one ; for the reader must not suppose, as we
have already hinted, that any absolute barrier existed
between one period and another, or any broad and
unmistakable line of demarcation. But, judging from
their remains, these primeval elephants must have
existed in great numbers. It is said that on the coast
of Norfolk alone, the fishermen, in trawling for oysters,
fished up in thirteen years no less than two thousand
molar teeth of elephants. Considering the slow increase
of these animals, such " quarries of ivory," as Figuier
calls them, must have required many centuries for their
production.
The lakes and rivers were at the same time infested
by the hippopotamus, not less colossal or less formid-
ably armed than the species now inhabiting the African
solitudes; and in the marshes and the marshy plains
roamed the two-horned rhinoceros, and three species
of Bos (or ox), one of which was hairy and bore a mane.
Deer of gigantic size — compared with living species —
bounded across the broad savannahs. There, too, the
reindeer, the goat, the horse, the ass, the bear, and the
roe, enjoyed the delights of unlimited freedom. In tht
rank jungles lurked the tiger, as large as any feline
species now existing. Another animal of the same
race, the Machairodus, was probably the most ferocious
and destructive of Carnivora. A terrible bear, surpass-
ing in size that of the Rocky Mountains, and bands of
wild hyaenas, established themselves in the caverns ; two
species of beavers, and one of apes, now first appeared
in the lists of created life.
Geology records few more interesting incidents than
the discovery of ossiferous deposits of the most varied
character at Kent's Hole, near Torquay, and in the
Kirkdale Cave of Yorkshire. The occurrence in these
deposits of the bones of animals not generally found
together, has been the cause of much speculation. Dr.
Buckland was of opinion that one of the last great
physical events affecting the surface of our globe was a
violent inundation which overwhelmed great part of the
northern hemisphere, and that this event was followed
by the sudden disappearance of a large number of the
species of terrestrial quadrupeds which had inhabited
those regions in the period immediately preceding it.
Recent geologists, however, trace their extinction to the
slow and successive action of local causes, and especially
to a gradual decline of the temperature.
The more interesting of these Post-pleiocene extinct
animals we shall describe. To our hemisphere there
belonged the mammoth (Elephas primigenius) ; the
bear ( Ursus spelceus) ; the gigantic tiger (Felis spelcea) ;
the hyaena (Hyaena spelcea} ; the ox (Bos priscus, and
Bos primigenius} ; the gigantic stag (Cervus megaceros) ;
and the Dinornis and Epiornis among birds.
In America, during this period, existed some colossal
Edentates of remarkable structure :— The Megatherium;
the Megalonyx; the Mylodon.
The Mammoth exceeded in dimensions the largest
of existing elephants, for it measured from sixteen to
eighteen feet in height, and it was distinguished from
living species by the semicircular curvature of its
monstrous tusks, which were from twelve to thirteen
feet long. From its ally, the Mastodon, it was dis-
tinguished by its teeth ; for while those of the latter
were covered with rough tubercles, the mammoth's had
a broad uniform surface, regularly marked with furrows
of large curvature. Its teeth were four in number ;
two in each jaw, when the animal was adult ; its head
was elongated, its forehead concave, its jaws curved
and truncated in front. The whole of its huge bulk
was clothed with long shaggy hair, and along its robust
neck and back waved a thick heavy mane. Its trunk
40
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
resembled that of the Indian elephant ; its body was
cumbrous; its legs shorter than those of the latter
animal, with which in habits, however, it closely cor-
responded.
The fossil bones of the Mammoth have been fre-
quently discovered, and in almost all parts of Europe ;
as, for instance, in Scandinavia, in Ireland, in Germany,
in Central Europe, in Poland, in Central and Southern
i, in Greece, Spain, Italy, and England. They
Mammoth restored.
have also been found in Asia, Africa, and the New
World. But they occur in the greatest abundance in
the regions of northern Europe, where no modern
elephant could possibly exist. " There is not," says
Pallas, " in the whole of Asiatic Eussia, from the Don
to the extremity of the Tchertchian promontory, any
brook or river, especially of those which flow in the
plains, on whose banks some bones of elephants and
other animals foreign to the climate have not been
found. But in the more elevated regions, the primitive
and schistose chains, they are wanting, as are marine
petrifactions. In the lower slopes, and in the great
muddy and sandy plains, above all in places which
are swept by rivers and brooks, they are always met
with, which proves that we should assuredly find them
throughout the whole extent of the country, if we had
the same means of searching for them."
Connected with the discovery of these remains some
extraordinary but well authenticated stories are related :
— In 1799 a Tungusian fisherman observed among the
icebergs, on the shore of the Frozen Sea, near the
mouth of the river Lena, a strangely-shaped block which
he could not understand. The following year he per-
ceived that this block was further detached from the
surrounding mass of ice, but was still unable to divine
its character. Towards the close of the third year one
whole side was exposed to view, and he then discovered
the entire flank and tusks of the Mammoth protruding
from the ice. It was not till the fifth year that, undci
the influence of a remarkably genial spring, the enor-
mous mass became stranded on a sand-bank of the
coast. In the month of March, 1805, the fisherman
removed the tusks.
Two years after this Mr. Adams, of the St. Peters-
burg Academy, travelling in the suite of Count
Golovkin, whom the czar of Russia had despatched on
an embassy to China, obtained information of these
curious incidents, and hastened
to examine the locality. He
found the animal considerably
mutilated. The Yakoutskes
had cut off the flesh, so won-
derfully preserved for thousands
of years, to feed their dogs, and
it had also been mangled by
wild beasts. Nevertheless, the
bkeleton remained nearly intact,
with the exception of one fore-
foot. The spine of the back, a
scapula, the pelvis, and the
remains of the three limbs, were
still connected by the ligaments
and a portion of the skin ; the
missing scapula was found in
the immediate neighbourhood.
A dry skin covered the head ;
one of the ears, well preserved,
was furnished with a tuft of
hair ; you might still distinguish
the balls of the eyes ; the brain,
but dried up, still occupied its
place in the cranium ; the under
lip had been rubbed, and the
upper lip destroyed so as to expose the jaws; a flowing
mane adorned the top of the neck; the skin was
covered with tufts of black hair and reddish wool.
The remains of the animal were so bulky that it was
with difficulty ten persons carried them. Upwards of
thirty pounds weight of hair and wool was recovered
which the white bears had plundered, and, devouring
the flesh, had buried in the moist soil. The animal was
a male; its tusks exceeded nine feet in length, and
the head, without the tusks, weighed upwards of four
hundredweight.
Figuier remarks that it is very strange that the
East Indies, one of the only two regions now inhabited
by the elephant, should be the sole country where the
fossil bones of the Mammoth have not been discovered.
It is evident, from the data gathered by geologists, that
during the Post-tertiary epoch this colossal quadruped
inhabited every country of the globe. But the only
climates now suitable to the race of elephants are those
of Africa and India, in other words, tropical climates :
hence we must infer that at the epoch of the Mammoth
and the Mastodon, the temperature of the earth was
considerably higher than now obtains, or else that
these extinct animals were adapted for inhabiting a
colder region than their successors can now endure.
One of the most formidable of the antediluvian
Carnivora seems to have been the Ursiis spelccus, or
Cave Bear.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
This species was probably a fourth larger than the
existing brown bear, and was also of a more cumbrous
and ungainly shape. The skeletons found average nine
or ten feet in length, and not above six feet in height.
The Cave Bear abounded in England, Belgium, Vienna,
and Germany.
The Felis spelceus, or Cave Tiger, was twice the size
of its modern successor, and, in fact, partook of the
characters of both tiger and lion. Its body exceeded
in bulk and strength that of the largest bull, while
measuring upwards of four yards in length.
The Hycena spelcea, or Cave Hysena, closely
resembles, not only in size, but in habits, the existing
spotted hysena of the East. The fossil remains of
about three hundred individuals were discovered in the
Kirkdale cave, together with the bones of the animals
they had devoured.
The Horse dates from the Quaternary epoch, says
Figuier, if not from the last period of the Tertiary epoch.
Its remains are found in the same rocks with those of
the Mammoth and the Rhinoceros. It is distinguished
from our existing horse only by its size, which was
smaller: its memorials abound in the Post-pleiocene
strata, not only in Europe but in America ; so that an
aboriginal horse existed in the New World long before
it was carried thither by the Spaniards, although it was
unknown at the date of their arrival.
The Post-pleiocene oxen very nearly approximated to
present species. Three varieties have been recognized :
the Bos priscus, Bos primigenius, and Bos Pallasii.
The first had slender legs ; its broad forehead was high
and convex, and except that it was taller, and had
larger legs, it differed but little from the Aurochs. Our
domestic oxen, according to Cuvier, spring from the
Bos primigenius. The Bos Pallasii, found in America
and Siberia, resembled, in many important respects, the
Canadian Musk-ox.
Of the Deer it may safely be affirmed, that it is very
difficult to distinguish the fossil remains from those of
existing species. The only exception is in the case of
the gigantic forest stag, Cervus megaceros, frequently
called the "Irish Elk." Its remains are frequently
found in Ireland, and more rarely in Germany, Poland,
Italy, and France. Intermediate between the stag and
the elk, the Cervus megaceros approached the latter in
the shape of its cranium and its general proportions ;
the former in its size, and the arrangement of its horns.
These were between nine and ten feet long, and so
divergent that the space from one extremity to the
other measured ten to twelve feet.
Its skeleton is exhumed from the deposits of calcareous
tufa which underlie the immense peat moss of Ireland,
I and nearly always in the same attitude, as if suddenly
I overtaken by the crash of doom: its head is raised
| aloft, its neck stretched out, its horns reversed and
sloped downwards towards the back, as if the animal,
sinking all unexpectedly in marshy ground, had lifted
itself in a vain attempt to-drink in the respirable air.
We come now to the most curious and wonderful
creatures of the Quaternary period, the colossal Eden-
tates, by which it was peculiary distinguished — the
gigantic Megatherium, the Glyptodou, the Mylodon,
and the Megalonyx.
The prominent characteristic of the Edentates* is the
absence of teeth in the fore part of the mouth. Their
masticatory apparatus is confined only to molars, the
canines and incisors being, with a few exceptions,
altogether absent. Consequently the animals of this
order feed principally upon insects, or on fruits, grass,
and the young leaves of plants. The Armadillo, Ant-
eater, and Pangolin are living examples of the order,
which, as its members are further characterized by
possessing largely-developed claws at the extremities of
the toes, may be considered a connecting link between
the hoofed mammals and the ungulated animals, or
those armed with claws.
Among the Edentata of the Post-pleiocene period
the foremost place must unquestionably be given to the
Megatherium, an animal of the most extraordinary
and fantastic character, nearly allied to the Sloth in
some parts of its organization, and, like the Sloth,
exhibiting an apparently monstrous and anomalous
external form, accompanied internally by many pecu-
liarities of conformation.
It has been a common error to depict the Sloth
as one of the most imperfectly constructed of all
the members of the animal kingdom, doomed to a
life of misery, and utterly incapable of enjoyment.
But the seemingly anomalous conditions on which
the earlier naturalists so unwisely insisted are not only
not deficiencies, or sources of pain or discomfort to the
animal, but, on the contrary, are striking illustrations
of the varied contrivances by which the great Maker
adapts each of his creatures to the work it is intended
to execute, and the particular circumstances under which
it is designed to live.
" The peculiarities of the Sloth," says Dr. Buckland,
" that render its movements so awkward on the earth,
are fitted with much advantage to its destined office of
living entirely upon trees, and feeding upon their leaves;
so also, if we consider the Megatherium with a view to
its province of digging and feeding upon roots, we shall,
in this habit, discover the explanation of its unusual
structure and apparently incongruous proportions, and
find in every organ a relation of obvious convenience,
and of adaptation to the office it had to discharge.
" At first sight this gigantic quadruped appears not
only ill-proportioned as a whole, but endowed with
the clumsiest and most incongruous members. Here
we have a truly colossal animal, exceeding the largest
rhinoceros in bulk, and to which the living species
most closely approximative are the Sloth, the Armadillo,
and the Chlamyphorus ; the former adapted to an
arboreal life ; the two latter constructed to burrow in
the sand in quest of food and shelter ; and all limited
in their geographical distribution nearly to the same
regions of America that were once the habitat of the
Megatherium.
" But let us examine with some degree of attention
the more important organs of this seemingly monstrous
creature, and we shall see how admirably they are
fitted for the peculiar work they were called upon to
perform. The bones of the head most nearly resemble
those of a Sloth. The long broad bone descending
to the cheek from the zygomatic arch, however, is
From the Latin e, without, and dens, a 'tooth.
42
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
a peculiarity connecting the Megatherium with the
Ai ; this extraordinary bone assisted a powerful set of
muscles in giving motion to the lower jaw. The
anterior part of the muzzle," according to Dr. Buck-
land, of whose admirable description we are largely
availing ourselves, "is so strong and substantial, and
so perforated with holes for the passage of nerves and
vessels, that we may be assured it supported some
Megatherium restored.
organ of considerable size. As a long trunk was not
needed by an animal with so long a neck, this organ
was probably a snout, something like that of the tapir,
of sufficient length to gather up roots from the ground.
The partition of the nostrils being also strong and bony,
furnishes an additional argument for the presence of
a powerful organ appended to the nose ; an apparatus
which would have sufficiently compensated for the
absence of incisor teeth and tusks. Having no incisors,
the Megatherium could not have lived upon grass, while
the structure of its molar teeth proves that it was not
carnivorous.
"The" composition of a single molar tooth resem-
bles that of one of the many denticules that are united
in the compound molar of the elephant; and affords
an excellent exemplification of the method employed
by Nature, whereby three substances of unequal density,
viz., ivory, enamel, and ci~usta petrosa, or ccementum,
are united in the construction of the teeth of gramini-
vorous animals The teeth are about seven inches
long, and nearly of a prismatic form. The grinding
surfaces exhibit a peculiar and beautiful contrivance
for maintaining ten cutting, wedge-shaped, salient edges
in good working condition during the whole existence
of the tooth ; being, as before stated, a modification
of the contrivance employed in the molars of the
elephant and other Herbivora. The same principle is
applied by tool-makers for the purpose of maintaining
a sharp edge in axes, scythes, bill-hooks. An axe, or
bill-hook, is not made entirely of steel, but of one thin
steel plate, inserted between two plates of softer iron,
and so inclosed that the steel projects beyond the
iron, along the entire line of the cutting edge of the
instrument. A double advantage results from this
contrivance ; first, the instru-
ment is less liable to fracture
than if it were entirely made
of the more brittle material of
steel, and secondly, the cutting
edge is more easily kept sharp
by grinding down a portion of
exterior soft iron, than if the
entire mass were of hard steel.
By a similar contrivance, two
cutting edges are produced on
the crown of the molar teeth
of the Megatherium."
Thus the process of mastica-
tion formed and maintained in
order a series of wedges, locking
into each other like the alter-
nate ridges on the rollers of a
crushing-mill; and the mouth
of the Megatherium was con-
verted, in effect, into an engine
of prodigious power, in which
the grinding surfaces of sixteen
molar teeth composed double
that number of wedges; each
tooth was from seven to nine
inches long, and for the greater
part of its length was firmly
embedded in a very deep socket.
As the surfaces of these teeth would necessarily
wear away with great rapidity, the loss incessantly
occurring at the crown was constantly supplied by the
addition of new matter at the root, which, for this pur-
pose, remained hollow, and filled with pulp throughout
the animal's life. Thus, this exquisite mechanical
apparatus maintained itself in perfect order by the very
act of performing its own work.
In proportion to the rest of the head the lower
jaw is exceedingly large and weighty, having been so
constructed for the purpose of affording deep sockets
for the solid fixture and incessant growth of the long
vertical molar teeth. And as it became necessary to
provide a support for a jaw of this unusual bulk, the
"process" descending from the so-called zygomatic
arch in the Megatherium, as in all the sloths, is
fashioned with unusual strength and rigidity.
The vertebrae of the neck, compared with those
towards the opposite extremity of the body, are really
small, but yet of sufficient size for the movements of
a head which is of no excessive weight, and without
tusks. The dorsal portion of the vertebral column is
of moderate size, but the vertebrae of the loins enlarge,
so as to correspond with the huge pelvis and colossal
hind-legs. The summits of the spiuous processes are
flattened like those in the armadillo.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
Dr. Buckland points out that the sacral bone is
united to the pelvis in a very singular manner, evi-
dently with the object of securing the greatest possible
amount of strength, while its processes indicate that
the muscles regulating the movement of the tail were
of great power.
The tail was long, and composed of vertebrae of
enormous magnitude ; the body of the largest measur-
ing not less than seven inches in diameter, while the
distance horizontally between the extremities of the
two transverse processes was twenty inches. Include
the thickness of the muscles and tendons, and of the
shelly integument, and you cannot estimate the dia-
meter of the tail at its root at less than two feet ;
while its circumference, supposing it to be nearly cir-
cular, like the tail of the armadillo, would be about
six feet, or twice the size of a well-grown man. These
vast dimensions, observes our authority, are not larger,
in proportion to the adjacent parts of the body, than
those of the armadillo ; and as this animal makes use
of its tail as an auxiliary in supporting the weight of
its body and armour, we may reasonably infer that the
Megatherium employed its huge caudal extremity in a
similar manner.* The large inferior spines, or addi-
tional chevron bones, attached to the caudal vertebrae,
by increasing the strength of the tail, would render
it more useful in this important rest. But the tail
was also probably employed as a powerful defensive
weapon, like that of the crocodiles and pangolins.
The ribs of the Megatherium are at once thicker,
shorter, and more substantial than those of the rhino-
ceros or elephant; and in some of them the convex
tipper surfaces exhibit a rugose and flattened condi-
tion, showing the points where the weight of the bony
cuirass chiefly rested.
The scapula, or shoulder-bone, is unlike that of any
other family, except the Sloth, and displays in the
acromioii " contrivances for strength, peculiar to itself
and them, in its mode of articulation with the collar-
bone ; it also exhibits unusual provisions for the support
of the most powerful muscles for the movement of
the arm."
The clavicle, or collar-bone, is strong, and incur-
vated nearly as in man. From the presence of this
bone, which is wanting in the elephant, the rhinoceros,
and all the large Kuminantia, we conclude that the
fore-leg fulfilled some other function than that of a
mere locomotive organ. This clavicle would afford a
steady and permanent position to the socket, or glenoid
cavity of the scapula, and so permit the animal's fore-
leg, like the human arm, to move freely in a rotatory
manner.
In these circumstances we find, says Dr. Buckland,
whose admirable description of the Megatherium we
have closely followed— 1st, That a free rotatory power
of the fore-leg was auxiliary to its office as an instru-
ment to be continually employed in digging food out
of the ground ; 2nd, That this act of perpetual digging
in search of stationary objects like roots, needed but
* The elephant's tail is remarkably light and slender, being
chiefly used to brush off insects ; that of the hippopotamus,
being intended to act like a rudder when the animal is swim-
ming, is only a few inches long, and vertically flattened.
little locomotive power ; and 3rd, That the compara-
tively slight support rendered to the weight of the
huge armour-plated body by the fore-leg, was abun-
dantly compensated by the extraordinary, the almost
gigantic strength, of the haunches and hind legs.
In the elephant the excessive weight of the animal's
head, proboscis, and tusks require a short, thick neck,
and a proportionate development and solidity in the
fore-legs, which are consequently built up, so to speak,
on a stronger and bolder scale than the posterior ex-
tremities ; but with the Megatherium we find the relative
proportions reversed : a small head is accompanied by
a long neck, and the anterior portions of its body are
but slightly weighted in comparison with its abdominal
and posterior regions. So exquisite is the foresight,
so ingenious the contrivance, which we discover mani-
fested in the smallest details of animal organization !
Every want is met as it arises; nowhere does any
slovenliness or rudeness prevail, but an abundant pro-
vision is made for the comfort, well-being, and com-
pleteness of every creature.
To secure strength and facilitate motion for the fore-
legs of the Megatherium there exists, then, a peculiar
adaptation of the shoulder-blade and collar-bone. But
this strength is not merely intended to sustain the
weight of the body, nor is this motion designed to be
progressive. The humerus articulates with the scapula
by a round head, which admits of unrestrained motion
in various directions. It is small at its upper and
middle part, but at its lower end attains extraordinary
breadth, owing to an enormous expansion of the crests
which rise from the condyles, to give origin to the
muscles for the movement of the fore-foot and toes :
just such an expansion, we must observe, as is found
in the lower part of the humerus of the ant-eater,
which employs its fore-feet in digging up the solid
hills of the termite ants. The ulna is singularly broad
and powerful at its upper extremity, affording a large
space for the origin of the muscles which regulate the
movement of the foot.
The entire fore-foot must have been about thirty-
six inches long and upwards of twelve inches wide,
forming a most efficient instrument for moving the
earth from that depth within which succulent roots
are generally most plentiful. This great length of the
fore-foot, when resting upon the ground, however
inconsistent with rapid progressive motion, must have
been of the highest value in enabling one fore-leg, in
conjunction with the hind-legs and tail, to support the
whole pressure of the Megatherium's body, w'hile the
other fore-leg was exclusively employed in the operation
of digging up food.
The fore-foot of the armadillo (Dasypus peba), and
of the Chlamyphorus, is similarly adapted for digging
purposes ; and in each may be observed an unusual
enlargement and elongation of the extreme bones of
the toes for the support of long massive claws. Such,
too, was the case with the Megatherium ; the bones
supporting the claws were composed partly of an axis,
or pointed core, which filled the internal cavity of the
horny claw, and partly of a bony sheath forming a
strong case to receive and support its root. These
claws were placed obliquely to the ground, like the
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
digging claws of the mole, and thus were rendered by
their very position instruments of greater power for
the excavation of the soil.
We must now glance at the posterior extremities
of this huge primeval sloth— one of the most interest-
ing animals of the antediluvian world. The pelvis
was remarkably expansive and solid. The enormous
bones of the ilium were set nearly at right angles to
the spine of the back, and were more than five feet
asunder at their outer margin, thus considerably
exceeding the dimensions across the haunches of the
largest elephant. Such proportions would have been
highly inconvenient for any animal of ordinary stature,
but were probably — we may rather say unquestionably
— advantageous to the Megatherium, from its habit of
standing for considerable periods on three legs only,
while the fourth leg was employed as a digging instru-
ment, or in loosening the roots and overturning the
trees on whose foliage it browsed.
But not only was the pelvis distinguished by its
breadth and weight ; it was also characterized by an
unusual arrangement of the acetabulum, or socket,
which articulates with the head of the thigh-bones.
While in other animals we find this cavity set more or
less obliquely outwards, so as to facilitate the movement
of the hind leg, in the Megatherium it was set perpen-
dicularly downwards, over the head of the thigh-bone
(femur'), and unusually near the spine. Thus it obtained
increased power of resisting vertical pressure, though
its capacity of rapid motion was diminished.
As another illustration of the enormous size and
power of the muscles of its thigh and leg, we may men-
tion the fact that the cavity in the sacrum for the
passage of the spinal marrow must have been fully an
inch in circumference.
The gigantic breadth of the pelvis — and the adjective
employed is not an exaggeration — is evidence of the
extreme size of the abdominal cavity, of the volumi-
nousness of the viscera, and consequent adaptation to
the digestion of vegetable food.
Nor were the form and proportions of the thigh-bone
less remarkable. It was nearly three times the thick-
ness of the femur of the largest elephant. Its breadth
is nearly half its entire length, and a neck of singular
strength and shortness, but twenty-two inches in cir-
cumference, united its head to the body of the bone.
Its length is two feet four inches ; its circumference at
the smallest part two feet two inches, and at the largest
part three feet two inches. Its body is also flattened,
and, owing to this flatness, expanded outwards " to a
degree of which nature presents no other example. "
These peculiarities, remarks Dr. Buckland, appear to be
subservient to a double purpose; 'first, to give extra-
ordinary strength by the shortness and solidity of all
its proportions, and secondly, to afford compensation
by its external flatness for the weakness which must
otherwise have resulted from the inward position of
these sockets, by which the femur articulates with the
pelvis.
Not less ingeniously was contrived the articulation of
the leg with the hind foot, so as to support the enor-
mous downward pressure of the bulky body. The great
bone of the instep was nine inches broad and nine inches
high, and rested upon a heel-bone of the extraordinary
length of seventeen, and the not less extraordinary
circumference of twenty-eight inches.
It will readily be understood how solid a support
must have been afforded by this colossal bone to that
continuous accumulation of weight which we have
observed in the pelvis, thigh, and leg. The heel-bone,
iu fact, occupied nearly one-half of the entire length of
the hind foot. The bones of the toes were all short,
excepting the extreme joint, which supported the enor-
mous claw ; but they were longer than the largest of
those in the fore-foot, measuring thirteen inches in cir-
cumference, and having within its sheath a core, two
inches long, for the support of the claw already men-
tioned, whose chief use perhaps was to keep the hind
foot firmly planted upon the ground.
" Feet and legs thus heavily constructed," says Dr.
Buckland, " must have been very inefficient organs of
rapid locomotion, and may consequently seem imper-
fect, if considered in relation to the ordinary functions of
other quadrupeds ; but, viewed as instruments adapted
for supporting an almost stationary creature, of unusual
weight, they claim our admiration equally with every
other piece of animal mechanism, when its end and uses
are understood. The perfection of any instrument can
only be appreciated by looking to the work it is intended
to perform. The hammer and anvil of an anchor-smith,
though massive, are neither clumsy nor imperfect ; but
bear the same proportionate relation to the work in
which they are employed as the light and fine tools of
the watchmaker bear to the more delicate wheels of his
chronometer."
Our final view of the structure of the Megatherium
will be devoted to its bony armour, the characteristic
in which it approaches most nearly to the Armadillo
and Chlatnyphorus. There is reason to belie've that its
hide was covered with a complete coat of osseous mail,
which varied from three-fourths of an inch to an inch
and a half in thickness, and resembled the mailed
coverings of those living denizens of tropical America.
And notwithstanding the great weight of so remarkable
"a suit of armour," we cannot pronounce it inconsistent
with the general structure of the animal. The huge
hind legs and colossal tail of the Megatherium were well
able to sustain it ; and the strength of the loins and ribs,
greatly exceeding that of the elephant, seems to have
been designed for carrying the ponderous cuirass which
protected its body.
But what was the use of this cuirass? What purpose
did it serve? It was probably defensive, protecting
the animal, not only against the tusks and claws of
the voracious quadrupeds which then existed, but also
against the legions of insects engendered by a close and
sultry climate, to whose attacks an animal that obtained
its food by digging beneath a burning sun would be
constantly exposed. We may also infer that it was of
advantage in defending the back and upper parts of the
body, not only against sun, and rain, and insects, but
against the accumulations of sand and dust that would
otherwise have maintained a constant state of irritability,
and resulted iu prolonged disease.
Similar uses seem 'to be served by the bony covering
of the Armadillo and Chlamyphorus, which obtain their
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
45
food, like the Megatherium, by digging in sandy and
sun-scorched plains.
We close our description of the Megatherium in the
words of the eminent geologist already quoted : —
" The size of this extraordinary animal exceeds that
of the existing Edentata, to which it is most nearly
allied, in a greater degree than any other fossil animal
exceeds its nearest living congeners. With the head
and shoulders of a sloth, it combined in its legs and
feet an admixture of the characters of the Ant-eater,
the Armadillo, and the Chlamyphorus ; it probably also
still further resembled the Armadillo and Chlamyphorus
in being cased with a bony coat of armour.
' ' Its haunches were more than five feet wide, and its
body twelve feet long and eight feet high ; its feet were
a yard in length, and terminated by most gigantic claws:
its tail was probably clad in armour, and much larger
than the tail of any other beast among extinct or living
terrestrial mammalia. Thus heavily constructed and
ponderously accoutred, it could neither run, nor leap,
nor climb, nor burrow under the ground, and in all its
movements must have been necessarily slow ; but what
need of rapid locomotion to an animal whose occupation
of digging roots for food was almost stationary? and
what need of speed for flight from foes to a creature
whose giant carcass was encased in an impenetrable
cuirass, and who by a single pat of his paw, or lash of
his tail, could in an instant have demolished the couguar
or the crocodile ? Secure within the panoply of his
bony armour, where was the enemy that would dare
encounter this leviathan of the Pampas ? Or in what
more powerful creature can we find the cause that has
effected the extirpation of his race?
" His entire frame was an apparatus of colossal
mechanism adapted exactly to the work it had to do ;
strong and ponderous in proportion as this work was
heavy, and calculated to be the vehicle of life and
enjoyment to a gigantic race of quadrupeds, which,
though they have ceased to be counted among the living
inhabitants of our planet, have, in their fossil bones,
left behind them imperishable monuments of the con-
summate skill with which they were constructed ; each
limb, and fragment of a limb, forming co-ordinate parts
of a well-adjusted and perfect whole ; and through all
their deviations from the form and proportion of the
limbs of other quadrupeds, affording fresh proofs of
the infinitely varied and inexhaustible contrivances of
creative wisdom."
These are considerations which should never be for-
gotten by the student of natural history.
The family Megaiheriidce of Professor Owen includes
several allied genera of huge Edentata, as the Megalonyx,
the Mylodon, and the Scelidotherium, which are chiefly
distinguished from the Megatherium by dental peculi-
arities. Their fossil remains have all been discovered
in the superficial stratum of the Pampas of South
America.
The Mylodon (i.e., Grinder-teeth) was an animal
of gigantic sizo, with a short massive neck and a bulky
body, like that of the rhinoceros, but in habit and gen-
eral structure resembling the Megatherium. It had
eighteen teeth— five on each side in the upper, and four
in the lower jaw ; they were long, simple, fangles?,
uniform in substance, and nearly straight, with the
exception of the first tooth in the upper jaw, which
was slightly curved. From the conformation of its
jaws, and its dental characteristics, this animal is sup-
posed to have fed, like the elephant or the sloth, on
the leaves or slender terminal twigs of trees, which its
immense strength and the arrangement of its lower
limbs enabled it to uproot and level to the ground.
"They may be supposed,0 says Professor Owen, "to
have commenced the process of prostrating any parti-
Mylodon robustus.
cular tree by scratching away the soil from the roots,
for which office we find in the Mylodon the modern
scansorial fore-feet of the sloth, modified after the type
of that of the partially fossorial ant-eater. The com-
pressed or subcompressed form of the claws which
detracts from their power as burrowing instruments,
adds to their fitness for penetrating the interspaces of
roots, and for exposing and liberating them from the
attached soil. This operation having been duly effected
by the alternate action of the fore-foot, aided probably
by the unguiculate digits of the hind feet, the long and
curved fore-claws, which are habitually flexed and
fettered in the movements of extension, would next
be applied to the opposite sides of the loosened trunk
of the tree, and now the Mylodon would derive the
full advantage of these modifications of its fore-feet by
which it resembles the Bradypus ; the correspondence
in the structure of the prehensile instruments of the
existing and extinct sloth, extending as far as was
compatible with the different degrees of resistance to
be overcome."
In the small climbing sloth the claws are long and
slender, for they have only to sustain the weight of its
little body, which is approximated by the action of the
muscles towards the grasped branch, as to a fixed point.
The stouter proportions of the prehensile hooks of the
Mylodon accord with the harder task of overcomi
the
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
resistance of the part seized, and bringing it down to the
body.
For the long and slender branchial and anti-branchial
bones of the climbing sloth we find substituted in its
gigantic predecessor a humerus, radius, and ulna of
more robust proportions ; of such proportions, indeed,
in the Mylodon robustus, as are unequalled in any other
known existing or extinct animal.
The tree being thus partly undermined and firmly
grappled with, the muscles of the trunk, the pelvis, and
the hind limbs, animated by the nervous influence of
the unusually large spinal chord, would combine their
forces with those of the anterior members in the efforts
at prostration.
"And now," says Professor Owen, "let us picture
to ourselves the massive frame of the Megatherium,
convulsed with the mighty wrestling, every vibrating
fibre reacting upon its bony attachment with a force
which the sharp and strong crests and apophyses loudly
bespeak. Extraordinary must have been the strength
and proportions of that tree, which, rocked to and fro,
to right and left, in such an embrace, could long with-
stand the incessantly repeated efforts of its ponderous
A complete skeleton of the Mylodon was discovered
at Buenos Ayres. It measured eleven feet from the
fore-part of the skull to the end of the tail. It probably
belonged to a young individual.
Our survey of the animal life of the Pleistocene
period next brings us to the Glyptodon, another of the
South American quadrupeds, covered, like the modern
armadilloes, with a stout, tesselated, bony armour. In
size it equalled the largest rhinoceros. It was, in fact,
a colossal or magnified armadillo, which it resembled
in its habits, food, and principal structural peculiarities.
"Otherwise its armour," as a writer has pithily observed,
'•' would cover more than a score of armadilloes."
It is obvious, however, putting aside the question of
bulk, that the marked peculiarity of the Pleistocene
period is the approximation of its forms of animal life
to those of the present age. The megathere is the
natural forerunner of the sloth ; the glyptodon of the
armadillo ; the mammoth of the existing elephant ; the
macrauchenia of the modem llama; and the mery-
cothere of the camel.
In the Eocene stage of the Quaternary epoch we find
the fauna of Europe characterized by its palseotheres,
anoplotheres, xiphodons, river-hogs, alligators, croco-
diles, gavials, and turtles ; in the Pleiocene sub-period
these decline, or become extinct, and their places are
occupied by mastodons, mammoths, deinotheres, camels,
giraffes, cave-bears, lions, and hyaenas. We come still
pearer to what we may call the modern world, and in
the Miocene period distinguish, as the principal forms
of quadrupedal life, mammoths, hippopotami, rhino-
ceroses, antelopes, wild oxen, tigers, bears, and horses.
A similar gradation is noticeable in Asia, where the
middle sub-period was characterized by numerous spe-
cies of si vatheres, elephants, camels, lions, tigers, giraffes,
crocodiles, and huge tortoises ; the upper period, by the
horse, ass, urus, rhinoceros, and mammoth. The
forms of North America are so like those of Europe as to
suggest the existence of a closer communication between
the two continents in those days than now obtains.
In South America we ascend by a succession of similar
stages to the megathere, the scelidothere, the megal-
onyx, the mylodon, the glyptodon, and the macrauchene.
The remarkable Marsupials of Australia were similarly
anticipated by the gigantic Diprotodon ; the wingless
birds of New Zealand by the Palsepteryx and the
Dinornis ; and the African ostrich by the huge Epiornis
of Madagascar.
We shall close our sketches of the natural history
of the primeval world with a glance at the last-named
forms of animal life — the wingless birds.
The Dinornis* is a genus of large birds of the tribe
Brevipennes. No species of it is now known to exist.
Uinorni;, aud
but its bones have been discovered in the upper Pk-io-
cene deposits in New Zealand — in caves, in marshes,
in beds of rivers, and on the sandy shore. From
certain traditions still current among the natives this
bird would seem to have survived, along with its con-
geners the PalsQpteryx and Aptornis, to the close of the
seventeenth or beginning of the eighteenth century.
Its New Zealand name is Moa. It is said to have
baen hunted for the sake of its flesh and the beautiful
feathers of its plumage. It was a stupid, lethargic
bird, incapable of flight, and living upon vegetable food
in the sequestered depths of the forests, or on the
topmost crags of the mountains. In size it greatly
exceeded any living bird, some of its bones being
double the dimensions of those of the ostrich, while
the body was even disproportionately bulkier. The
legs were long, and the Dinornis probably stood
* From ouicf. terrible ; ?nd r /nit , a bird.
NATURAL HISTORY OF THE. PRIMEVAL WORLD.
47
thirteen or fourteen feet in height. The framework
of the leg is of a singularly massive character, and the
entire skeleton is remarkable for its solidity.
It was from the examination of a single bone of this
strange bird that Professor Owen, in 1839, before any
complete remains had been discovered, built up con-
jecturally its entire structure, determined its most
important characters, and assigned to it its true place
in the scheme of nature — an interesting proof of the
value of comparative anatomy, and a strong testimony
to the degree of perfection which that science has
attained.
Several species have been distinguished, as — Dln-
ornis elephantopus, Dinornis ingens, and Dinwnis
giganteus.
The Palcepteryx, or ancient Apteryx, is another
genus of fossil birds whose remains have been dis-
covered in the Pleiocene deposits of New Zealand. In
the form of the sternum, and the structure of the legs
and pelvis, it resembled the living Apteryx, a bird not
unlike the penguin, about two feet in height, with
merely rudimentary wings, and a very long, slender
bill. The New Zealanders, in allusion to its peculiar
cry, call it Kiu;i-lla-i,
The Epiornis, a bird much larger than the ostrich,
but of the same character, would seem to have been
at one time indigenous to Madagascar, probably when
that island was a portion of a vast eastern continent,
long ago submerged. The eggs of this bird may
possibly have suggested the fable of the roc's egg
in the story of " Siubad the Sailor ;" for, from speci-
mens brought to Europe, it is evident they were
capacious enough to hold the contents of two hundred
and forty hen's eggs of the ordinary size.
The Quaternary epoch is that which geologists con-
sider to have immediately preceded the great deluges.
Sir Charles Lyell and some other men of scientific
reputation prefer to call it the Post-Tertiary epoch, and
they subdivide it into — •
1. The Posf -Pleiocene period;
2. The Recent, or Upper Post-Pleiocene.
Whichever division or designation we adopt, it
seems certain that after the Pleioceue period and before
the creation of man intervened two remarkable periods;
that of the European deluges, and that which is known
as the Glacial.
The Pleiocene period gradually declined in tempera-
ture, until a climatic condition prevailed utterly incom-
patible with the existence of the former fauna and
flora. The animals and plants which succeeded
belonged to genera capable of enduring a low tempera-
ture, and finding subsistence on a frozen earth.
Thus, in the accompanying illustration (Plate 10),
we find the bear seated at the mouth of its den or
cave, and gnawing the bones of the elephant. On the
high ground above the Hyaena spelsea watches with
savage eye the moment when it may pounce on the
food thrown aside by its formidable rival. The great
wood-stag, and other semi-gigantic animals of the
epoch, stalk along the farthest shore of a narrow lake,
where some small hills emerge from the valley, clothed
with pine and fir and other hardy trees. Mountains of
recent elevation lift their huge bulk against the horizon,
wrapped in a shroud of frozen snow, to remind us that
the Glacial period is approaching, and that its influence
is already making itself felt.
The most abundant fossil remains belonging to the
Post-Pleiocene are those of the elephant and the horse.
The extreme profusion of the bones of the mammoth,
embedded in the latest deposits of the globe, is only
surpassed, we are told, by the prodigious quantity of the
bones of the horse, which lie buried in the same forma-
tions. The extraordinary plenty of the remains of
these two animals is a satisfactory proof that, during
the Quaternary epoch, the earth was inhabited by these
in immense herds. "It is probable that from one pole
to the other, from the equator to the two extremities
of the axis of the globe, the earth must have formed a
vast and almost limitless prairie, overspread by a mag-
nificent carpet of verdure. So abundant a pasturage
would be absolutely needful for the support of these
prodigious troops of herbivorous animals of great size."
In the Western hemisphere we may conjecture that a
more genial temperature prevailed than in the Eastern.
Over its verdant plains, and under a warm and sunny
sky, roamed gigantic pachyderms, colossal in propor-
tions, but of harmless and gentle disposition. Some-
times they would seek the shade of the primeval forest,
and among the tall trees, festooned with parasites and
creepers, would be gathered, perhaps, such a group as
our artist has depicted in the accompanying illustration
(Plate 11). Here we see the Glyptodon crawling to
the water's edge, the huge Megatherium bringing down
a tree that it may feed on its tender shoots and succu-
lent buds, the elephant meditating in the cool shades ;
while, undaunted by the immediate neighbourhood of
the gigantic Mastodon, a couple of monkeys are dis-
porting themselves among the herbage. A small ape,
the Cercopithecus, which first made its appearance in
the Miocene period, is climbing a pliant stem with
wonderful agility. The vegetation is identical with
that which flourishes in tropical America at the present
time.
In upon all this abundant life broke — so far, at least,
as the Old Continent was concerned— a succession of
terrible and destructive deluges, produced, perhaps, by
the sudden upheaval of some vast extent of dry land,
by the formation of some mountain or mountain-range
in the vicinity of the sea, or by the elevation of some
portion of the sea-bed itself. These commotions would
necessarily pour a vast body of water over the earth,
with extraordinary violence; inundating the plains,
filling up the valleys, sweeping away the grove, the
wood, and the forest, and spreading everywhere ruin
and destruction. A recent writer observes that of two
such deluges in one hemisphere there is indisputable
evidence, and he names them the European and the
Asiatic. The former occurred before, and the latter
after, man's creation. The former consisted in fact of
two cataclysms; of which the first occurred in the north
of Europe, through the upheaval of the Scandinavian
mountains. "Commencing," he says, "in Scandinavia,
the torrent spread and carried its ravages into the regions
now known as Sweden, Norway, European Russia, and
Northern Germany, sweeping before it all the shifting
soil on the surface, and covering the whole of Scandi-
NATURAL HISTORY J3F THE PRIMEVAL WORLD.
navia, all the plains and valleys of Northern Europe,
with a diluvial deposit. As the districts where this
vast mountainous elevation took place, and the seas
surrounding them, were partially frozen and clothed
in ice, owing to their elevation and neighbourhood to
the pole, the flood which devastated them swept along
with it enormous masses of ice. The shock produced
by their collision would serve to increase the extent
and intensity of the ravages occasioned by this awful
convulsion."
The second European deluge originated, it is sup-
posed, in the formation and upheaval of the Alps,
filling with ruin and wreck the great valleys of France,
Germany, and Italy, which radiate from those huge
mountain masses as from a central point.
To dwell on these events would carry us too far
from the immediate purpose of the present work.
They belong to the province of the geologist, rather
than to that of the naturalist. Some notice of the
changes undergone by the primeval world was, indeed,
indispensable, to explain to the reader the changes
which took place at different epochs in the primeval
Jauna; but we must now draw to a conclusion our
brief and desultory observations.
We find, thus, that in the last scene of this strange,
eventful history — the Glacial period — "the entire range
of animated nature, the evolution of animals, was then
suddenly arrested in that part of our hemisphere over
which those gigantic convulsions spread ; followed by
the brief but sudden submersion of entire continents.
Organic life had scarcely recovered from this awful
blow, before it was assailed by a second and, perhaps,
a severer. All Northern and Central Europe — all the
wide region extending from Scandinavia to the Medi-
terranean and the Danube — were suddenly visited by
a period of excessive cold ; were seized within the
numbing grasp of an arctic atmosphere. The plains
of Europe, ornamented only a short time before by the
luxuriant vegetation of a tropical climate— the boundless
pastures where herds of elephants, the nimble horse,
the robust hippopotamue, and the great carnivorous
animals roamed, and made war against each other — were
covered all at once with a shroud of ice and snow."
The phenomenon is variously explained, but the fact
is, human knowledge is unable to propose any satis-
factory explanation. It was probably the result of a
combination of causes, among which a sudden disturb-
ance of the parallelism of the axis of rotation may have
occupied a foremost rank. All we know is — and this
the earth itself sufficiently demonstrates — that such a
phenomenon actually took place, and in many a
European valley we can trace the progress of the vast
masses of ice and the huge glaciers which it originated
and set in motion. We can observe how they smoothed,
and polished, and striated the rocks over which they
passed. Enormous boulders, or erratic blocks, lying
at great distances from their ancient positions, are
mute but eloquent memorials of the Glacial period —
the Age of Ice. How long it lasted we cannot even
guess, but after a while — after a lapse of years which
to man might seem an eternity, but to the Creator
was only as a moment — the earth resumed its normal
temperature, the grasses sprang afresh over plain and
valley, the trees once more waved in numerous forests,
animal life again appeared on the surface of the globe,
and —
GOD CREATED MAN.
THE MUSEUM
NATURAL HISTORY
ZOOLOGY.
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS-(vERTEBRATA.)
WHEN the immortal Cuvier published his new arrange-
ment of the Animal Kingdom, he divided all animals
into four principal sections, which we still find adopted,
with some modifications, by most naturalists. The
changes which have been made in the contents of
these great divisions, in accordance with the progress
of zoological science since the death of the great
French comparative anatomist, have principally affected
the three lower groups established by him, and the
limits of his first and highest division of animals, that
of the Vertebrata, have remained without alteration.
This, indeed, is no more than might have been ex-
pected. The vertebrate animals are those whose
existence has always, from various circumstances, been
pressed most forcibly upon the notice of mankind.
Vertebrate animals furnish the greater part of our
Jaily food, and amongst them are to be found our
most dangerous enemies, so that the mere instinct of
self-preservation must have early led even the uncivi-
lized man almost unconsciously to the study of their
natural history. Hence, the knowledge of the differ-
ences and agreements in the structure of these crea-
tures had made great progress, even in the popular
mind, at a period when the greatest philosophers
knew little of the remainder of the animal kingdom ;
and Linnaeus, in dividing the whole of animated
nature into six classes, gave no fewer than four to the
creatures which we now distinguish as Vertebrata.
The name of Vertebrata or Vertebrate animals, given
to this great section of the Animal Kingdom, has
reference to one of its principal characters, namely, the
possession of a backbone (spine or vertebral column),
composed of numerous joints (vertebrae) attached firmly
to each other, but in such a way as, in most cases, to
insure more or less flexibility.
The office of this bony column is twofold. In the
first place, by its enlargement into the hollow case
called the skull, and by the presence of apertures in
each of its joints, which, when placed in their proper
position, form a continuous tube or canal running
down the back of the animal — it furnishes a protection
for the brain and spinal marrow (spinal cord), the
VOL. I.
great centre of the nervous system, which in these
creatures attains a high degree of development In
the second place, by affording support to numerous
other bones, varying in form and arrangement accord-
ing to the duties they have to perform, it consti-
tutes the centre of the skeleton of these animals — a sort
of bony framework which at the same time serves
to protect the more important internal organs, and
to furnish solid points of attachment for the muscles
by which the movements of the various parts are
effected.
This framework of bones consists, in addition to
the skull and spinal column already referred to, of the
ribs, and of the bones of the limbs — the former, as is
well known, constituting a series of long curved bones
which inclose the cavity of the chest, and are for the
most part movably articulated to the vertebrae on each
side. The opposite extremities of the ribs are also
usually united to a single bone, which occupies the
centre of the anterior or inferior surface of the chest,
called the breastbone (or sternum) ; and in most air-
breathing Vertebrata the whole framework of the chest
is capable of moving by the action of the muscles
attached to the ribs, in such a manner as to increase
or diminish the size of the cavity inclosed by them,
thus causing the lungs to be alternately filled with
and emptied of the air necessary for respiration. The
vertebrae which bear the ribs are usually distinguished
by several peculiarities of construction from those of
the other parts of the spinal column ; they are called
dorsal vertebra, or vertebrae of the back; those in
front of them, forming the neck, are called cervical
vertebrae, and those behind them, which are usually
of great size, are called lumbar vertebrae, or vertebrae of
the loins. The latter are followed by the vertebrae
which support the hinder extremities ; and these again,
in most of these animals, by a number of vertebrae,
gradually diminishing in size and completeness, which
form the tail. These are the caudal vertebrae.
Of limbs in the Vertebrata there are never more
than two pairs. The anterior limbs are usually attached
to the body by being articulated to a pair of flat bones
A
VERTEBRATE ANIMALS.
called the shoulder-blades, which lie upon the ribs,
and are kept in their proper position partly by the
action of powerful muscles, and partly by the support
afforded them by one or two pairs of bones which spring
from the front of the breast-bone ; these bones are often
wanting. The hinder extremities, on the contrary,
are usually articulated to a strong bony ring or basin
(the pelvis) which is firmly attached to the vertebral
column below the loins; the vertebrae of this part of the
spine being also completely united to each other, so as
to form a single bony piece (the sacrum}.
In the essential structure of the limbs there is a
wonderful uniformity throughout the whole of this
great group of animals. Each limb consists of four
distinct parts, which correspond exactly in the anterior
and hinder extremities, although, in conformity with
the usages of human anatomists, they have received
different names in the two pairs. In the fore-limb
the bones are the arm-bone, the two bones of the
fore-arm, the bones of the wrist, and those of the
hand; in the hind-limb they are the thigh-bone, the
two bones of the shank, the heel-bonee, and those of
the foot. The arm-bone and thigh-bone (humerus and
femur) articulate respectively with the shoulder-blade
and pelvis ; they are single bones, usually of a cylin-
drical form. The fore-arm and the shank include two
parallel bones (called the ulna and radius in the arm,
the tibia and fibula in the leg), one of which, in each
member (the ulna and the tibia), is united by a hinge-
like joint with the lower extremity of the arm or
thigh-bone, forming the elbow or the knee. The
other bones (radius and fibula) are scarcely, if at all,
attached at this joint ; they are consequently capable
of rotating to a certain extent, and thus enable the
hand or foot to be turned in various directions. It
is to the broad extremity of these latter bones that
those of the wrist and heel (carpal and tarsal bones)
are attached; these are numerous short bones, packed
closely together, but still capable of a greater or less
freedom of motion. They are followed by the bones of
the hand and foot (metacarpal, metatarsal, and digital
bones), which frequently form five rays of three or
four joints in each, starting from the wrist or heel.
Of these the metacarpal and the metatarsal bones
'constitute the palm of the hand and the sole of the
foot in man; the digital bones, which are also called
phalanges, form the fingers and toes.
It is not to be supposed, however, that all these
parts present themselves to our notice with equal
distinctness in every creature formed upon what is
called by naturalists the vertebrate type; in fact, we
meet with an almost endless variety of modifications in
the different regions of the body, but especially in the
limbs; and the study of these modifications, of the
wonderful series of changes, by which the Creator of
all things, submitting himself, as it were, to a self-
imposed law, has adapted the same general type of
structure to the most dissimilar purposes, is not only
one of the most interesting branches of zoology, but
also one of the most striking proofs furnished by
natural theology of the prevalence of an intelligent
design in Animated Nature.
It is the business of the philosophical anatomist to
investigate these marvellous modifications of structure;
to trace the plan by which the same organs have been
adapted to the most different offices, and to endeavour,
by deducing therefrom the abstract or ideal form from
which all the special structures presented to our obser-
vation may be derived by variations in the degree of
development of the different parts, to obtain a type
with which things, apparently the most dissimilar, may
be compared : and thus to enter, as it were, into the
mind of the great Designer of the universe. It is, how-
ever, unnecessary here to dwell at any length upon this
most interesting branch of science, and we shall there-
fore content ourselves with giving a very brief abstract
of the general results which have been obtained by
much earnest thought on the part of some of the great-
est minds of the present century.
According to the generally received views, the
skeleton of a vertebrate animal is composed of
numerous segments or vertebrae (the latter term being
used in an ideal sense). Even the skull itself is proved
to consist of several vertebrae developed in a remark-
able manner — the bones of the face holding the same
relation to those of the true skull, that the ribs do to
the superior arch of the dorsal vertebras through which
the spinal cord passes. The four limbs are appendages
of two particular vertebral segments; and similar appen-
dages are met with in a rudimentary form upon other
segments in some animals.
Regarding the skeleton in accordance with these
views, as consisting ideally of a series of similar seg-
ments, we find that it is by the suppression of. certain
parts of some of these, and the greater or less develop-
ment of others, that the varied forms of vertebrate
animals are produced. The appendages constituting
the limbs are, as already stated, usually suppressed
completely in all but two segments, and the ribs often
share the same fate in the neck, loins, and tail. In
other cases the bones of one or both pairs of limbs are
wanting, and in some of the lowest forms we find nothing
left but the vertebral column itself, which sometimes
is not even ossified, but consists of a gelatinous or car-
tilaginous cord, running, with little or no trace of any
division into vertebrae, from the head to the extremity
of the tail.
Yet throughout all these variations the intelligent
observer traces one uniform plan : the great centre of
the nervous system always consists of a brain and
spinal cord, supported in all but one instance, by a
structure which may be recognized as a vertebral
column; the jaws are always supported by bones or
cartilage beneath the skull, and their opening is always
horizontal; the limbs are never more than four in
number ; the heart is always muscular, and connected
with a distinct system of vessels, through which courses
a blood, coloured red by innumerable globules; and
the organs of the four special senses (sight, hearing,
smell, and taste) are almost always highly developed,
and invariably placed in cavities of the face and head.
The viscera are very similar in their nature throughout
the entire group, and the animals are always male or
female, never hermaphrodite.
GENERAL CHARACTERS. MAMMALIA. GENERAL CHARACTERS.
CLASS I.— MAMMALIA.
IN whatever light we consider the general arrange-
ment of the animal kingdom, the Mammalia must
always occupy the highest place in the system. Both
in complexity of organization and in general intelli-
gence, the members of this class, which even includes
our own species, bear the palm from all other animals ;
and, if we descend to purely utilitarian views, it is
amongst the ranks of the Mammalia that we must seek
for all the most valuable of those creatures which have
been in every age most serviceable to the human race,
and have contributed most importantly to the progress
of civilization. The noble and generous horse, who
lends his back to the burden and his neck to the yoke
with equal readiness ; the brave and faithful dog, the
constant friend and companion of man in all countries,
and his firm ally in the subjugation of other animals ;
the camel, the far-famed " ship of the desert," without
whose patient endurance and great strength the vast
sandy plains of Africa and the desert steppes of central
Asia, would have presented a more serious obstacle
than even the ocean itself to the intercourse of the
eastern nations ; the cattle and sheep which constitute
the riches of pastoral tribes, and without which an
advanced civilization would be almost an impossibility:
these are only a few of the important species of the
class Mammalia, which have been in all times subjected
to the dominion of man. We may seek in vain in any
other class of animals for even a single species that
may be compared with one of these.
Notwithstanding the great importance of the Mam-
malia, however, we have no English word to express
the whole class, although the great majority of them
may come under the denomination of beasts. The
term quadrupeds, which also applies to the majority,
is likewise inadmissible, both because it is equally
applicable to many reptiles, and because some true
Mammalia are not furnished with four feet. We are
therefore reduced to the employment of the term mam-
mals, to express the animals now under consideration
in a general sense; as this term, derived from the
Latin word mamma, a breast or teat, expresses the
leading peculiarity by which these creatures are dis-
tinguished from all other animals — namely, that of
nourishing their young, which are born alive, by means
of a secretion produced by certain glands placed on the
chest or abdomen of the mother.*
Independently of the physiological characters derived
from the viviparous reproduction and the provision of
milk for the nourishment of the young, which prevail
in all the animals of this class, we find in other points
of their structure an abundance of peculiarities sy
* The Germans have the expressive term Saugethiere, or
sucking animals, for this class. The term Hammifires, or teat-
bearers, is in ordinary use amongst French writers, and of
course refers to the same character as the term Mammalia here
adopted. The name Piliferes, applied to the class by De Blain-
ville, in allusion to the hairy covering of most of the species,
has never been much made use of.
which they may readily be distinguished from the rest
of the Vertebrata. They ah1 breathe air by means of
lungs, consisting of a minutely cellular structure, sus-
pended freely in the cavity of the chest, and uncon-
nected with any air-tubes or sacs penetrating the other
organs of the body, as in Birds. The chest is separated
from the abdominal cavity by a muscular and ten-
dinous partition called the diaphragm, th,e movement of
which, by enlarging the cavity of the chest, is one
principal cause of the inspiration of air. The heart
contains four cavities, two ventricles. for the propulsion
of the blood through the arteries, and two auricles for
its reception from the veins ; this character is common
to the Mammalia and Birds. The mouth is closed by
fleshy lips, which are almost always movable ; and the
skin, with but few exceptions, is more or less covered
with hair.
The structure of the skeleton also furnishes most
important characters in this, as in other classes of ver-
tebrata. The bones are, for the most part, destitute of
air-cells, and where these exist, they do not communi-
cate with the lungs. Most of the bones are solid, and
those which possess cavities (such as the thigh-bones
and arm-bones) have them filled with a peculiar fatty
substance, well known as marrow. Air cavities in the
bones are usually confined to the head, where they are
commonly known as sinuses ; these attain a great deve-
lopment in the ruminating quadrupeds, such as the
sheep and deer, and in the elephant the great size of
the skull is mainly due to the large air-cells which
separate the two faces of the cranial bones.
The body of a mammal is usually divided into three
portions — the head, neck, and trunk ; and these are, in
most cases, clearly distinguishable even in the living
animal. In the skeleton, as will be seen by a glance
at plates 32, 33, 34, they are still more strongly marked,
and we find that in this we may again divide the bones
of the trunk into several distinct systems — namely, the
dorsal vertebrae, with the ribs ; the lumbar vertebras,
forming the loins ; and the sacrum, bearing the sup-
porting arch of the hinder extremities ; beyond which
the vertebral column is usually continued into a gra-
dually decreasing series of vertebrse, forming the tail.
The skull, including all the bones of the head, pre-
sents the following leading characters in mammals : —
The cranium, or true skull, containing the cavity fo*
the reception of the brain, is of larger comparative size
in these than in any other Vertebrata ; its bones are
immovably connected with each other, and with those
of the upper jaw and face, a character which is pecu-
liar to these animals. The occipital bone, which forms
the base of the skull, and is perforated by the large
aperture fur the passage of the spinal cord, bears a
pair of articulating tubercles by which the skull is
attached to the first vertebra of the neck. The upper
jaw is formed by two maxillary and two intermaxillary
bones, which bear teeth in a single row along their
GKXERAL CHARACTERS. MAMMAI.fA.-
JEXERAL CHARACTERS.
margins. The two halves of the lower jaw consist
each of a single bone ; they are united in front either
by a cartilage or by a suture, or sometimes, as in
man, the two sides of the jaw are completely amal-
gamated so as to form one bony piece. The lower jaw
in the Mammalia is articulated directly to the skull,
without the intervention of any other movable bone.
The jaws, as already intimated, are furnished with
teeth, and these exhibit a great diversity in their form
and structure. They are always implanted in sockets
of the jaws, and these are lined by a delicate mem-
brane, so that the teeth are never anchylosed or com-
pletely united to the bone of the jaws. The teeth
consist of a hard substance called dentine, defended by
a coating of enamel, and covered by a layer of a third
substance called cement. The latter is v«ry thin on the
crown or exposed portion of the tooth in man and
many animals, which have teeth similar to those of the
human species ; but in the teeth of many herbivorous
mammals- the cement acquires a great development,
and vertical folds of this substance and enamel penetrate
the dentine of the crown, thus giving rise, as the teeth
are worn away, to an uneven surface eminently adapted
to the comminution of tough vegetable matters.
A few species are entirely destitute of teeth; in
others a few of the teeth are wanting, or some of
them undergo peculiar modifications to adapt them to
particular purposes. But in the majority we find four
dilferent sets of teeth called respectively the incisors,
or cutting teeth ; the canines ; the premolars, or false
molars ; and the molars, or grinders. The incisors or
cutting teeth are inserted in the intermaxillary bones
in the upper jaw, and occupy the corresponding place
in the lower one. Their number varies from two to
ten, and their form is also subject to much diversity;
but they are usually flattened transversely, so as to
form a cutting edge across the front of each jaw.
The canines, se called from their large size in the
dog, are also very large in all carnivorous mammals.
In the human subject the upper ones are frequently
called eye-teeth, from their being placed directly
beneath the eyes. Of the canines we find one on each
side in each jaw ; the upper ones are inserted at the
anterior angles of the maxillary bones, and the lower
ones in a corresponding position in the lower jaw. When
most largely developed, they form long, curved, conical,
acute teeth, capable of inflicting the most serious
wounds.
The premolars, which are usually three or four in
number on each side, are generally separated by a
short interval from the canines, which they frequently
resemble in having only a single root ; their crown is
usually broad and tubercular or ridged, in a manner
more or less resembling that of the true molars. The
latter, of which there are also commonly three or four
on each side, are the largest and strongest of all the
teeth, and are implanted in the jaws by two or more
roots, a character peculiar to the Mammalia, and one
which is often of the greatest importance to the
palaeontologist in determining the nature of those fossil
remains by which a certain light has been thrown upon
the former history of our planet. The molars, of all
the teeth, are those which appear to undergo the
greatest amount of modification to fit them to the
habits and food of the animals. In the carnivorous
forms we find them furnished with sharp cutting edges,
and fitting together like the blades of a pair of scissors ;
in those which prey principally upon insects, whose
hard and slippery armour renders them rather difficult
to be disposed of, the molars are furnished with a
double row of sharp points, from which even the hard-
est beetle could not find it easy to escape ; in those
which, like the monkeys and our own species, feed
upon fruits or upon a mixed diet of soft animal and
vegetable substances, the crowns of the molars are of a
more or less cubical form, with the surface divided into
several blunt tubercles by furrows which traverse it in
different directions ; and lastly, the strictly herbivorous
species usually present an intermixture or alternation
of the three substances of which the teeth are com-
posed, such as produces a series of ridges upon their
surface, as they are gradually worn down during the
trituration of the food.
The teeth are produced from a pulpy germ or matrix
contained within the jaw, and in the majority of the
Mammalia the activity of this germ continues after it
has served for the formation of the series of teeth first
produced. These, which are commonly known as the
milk-teeth, are shed at a certain period of life, when
their places are taken by new teeth adapted to the
increased size of the jaw. The milk-teeth include the
incisors, the canines, and three or four molars on each
side ; the two former groups are replaced by new
incisors and canines ; the deciduous molars are shed
to make room for the premolars, whilst the true molars
are produced later than the other teeth, and are never
changed. The teeth of the Mammalia are never shed
more than once; but, in some forms, the formative
pulps of some of the permanent teeth continue in
activity during the whole life of the animals, and thus
the teeth are constantly growing at the root. As these
modifications of the teeth are usually characteristic
of certain orders of Mammalia, they will be more
particularly referred to hereafter, when the beautiful
adaptation of their structure to the habits of the ani-
mals will be more clearly seen.
The general structure of the skeleton will not detain
us long, as it nearly agrees with that already described
(pp. 1, 2), as the most perfect development of the verte-
brate type. The vertebral column, or back-bone, as it
is usually termed, is divided into several regions, as has
been already stated : these are called the cervical,
dorsal, lumbar, and sacral regions, or the regions of the
neck, back, loins, and sacrum ; and the continuation of
the vertebral column into the tail, when this exists,
constitutes the caudal region. The same names are
applied to the vertebrae composing each region.
Of the cervical vertebrae there are almost invariably
seven ; and this is the only region of the body in which
the number of vertebrae is at all constant,* Whatever
may be the length of the neck in these animals, the
number of the vertebrae is the same ; the short neck
* The only exceptions to this rule are presented by the
Sloths, in which the neck contains eight or nine vertebra :
and by the Southern Manatee (Manattu austrcdis}, which
usually has only six cervical vertebra.
CHARACTERS. MAMMALIA. GENERAL CHARACTKRS.
of the human subject, and the enormously long one of
the giraffe, each contain seven vertebrae, although the
one constitutes only one-seventh and the other three-
sevenths of the entire vertebral column. In the whales
the vertebrae of this region of the body are completely
united together, to form a single bone. Except in the
sloths, all the cervical vertebrae are destitute of ribs,
and the spinous processes gradually increase in height
as we recede from the head. The first two vertebrae,
however, in the Mammalia, present peculiarities of
structure which have obtained them distinct names in
all systems of anatomy. The first, called the atlas,
forms a bony ring, bearing on its upper surface a pair
of cuplike depressions for the reception of the promi-
nent condyles or articulating tubercles of the base of
the skull (see p. 3) ; by means of this articulation the
head is enabled to move up and down. The second
vertebra is called the axis, from its possessing a peculiar
process which projects forward into the ring of the first,
and articulates with a flat surface on the inside of its
anterior part. By this arrangement the rotatory move-
ment of the head is effected.
The dorsal vertebrae are usually thirteen in number ;
but this general rule is liable to many exceptions. The
foremost dorsal vertebrae usually have their upper
spinous processes greatly developed, especially in ani-
mals possessing long necks or heavy heads ; these
processes and those of the posterior cervical vertebrae
give attachment to a strong ligament (the nuchal liga-
ment), which powerfully aids in supporting the head,
and in some animals is continued backward as far as
the loins. The dorsal vertebrae are distinguished from
the rest by their bearing the articulating surfaces for
the ribs, which are confined to this region of the body.
The ribs are long, usually slender, curved bones, which
articulate by their heads with the bodies of two verte-
brae, and are nearly always supported by a tubercle
against the transverse processes of the hinder of these.
The anterior or true ribs are united by cartilaginous
pieces with the sternum or breast-bone, which occupies
the centre of the anterior or lower part of the chest.
Behind these are some shorter ribs, commonly known
as false or floating ribs, which are never united directly
with the sternum, but only by the intermediation of a
common cartilaginous band.
Of the lumbar vertebrae there are usually six or
seven, but the number varies from two to nine. They
are usually larger in the body than the dorsal vertebrae,
and the lateral processes are often greatly developed ;
they are distinguished from the dorsal vertebrae by the
absence of ribs, and of the surfaces for the attachment
of the latter. Behind the lumbar region comes the
sacrum, a single bony piece, which sometimes con-
sists of only one vertebra, but is usually composed
of three or four amalgamated together, bearing traces
of its compound nature in the apertures which indicate
the original points of separation of the distinct vertebrae.
This bone gives a firm attachment to the pelvis, or
supporting arch of the hinder limbs,, which will be
described in treating of those members. The caudal
vertebrae are usually numerous, amounting to as many
as forty-six in the long-tailed mariis. The smallest
number of distinct joints is four ; but in the human
species, and in some others, the caudal region of the
vertebral column is reduced to a mere rudiment.
The structure of the limbs is nearly identical with
the description of the typical conformation of the
extremities of the vertebrata already given. The
anterior limbs are always present in mammals ; the
posterior are sometimes deficient. The former are
articulated to a shoulder-blade or scapula, Q, a flat
and somewhat triangular bone, usually provided with
a strong ridge on its upper surface, which lies amongst
the muscles upon the anterior ribs. The shoulder-
blades are frequently supported in their position by
collar-bones or clavicles, which spring from the fore
part of the sternum, and at the opposite extremity
articulate with the lower part of the shoulder-blade.
These, however, are sometimes wanting, or imperfectly
developed. The coracoid bones, which form an im-
portant part of the supporting arch of the anterior
members in Birds and Reptiles, constituting, in fact, a
second and even more powerful pair of collar-bones,
only occurs in its full development in one small group
of mammals ; in the rest it is reduced to a rudimentary
condition and amalgamated with the shoulder-blade,
of which it forms a small process.
The anterior limb itself usually consists, as previously
stated, of the arm-bone or humerus, R ; the radius and
ulna, s, T ; the carpus or wrist, u ; the metacarpus or
hand, v ; and the fingers, w. These parts all undergo
great modifications, not only as regards their form and
comparative size, but also by the amalgamation, or
total suppression of some of their subordinate consti-
tuents. Thus, in the monkeys, Plate 34, fig. Ill, we
generally find all the parts fully developed, and almost
equal in perfection to the same parts in man ; in the
carnivorous beasts, Plate 33, fig. 105, the various por-
tions of the apparatus are still very distinct, but the
great mobility they possess in man and the monkeys is
already considerably diminished, to adapt the limbs to
the purposes of terrestrial progression ; in the seals,
Plate 34, fig. 114, and the cetacea, Plate 34, fig. 109, we
still recognize the same parts, but with their mutual
powers of motion still further limited, to fit them to act
as paddles in the water. The ant-eater and the sloth,
Plate 33, fig. 107, and Plate 34, fig. 112, also exhibit the
same structure, modified in its details to suit particular
purposes, and in the latter case displaying a diminution
in the number of fingers. With the exception of the •
aquatic seal and dugong, all the animals to which we
have hitherto referred are either terrestrial or arboreal
in their habits; but in the bats, Plate 34, fig. 110, we
find the anterior limbs adapted for the purpose of flight.
In these the arm-bone, R, is not very disproportionately
elongated, but the bones of the fore-arm, s, the meta-
carpal bones, v, and the phalanges or finger-bones, w.
are of immense length, and these, by stretching a j
leathery membrane which unites them, enable the bats
to raise themselves into the air, and to fly through that
element with great swiftness.
In the terrestrial animals to which we have already
referred, the radius and ulna were still capable of a
certain amount of rotatory motion, although not to the
extent presented by the monkeys. In the herbivorous
terrestrial mammals, the toes are terminated by hoofs,
GENERAL CHARACTERS. MAMMALIA.-
JLASSIFICATION.
by which means the feet are at once admirably adapted
for long-continued and swift motion, and completely
deprived of all prehensile power. The faculty of
turning the fore-foot, consequently, becomes unneces-
sary, and we find, accordingly, that in the hoofed
animals, the radius is reduced to a perfectly rudi-
mentary condition, or amalgamated with the ulna, or
altogether suppressed. In the hog, fig. 108, Plate 33,
the metacarpal bones and phalanges, of which we find
four series, remain distinct, but only the two middle toes
reach the ground; the others terminating in the two
little hoofs which project from the 'back of the foot in
this animal. In the sheep, fig. 103, Plate 33, the amal-
gamation and suppression go still further ; for here
] we find only one metacarpal bone and two toes, each
1 covered by a hoof. In the horse, again, even the second
toe is suppressed, and with the exception of the wrist,
the whole limb is essentially composed of a single series
of bones placed end to end. Thus, from the beautiful
and delicate organization of the human hand, an organ
capable of performing the most varied functions, down
to the single toe of the horse, incased in a solid horny
hoof, we find an uninterrupted series of steps, by trac-
ing which we may see clearly how the great Designer,
by merely modifying a single original plan, has pro-
duced creatures destined to play the most various parts
in the grand economy of nature. And although we
may attribute greater perfection to one form than to
another, it must be remembered that such expressions
are purely conventional, and that each creature, incom-
plete as the development of some of its parts may
appear when compared with the same parts in other
animals, is in reality as perfect, and as perfectly
adapted to the purpose for which it was created, as any
other; indeed, those very modifications of structure,
which, at the first glance, would seem to be imperfec-
tions, are found, by careful study, to constitute beauties
instead of blemishes in the great spectacle of nature.
We find the same structure, and the same modifica-
tions of structure, in the posterior as in the anterior
limbs ; but in these the mode of attachment to the rest
of the skeleton is usually ot far greater strength and
solidity. The bones of the pelvis, which here take the
place of the shoulder-blades and collar-bones, are
immovably fixed to the sacrum ; and, although in the
embryo, and sometimes in the young mammal, there
are three of these bones on each side, in the mature
animal these are all completely united together; in
most cases, also, the two sides of the pelvis are firmly
united in the median line below, so as to form a strong
but irregular ring of bone.
Near the middle of each side of this ring is the socket
for the articulation of the thigh-bone or femur, H, which
is usually a long, cylindrical bone with a nearly glo-
bular head, set on it almost at a right angle. Below
this, at the knee-joint, are articulated the tibia and
fibula, or shank-bones, J, K ; and these are followed
by the tarsus, L, including the heel, the metatarsus, M,
and the phalanges of the toes, N. The correspondence
of these bones with those of the anterior limb, will be
at once seen by a glance at the figures of the skeletons,
Plates 32, 33, 34 ; and these also show clearly that the
modifications already described as occurring in the fore-
leg, are accompanied by corresponding changes in the
hinder extremities. The only mammals in which the
hinder limbs are wanting are the Cetacea (whales, etc.),
and in these the pelvis is represented by a pair of
bones, united below in the form of the letter V, and
suspended in the muscles below the sacrum, fig. 1 D.
The classification of the Mammalia still generally
adopted, and the one which will be followed in the
present work, is founded, with some important modifi-
cations, upon that of Cuvier, which in its turn was a
great improvement upon the system proposed by Lin-
naeus. The great Swedish naturalist divided the Mam-
malia into seven orders, distributed in three primary
sections, called unguiculata, or clawed mammals ;
ungulata, or hoofed mammals ; and mutica, or maimed
mammals. The last section includes only the order
CETE, formed by the whales and allied forms, in which
as has already been stated, the hinder limbs are wanting.
The hoofed mammals form two orders — the PECORA,
or cattle, including the ruminating quadrupeds, and the
BELLU^E, those which do not chew the cud. Of the
four orders of clawed mammals, the first or PRIMATES,
distinguished by having two pectoral mammse, and by
certain characters of the teeth, includes the human
species, the monkeys and their allies, and the bats ; the
second, BRUTA, in which the incisor teeth are wanting,
is formed by the sloths, ant-eaters, and allied species ;
the third, FER.S:, includes the carnivorous mammals ;
and the fourth, GLIRES, those which, like the rat and
the rabbit, have two chisel-like incisors in each jaw.
Cuvier, following the general arrangement of Lin-
naeus, also adopts the same indications of a division of
the class Mammalia into three primary groups. But
in the Cuvierian system we find no order Primates ;
and the species of which this Linnsean group is com-
posed are distributed into three orders. Man, as the
highest type of organization, is placed in a distinct
order, called BIMANA, or " two-handed ;" the monkeys
and their allies form a second order, that of the QUAD-
RUMANA, " four-handed ;" and the bats are associated
with the greater part of the Linnsean Feres, to form
Cuvier's order of Carnassiers or CARNIVORA. Another
portion of the Ferce of the great Swede were, however,
separated by Cuvier, on account of certain singularities
in their organization and mode of reproduction, to form
the order of Marsupiaux or MARSUPIALIA, so called
from the females having an abdominal pouch in which
the young are protected for some time after their birth.
Two other unguiculate orders are admitted by Cuvier.
These are called Rongeurs, EODENTIA (gnawers), and
Edentes or EDENTATA (toothless mammals), by the
French naturalist, and correspond with the Glires and
Bruta of Linnaeus. Cuvier's two orders of hoofed
quadrupeds, the Pachydermes or PACHYDERMATA,
and the Ruminants or RUMINANTIA, correspond with
the Linnsean groups Belluce and Pecora, and both
systems are closed by the whales, etc., which form
Cuvier's order of Cetac'es or CETACEA.
The most important new feature in Cuvier's classifi-
cation of the Mammalia consists in the establishment
of the order Marsupialia. These singular animals which,
with the exception of the American opossums, are con-
fined to Australia and the adjacent countries, are dis-
CLASSIFICATION. MAMMALIA. CLASSIFICATION.
tingnished from the rest of the mammals by the very
imperfect condition in which the young are born. In
the ordinary mammals, when the embryo has attained
a certain degree of development, a vascular body called
the placenta is produced, by which the union of the
young animal with the mother is greatly increased.
This organ is never formed in the animals arranged by
Cnvier in his order Marsupialia ; their young are pro-
duced in an almost embryonic state, and the mother is
usually furnished with an abdominal pouch containing
the teats, which serves as a protection to the young
animals during their helpless state. This character
is referred to in the name given to the order, which
is derived from the Latin marsupium, a pouch. In
order to give the pouch a firmer support than it could
derive from the abdominal muscles, the animals are
furnished with a pair of peculiar bones (the marsupial
bones), which spring from the anterior part of the pelvis ;
the presence of these bones constitutes one of the most
important practical characters of the group, as they
occur both in the males and females, and even in those
species in which the pouch is deficient, or replaced by
a mere fold of the skin of the belly.
Besides these characters, there are others of great
importance presented by the structure of the brain,
in which, as in their reproduction, the Marsupialia
evidently exhibit a marked approach to the oviparous
classes of Birds and Reptiles. In most of the Mammalia
the two hemispheres of the brain are united, besides
other bonds of union, by a large band called the corpus
callosum; this is entirely wanting in the marsupials.
The hemispheres themselves are smooth and smaller
than in other mammals, leaving the olfactory and optic
lobes and the cerebellum perfectly visible when the
brain is viewed from above ; characters which show a
certain resemblance to those of birds.
Taking the whole of the above peculiarities into consi-
deration, nearly all zoologists have not only coincided
in admitting the justice of Cuvier's separation of the
animal, presenting them as a distinct order of mam-
mals, but have even gone beyond him, and regarded
these creatures, with two singular animals referred by
Cuvier to the Edentata, as forming a distinct subclass
of mammalia, which has been denominated Aplacen-
talia or Acotyledona, from the absence of the placenta,
the most striking physiological character exhibited by
its members. Most naturalists, although regarding the
characters presented by the aplacental mammals as
indicative of a lower position in the scale of organiza-
tion than that occupied by the rest of the class, have
not failed to perceive that in the characters of the den-
tition, the limbs, and the general conformation of the
body, they present a diversity almost as great as that
manifested amongst the Placentalia, so that we find
amongst them herbivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous,
rodent, and even edentate forms ; and thus arose the
idea that the two subclasses of Mammalia were rather
to be regarded as parallel and mutually representative
series than as truly superior and inferior groups. This
notion, carried still further, led some zoologists to ignore
the section of aplacental mammals altogether, and to
distribute its members amongst those orders and fami-
lies of Mammalia with which, in their other characters,
they seemed to be most nearly allied. As, however,
these views were for the most part promulgated by
writers who had some favourite theory of classification
of their own to support, they naturally died with the
systems which gave them birth, although it is remark-
able that in one of the most recent and valuable works
on the Mammalia,* we find the toothless aplacental
mammals arranged with the Edentata as in the system
of Cuvier, whilst the remainder of the subclass still
stands as the order Marsupialia. Dr. Gray, of the
British Museum, also places the toothless species with
the true Edentata, whilst he follows Linnaeus in placing
the marsupials amongst the Ferce.^
The system that will be adopted in the present work
is shown in the following tabular view: —
Subclass I. — PLACEXTAL MAMMALS.
A. Unguiculate or Clawed.
Order 1. BIMANA ; the anterior limbs furnished with hands.
" 2. QUADRUMAXA; furnished with four hands; the posterior thumbs opposable.
" 3. CHEIROPTERA ; anterior limbs converted into wings, the fingers being very long, and connected by a
membrane.
" 4. INSECTIVORA ; four feet formed for walking ; molar teeth broad, with sharp tubercles.
" 5. CAKNIVORA ; four feet formed for walking ; molars narrow and sharp.
" 6. PJXXIPEDIA : four feet formed for swimming only ; molars narrow and sharp.
" 7. RODENTIA ; tour feet fonned for walking ; no canine teeth ; incisors two in each jaw, chisel-shaped.
4i 8. EDENTATA ; four feet formed for walking or climbing ; no incisors or canines in either jaw.
B. Ungulate or Hoofed.
Order 9. RUMIXANTIA ; hoofs cloven ; incisor teeth wanting in the upper jaw ; stomach complicated.
" 10. SOLIDUNGULA \ feet with a single toe and a solid hoof; incisor teeth in both jaws.
11. PACHYDEUMATA ; feet with two or more toes and hoofs ; incisor teeth always in the upper jaw
C. Mutilated or Defective.
Order 12. CETACEA ; body fish-like ; anterior limbs converted into paddles, posterior limbs wanting.
Subclass II. — APLACEXTAL MAMMALS.
Order 13. MARSUPIALIA ; teats inclosed in a pouch, or between two folds of the skin of the belly ; incisor
and molar teeth always present ; only one clavicle ; external ears.
" 14. MONOTREMATA; with a single outlet or cloaca, for the urinary, generative, and intestinal organs ;
no pouch or external ears ; teeth wanting or horny in texture ; clavicle double.
* Professor Wagner's Continuation of Schreber's Savytkiere.
f It must be remarked, however, that the few species o
family of opossums.
if marsupial animals known to Linna;u> were all of the ferine
CLASSIFICATION. MAMMALIA.-
JLASSIFICATION.
We have not thought it necessary to indicate in the
history of the classification of the Mammalia, the differ-
ent steps by which Cuvier's arrangement has been
modified so as to produce the fourteen orders shortly
characterized above. These consist in the separation of
the Cheiroptera, Insectivora, and Pinnipedia, from the
Carnassiers of the great French zoologist ; in the sepa-
ration of the horses from the Pachydennata of Cuvier,
to form the order Solidungula, and in the establish-
ment of the order Monotremata for the edentulous
aplacental mammals, placed by Cuvier and some other
authors with the Edentata.
In concluding this portion of our subject we must
devote a little space to the consideration of a new
scheme of classification of the Mammalia lately put
forward by the distinguished British comparative anato-
mist, Professor Owen. Starting from the assumption
that the brain, as the centre of the nervous system, the
most important of all the constituent elements of the
animal body, must necessarily be modified in accord-
ance with the habits, instincts, and powers of the various
creatures, Professor Owen has taken the structure of this
wonderful organ as the foundation of his system ; and
from the characters thus obtained he concludes that the
two subclasses of placental and nonplacental mammals
are not of equal value, and that it would be more proper
to divide the class into four subclasses. Of these the
first, which Professor Owen denominates the LYENCE-
PHALA, or " loosed-brained," are distinguished by the
imperfect union of the two cerebral hemispheres, from
the want of the corpus callosum already referred to ;
the hemispheres are smooth and small, exposing the
olfactory and optic lobes and the cerebellum. This
subclass corresponds with our Aplacentalia.
In a second subclass the hemispheres of the brain are
united by a corpus callosum, but are not much lareer
than in the preceding, leaving the greater part of the
olfactory lobes and the cerebellum exposed; their surface
is slightly convoluted in a few of the largest species of
the group, but in the majority they are smooth. From
this circumstance Professor Owen proposes to call the
animals of this subclass LISSEXCEPHALA.
Those of the third group have the surface of the
brain more or less convoluted, with but very few ex-
ceptions. Hence they are called GYRENCEPHALA.
The cerebral hemispheres are much more largely
developed in this than in the two preceding groups,
and cover more or less of the cerebellum and olfactory
lobes.
Lastly, in the highest subclass, the ARCHENCEPUALA,
which includes only the human species, we find nearly
the same cerebral characters as in the third group ; but
the hemispheres are much larger, forming the whole
mass of the brain when viewed from above, and the
convolutions are deeper and more numerous.
The animals belonging to each of these subclasses
present certain anatomical peculiarities in common,
which are carefully indicated by Professor Owen in his
paper, and appear to lend considerable support to his
views. The orders admitted by the learned professor
are for the most part identical with those adopted in
the present work ; the differences in this respect and
in the general arrangement will be easily seen from the
following table : —
PROFESSOR OWEN'S CLASSIFICATION OF MAMMALIA.
SUBCLASSES. OEDEBS.
Archencephala, BIMANA.
•:;;;;.
Gyrencephala, , •{ Ungulata, .
j^Mutilata, ..
Lissencepliala,
Lyencephala,
f ARTIODACTYLA.
I PERISSODACTYLA.
j PROBOSCIDIA.
TOXODONTIA (fosSU).
SlRENIA.
CETACEA.
BRDTA.
CHEIROPTERA.
INSECTIVORA.
RODENTIA.
MARSUPIALIA.
MOXOTREMATA.
The Pinnipedia (seals) have vanished from the list to
take their old place amongst the Carnivora, and the Soli-
dungula no longer figure as a distinct order ; but these
losses are compensated by the division of the Cetacea
into two orders, and by the establishment of the order
Proboscidia for the elephants. The principal difference,
besides these, between the classification proposed by
Professor Owen and that adopted by the present writer
consists in the mode of division of the rest of the hoofed
quadrupeds. These, with Professor Owen, form the two
orders Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla, or even-toed
and odd-toed beasts — the former including the ruminants,
the pigs, and the Hippopotamus ; the latter the horses,
the tapirs, the Hyrax, and the rhinoceroses. It seems
to the author, however, that this mode of arrangement,
the principal merit of which consists in its allowing
the assignment of a definite place in the system to
the remains of certain extinct species of Mammals, can
hardly be regarded as natural when applied to those
creatures, the whole of whose organization is known
to us. The Ruminants appear to constitute a most
natural and well-defined group, which cannot, taking
the mass of their characters into consideration, be
properly associated in the same order with any other
forms of quadrupeds ; so that the only course to be
adopted would be that of establishing a separate order
for the pigs and Hippopotami. This, however, doe?
not appear to us to be necessary, and we shall therefore
adhere in the present work to the old orders, Rumi-
nantia and Pachydennata.
As regards the general arrangement or sequence of
the orders and the establishment of the subclasses pro-
posed by Professor Owen, no one can venture to give
an opinion who has not thoroughly and patiently worked
BlMAXA.-
-M AM MALTA.
-BlMAXA.
over nearly the same ground on the same principle of
careful and conscientious investigation, in order, if pos-
sible, to obtain results which shall either confirm the
views advanced by him, or show in what manner some
fallacy may have crept into his generalizations. There
can be no doubt that although this classification may
not eventually be adopted as a whole, it must exercise
an important influence on the views of succeeding
zoologists ; and we have therefore dwelt upon it here at
considerable length, feeling that, although the require-
ments of a popular scientific work compel us to follow
as closely as possible those opinions which are most
generally entertained, the reader might fairly charge us
with neglect if we omitted to place before him some
account of a system which has justly acquired so much
celebritv.
OKDER L— 13IMAXA.
ALTHOUGH it cannot be denied that man, in his
physical relations, is a member of the zoological series,
and, as such, must occupy a place in our classification,
it is not our intention, nor indeed is it compatible with
the general scope of the present work, to enter at any
length upon the consideration of the natural history of
the human race. The study of this subject is far from
being a purely zoological investigation. It includes a
careful examination of the political history of mankind,
from the earliest reliable records down to our own days,
in order that the student may acquire some notion of
the migrations performed by different races or varieties
of men, and the consequent displacements and inter-
mixtures that have taken place. The moral and intel-
lectual qualities of the various races have also to be
taken into consideration ; and, of late years especially,
the comparison of different languages, both as regards
their verbal and grammatical accordance and diver-
sity, has justly been regarded as affording a most
valuable clue to guide the investigator in the laby-
rinth of tribes and nations. It is evident that a
subject embracing such various investigations, and
entering into the domain of zoology only by its physical
aspect, cannot, with any propriety, be considered merely
as a branch of zoological inquiry ; and of late years
the study of the natural history of man has been
universally admitted to the rank of a distinct science,
under the name of ETHNOLOGY, or the science of races.
If the reader will apply to himself the aphorism
" Nosce te ipsum," the only character which Linnaeus
deigns to give of his Homo sapiens, although in a some-
what different sense from that in which it was intended
by the Grecian sage, its author — he will find that he is
in all points of structure a genuine and undoubted
mammal ; and the comparison of his organization with
that of one of the higher apes, especially the chim-
panzee, will leave him in little doubt as to the near
approach which these animals make in some respects
to the human race. This resemblance is so close in
many particulars of structure, that we cannot coincide
in opinion with those writers who hold that Man should
on no account be admitted into the zoological series,
an opinion founded principally upon the consideration of
his intellectual faculties and moral qualities ; nor can we
even assent to Professor Owen's view, that the human
race, regarded in its physical aspect, is so distinct in its
characters from all other mammals, as to deserve to
form a subclass by itself; but we are still further at
variance with those writers who, like some modern
French zoologists, have reverted to the Linnaeun
VOL. I.
| method, in so far as to revive the order of Primates for
the reception of man and the monkeys — an intimate
collocation of the human species with the lower ani-
mals which is exceedingly congenial to the views of
those who hold the doctrine of the progressive develop-
ment of species, or the gradual production of one
species from another, by virtue of a law of development
pejvading all nature.
Independently of purely intellectual considerations,
and of the comparative bulk of the brain wliich is
connected therewith, and which of itself, with its con-
j comitant effects upon the size of the skull and pro-
portionately smaller development of the facial bones,
would suffice to distinguish Man, even zoologically, from
the rest of the Mammalia — we have to remark the per-
fect organization of every human being for an upright
position, involving, as this does, great changes in all
parts of the body. The foot is constructed so that the
whole sole may be applied to the ground, forming with
its arched instep a support at once firm and elastic.
The bones of the shank and ankle are so arranged as
to confer great firmness and a certain amount of mobility
upon the foot ; the knee is large and powerful, the
thigh long and very muscular, and the pelvis large,
j strong, and changed in its position so as to allow the
whole lower limb to be brought under the centre of
gravity of the body. In all these respects we find a
great difference between man and the apes, which,
being adapted for passing their existence in trees, have
the hinder limbs far shorter than in the human subject,
the position of the pelvis different, and the articulations
of the legs so arranged that the palms of their posterior
hands are more or less turned inwards, or towards
each other ; hence, when an ape walks upright, he is
rarely able to apply the whole sole of the foot to the
ground, but waddles along upon the sides of his feet
in an awkward and uncertain fashion, very different
from the firm, elastic tread of man. As we advance
upwards in our examination of the human body, we
find the spinal column beautifully curved to adjust
it to the upright position, and the skull supported
nearly in equilibrium upon the first vertebra of the neck ;
' the occipital condyles, or articulating processes, being
j placed almost exactly under the centre of gravity of
' the whole head. Thus, the maintenance of an upright
i position is facilitated in the human subject by every
conceivable means, and the object of this modification
is evidently to leave him at liberty to make full use of
the beautiful and delicate mechanism wliich constitutes
i the hand of man. The monkeys, indeed, are all endowed
BIMANA. MAMMALIA. BIMANA.
with grasping bauds, and in the majority these are even
furnished with opposable thumbs ; but these thumbs
are much shorter than in the human hand, and the
fingers are far from possessing the same amount of
independent mobility as those of man. It is to this
great perfection of his hand, together with the power
which he possesses of making use of this organ, inde-
pendently of the position of the other parts of the body,
in other words, its complete removal from the system
of locomotive organs, that man is mainly indebted for
his capability of employing the intellect with which it
is his proud prerogative to be endowed, and for his
power of obtaining a mastery over all the rest of the
animated creation. We cannot, in fact, imagine any
modification of the human form which would render it
a more fitting vehicle for the exercise of the mental
powers possessed by man ; nor can we conceive the
performance of the various actions instigated by those
powers by the instrumentality of any other known
form of organization. Thus, then, from the general
structure of the whole body, we obtain sufficient evi-
dence of the title possessed by the human species to
rank as a distinct order in our classification, to stand
out clearly at the head of the animated world, and not
merely as the highest member of the group of monkeys.
The principal physical characters by which man is
distinguished at the first glance from all the other Mam-
malia are, therefore, as may be gathered from what we
have already stated, his adaptation to an erect posture ;
the great perfection of his anterior members, and espe-
cially of his hands; the large size of his brain and skull;
and the comparative smallness of the facial bones.
Besides these we find other physical peculiarities which
equally serve to characterize the order Bimana. Each
jaw contains teeth of three kinds, namely, four incisors,
two canines, and ten molars ; and these are of nearly
equal height, and arranged in a continuous series in
each jaw, never exhibiting that diversity of size, or the
gaps separating the canines from the incisors or molars,
which occur in all other living mammals. The molars
have their crowns uniformly enamelled, more or less
cubical in form, and furnished with obtuse tubercles
on the upper surface, a conformation indicative of the
adaptation of the human species to a mixed diet. The
skin is naked, or but sparingly clothed with hairs, ex-
cept upon the head and some other parts of the body,
and the nails are all flat and broad.
It is unnecessary to dwell upon the intellectual supe-
riority enjoyed by the human race over the lower
animals, as this must be sufficiently manifest to ever}'
one. The highest intelligence exhibited by an animal
must be regarded as inferior to that of a child of two or
three years old ; and it is only the astonishment felt at
witnessing the effects of education upon some of the
most highly-endowed creatures, that often leads the
superficial observer to attribute to them a higher degree
of reasoning power than they really possess. It is, also,
in the mind of man alone that has been implanted that
belief in the existence of a Deity and in the immortality
of his own soul, which is the foundation of all religious
sentiment — a sentiment which, although often debased
by the most degrading superstitions, seems to be inher-
ent in the human race.
There is one other manifestation of the intellectual
powers of man that must not be altogether passed over
in silence, namely, the faculty of speech, or of producing
and understanding articulate sounds. This appears to
be peculiar to the human species ; for, although there can
be no doubt that in many animals there is some power
of communicating intelligence from one individual to
another, none of them possess a language. It is by
means of this peculiar faculty that the progress of man-
kind is insured. It is by this that the knowledge
acquired and the discoveries made in one age, or in
one locality, are transmitted to later times or to distant
countries; whilst by the reduction of language to written
characters, the insecurity of oral tradition is got rid of,
and the influence of every discovery is extended and
made more permanent.
We come now to one of the most difficult subjects
connected with the physical history of man — the ques-
tion of the primitive unity or diversity of the human
species ; in other words, whether the original proge-
nitors of the entire human population of the globe
were perfectly identical in their essential characters, or
whether the diversity which we now observe in different
races be the result of a primary specific difference.
There is no doubt that when we compare together the
extreme varieties of humanity, as, for instance, Euro-
peans, Negroes, American Indians, Chinese, and Aus-
tralian savages, we may easily find in the form of the
head and face, the colour of the skin, the nature of the
hair and the general structure of the body, distinctive
characters, such as in most cases of zoological investi-
gation would lead us to regard these different forms as
belonging to so many species. But this question, unfor-
tunately, cannot be so easily settled ; because, between
these extremes of diversity we find so many inter-
mediate steps, so many points where the physical
characters of different marked varieties seem to be
intimately blended, that it is often impossible to say to
which of two supposed species a given tribe of men is
to be referred.
If we take the opposite supposition, namely, that all
the varieties of man have been produced by the modifi-
cation of a single species, or to put the matter more
clearly, the progeny of a single pair, it is difficult to
conceive that mere climatal influences and differences
in the mode of life could have produced such immense
changes, not only in the colour, but also in the confor-
mation of different tribes. One of the strongest physical
arguments adduced in favour of the unity of the human
species consists in the continued fertility of mixed
races, even where the grounds for the establishment of
distinct species are apparently the strongest — as, for
instance, in the progeny of Europeans and Negroes.
But this argument is fallacious, as, although the majority
of animal hybrids may be sterile, there are undoubtedly
cases in which 'this rule is departed from ; indeed, it is
not improbable that some of our most valuable domestic
animals are hybrids. The test of colour, which is
often relied upon as an indication of variation distinctly
referable to a recognizable cause, namely, the influence
of a greater or less degree of heat, does not always
apply; for although we may state as a general rule, that
the inhabitants of hot plains are darker than those of
ElMANA.
-MAMMALIA. BIMAKA.
11
colder or more mountainous regions, yet there are many j
important instances that may be adduced in opposition j
to the universal application of this rule : the most north-
ern tribes are usually of dark complexions, and the
natives of Australia and Van Diemen's Land are darker
than many tropical nations. The varieties of domestic
animals, which are so numerous and often so remark-
able, have been produced, for the most part, by the
artificial variation of the conditions of their existence ;
and where they are due to climatal influences, it must
be borne in mind that the creatures have been in a
manner forcibly transplanted to their new abodes, which
they would, in all probability, never have reached but
by the instrumentality of man. With the human sub-
ject the case is different ; his organization adapts him
for existence in all parts of the world where he can
find the necessary supplies of food : with this restric-
tion, no region is too hot or too cold for him, and this
does not merely apply to the indigenous races of each
district, for the individuals of most races can live and
thrive in the districts originally belonging to other
tribes ; and in this case, as far as we know, the pos-
terity of the new comers retains the characters of
its original progenitors. This is remarkably shown
in the present day in the United States of America,
where the native American, the European, and the
Negro, have now lived and propagated under the same
conditions of climate for many years, without losing
their original characters. Thus the difficulties are
nearly equally great on both sides, and we only partially
get rid of them by assuming that a multiplicity of indi-
viduals of the human species may have been originally
created, and that the gradual intensification of the
personal characteristics of these individuals in their
descendants by constant intermarriage within the same
families, may have given rise to the varieties which are
now met with. Otherwise, if production from a single
original pair be necessary for the establishment of the
unity of the human species, we are forced to admit for
it a much greater antiquity of origin than is usually
supposed ; for we know from ancient Egyptian pictures
that, in the Mosaic period, the physical characteristics
of the Hebrews, Copts, and Negroes were as strongly
marked as in the present day ; and it is impossible to
suppose that such important modifications of one and
the same type would have been produced by climatal
influences in the period intervening in our chronology
between the epochs of Noah and Moses, and that in
the present day we should find different races still
retaining their essential characteristics, after dwelling
together for many ages in the same region. Moreover,
not to mention the chronologies of the Chinese and
Brahmins, which appear to run into the opposite
extreme to our own, we may refer to the statement of
Professor Lepsius, that the chronology of the Egyptians
may be traced up to the year 3900 B.C., and that the
fourth dynasty, including the builders of the chief pyra-
mids, commenced in the year 3430 B.C. He adds that
" a thousand years at least, and probably still more,
must be conjectured for the gradual growth of a civili-
zation which had been completed, and had in part
begun to degenerate at least 3430 years before our
era." — (See Lepsius in Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. ii.)
Mr. Leonard Horner, also, in his boring through the
sediment of the Nile at Memphis, found a fragment of
pottery at a depth of thirty-nine feet from the surface ;
and as it appears from unquestionable data that, during
the last 3215 years, the average amount of sediment
deposited has been three and a half inches in a century,
this fragment is regarded by Mr. Horner as a proof of
the existence of man more than 13,370 years ago—
" of man, moreover, in a state of civilization, so far, at j
least, as to be able to fashion clay into vessels, and to <
know how to harden them by the action of a strong j
heat."— (Proceedinys of Royal Society : 1858.) Per-
haps the most probable conclusion at which we can
arrive from the consideration of all this evidence is,
that the whole human population of the globe belongs
to a single species, modified by climatal and other
influences, extending over a period of years so long
that our authentic historical data relate only to a small
portion of it.
As might be expected from the short reference
already made to the innumerable shades of difference
presented by different tribes of mankind, and the insen-
sible blending of the one into the other, the discrimi-
nation of the principal varieties of the human species
is by no means an easy task ; and we accordingly find
that nearly every writer on this intricate subject enter-
tains peculiar views as to the affinities of particular
tribes, or even as to the number of primary varieties
which it is necessary to admit. Thus, Cuvier refers all
the varied forms of mankind to three, Blumenbachtc
five, Pritchard to seven, and Pickering and Latham to
eleven leading varieties. It is principally by the con-
sideration of the structure of the languages that the
number of varieties has been so greatly increased by
the last-named writers. In their chief physical charac-
ters most of the tribes of mankind may be conveniently
referred to the five sections proposed by Blumenbach.
These are the Caucasian or Iranian, the Mongolian
or Turanian, the Malayan, the Ethiopian, and the
American varieties.
1. CAUCASIANS or IRANIANS. — This variety includes
all those nations which have made the greatest progress
in civilization. Their colour depends principally upon
the country inhabited by them, the skin in those dwell-
ing in temperate zones being white, more or less tinged
with pink in different parts by the blood shining through
it ; whilst in the nations of wanner climates the colour
gradually becomes darker, and finally almost black.
The hair exhibits similar, and, to a certain extent, cor-
responding variations in colour ; in temperate climates
it presents every shade from red and yellowish-brown
to black, whilst in the darker races of hot countries the
last-named colour predominates ; but in all cases the
hair is straight or simply curled, but never crisp and
woolly in appearance. The face is oval, and the fore-
head high, the facial angle approaching a right angle ;
the eyes are straight ; the nose is usually narrow and
prominent, and the lips are moderately full. The great
Caucasian variety extends from Hindostan through
Persia and the Caucasus to Europe, of which the
greater part of the inhabitants belong to it; it also
includes the nations inhabiting Arabia, Syria, and the
northern and north-eastern parts of Africa. The latter,
12
VARIETIES OF
-MAMMALIA. VARIETIES OF MAN.
amongst which we may notice the Arabs, the Jews, the
Moors and the Abyssinians, constitute a great sub-
variety, distinguished by certain peculiarities, especially
of language ; they are called the Semitic, Aramcean or
Fig. 1.
Syro- Arabic races. They are considered by Dr. Latham
to form part of the great African variety.
The remainder of the Caucasian races principally
belong to a second great stock — that of the Lido-
Europeans, including the Hindoos, Persians, and all
the European tribes, with the exception of the Magyars
of Hungary, the Laplanders, Fins, and other Mon-
golian tribes of the extreme north, and the Basques
of Spain, the remains of the ancient Iberians, whose
affinities are not yet clearly ascertained. These tribes
all speak languages which are considered to be derived
from the Sanscrit. The true Caucasian tribes, such as
the Circassians and Georgians, are distinguished from
the rest by peculiarities of language, which would seem
to indicate an affinity with the following variety, whilst
the appearance of the people, and especially the confor-
mation of the skull, caused Blumenbach to regard them
as the type of the white races.
2. MONGOLIANS or TURANIANS. — In these races
the colour of the skin also varies from the clear
white complexion of the fairest Europeans, through
various shades of olive, tawny, or even yellow, to a
dark yellowish-brown. The skull is rounder than in
the European races ; the face is broad and flat, with
very prominent cheek-bones ; the eyes are narrow and
small, with the outer angle drawn upwards, so that the
direction of the opening of the eyelids is oblique ; the
nose is small and broad, and the lips usually thin. The
Mongolian races are distributed over the whole of 1
Fig. 2.
northern and eastern Asia, thus including the highly
cultivated Chinese, Japanese, and Siamese, the nomadic
tribes which wander over the boundless plains of Cen-
tral Asia, the Tibetans, the savage hill-tribes of north-
ern Hindostan and the Turcomans of Western Asia.
The latter are the original stock of the Turks, who have
established their rule upon the ruins of the Greek
empire. It is to movements in the vast Mongolian
populations of Northern and Central Asia, propagated
even from the confines of China, that we are to ascribe
those devastating invasions of barbarians which ulti-
mately destroyed the western Roman empire. Even in
Europe, the remains of these conquering hordes are
still to be found in the Magyars of Hungary, who only
obtained a footing in their present domicile in the tenth
century of our era. The inhabitants of Lapland and
Finland also, with those of the provinces of Livonia and
Esthonia, south of the Baltic, and of a large extent of
country in the north and east of European Russia,
belong to a Mongolian stock, some of them being pro-
bably the aboriginal inhabitants of the districts which
they at present occupy ; whilst others have established
themselves where we now find them, by displacing
other tribes, either of Mongolian or of Caucasian
descent. At the north-eastern extremity of the Asiatic
BIMAN A. MAM M A LT A. BIMAJJA.
rontinent we find the coast occupied by the Esquimaux
or Eskimo, as they are now frequently termed, which
are also regarded as belonging to the great Mongolian
variety. These people are remarkable from the fact of
their extending from the Asiatic station just mentioned,
through the Aleutian Islands to the continent of North
America, all the Arctic shores of which, including
those of Greenland and Labrador, are peopled by
Esquimaux tribes. It is by their means, therefore, that
the ethnological connection between the old and new
continents has been established; and it seems not
improbable that, in the lapse of ages, all the varied
tribes of American Indians may have been derived from
Esquimaux progenitors. These tribes are, however, con-
sidered to form a distinct variety of the human species.
3. AMERICANS. — The skin in these races is usually
of a reddish clay colour, sometimes copper colour, but
becoming brown or blackish in the hot tropical plains.
The hair is long, straight, and usually coarse ; the eyes
are generally small, but not narrow and oblique as in
the Mongolians ; and the nose is large, high, and often
well formed. The forehead is retreating, and the cheek-
bones prominent. In its geographical distribution the
Fig. 3.
ing characters of resemblance, both in their physical
conformation and in the structure of their languages.
They are for the most part in an uncivilized condition,
although, as is well known, the Mexicans and Peruvians
had attained to a high state of cultivation before the
discovery of the New World.
4. MALAYANS. — The Malayan races, which are also
called Oceanic by Dr. Latham, are usually of a yellowish-
brown complexion, but their colour varies in intensity
from a light brownish yellow to nearly black. Their
hair is always black, usually straight, but frequently
more or less curled ; they have generally a high fore-
head ; narrow, but not oblique eyes ; and a broad but
not flattened nose. In the general physiognomy we
often find an approach to the Mongolian races, some of
which are, in fact, the nearest neighbours of the Malay-
ans ; but in some instances the expression of the face,
and even the nature of the hair, present so much simi-
larity to the Negroes, that the populations thus charac-
terized have occasionally been referred to the negro
type. The Malayan races include the inhabitants of
the peninsula of Malacca, and of the eastern Archi-
pelago, together with those of the Pacific Islands, New
Fig. 4.
American Indian.
American variety presents a remarkable peculiarity.
The other races appear to be more or less limited in
their natural extension by degrees of latitude, that is to
say, their tribes spread for the most part in an east and
west direction, so as to preserve, within certain limits,
a similarity of climate. The American man, on the
contrary, has spread in the opposite direction, or from
north to south, so that nearly from the Arctic circle to
the southern extremity of Patagonia, over a space of
about one hundred degrees of latitude, the aborigines of
America all belong to the same stock and exhibit strik-
Malay.
Guinea, Australia, and New Zealand. The natives of
Madagascar are also Malayans. In the Negritos of
Sumatra, Mindanao, and the New Hebrides, the
negro characters make their appearance in a remark-
able manner, as also in the Papuas of New Guinea and
some of the neighbouring islands, in which the hair is
of great length and strongly frizzled, standing out from
the head on all sides, so as to present the appearance of
an enormous wig.
5. ETHIOPIANS. — The races commonly, but incor-
rectly, called Ethiopians, have the skin of various dark
14
BlMAXJ
-MAMMALIA. QUADKUMANA.
tints, from deep brown to a nearly perfect black, and
the hair short and woolly in its -appearance. The fore-
head is depressed and the jaws prominent, in some
Fig. 5.
Negro.
cases so much so as almost to form a muzzle ; the face
is flat, with the cheek-bones not very prominent ; the
nose is broad and flat ; and the lips very thick. The
Ethiopian variety includes all the races of Africa, from
the southern and western boundaries of the Semitic
nations (Moors, Arabs, and Abyssinians) to the Cape of
FiK.6.
'-
Caffre.
Good Hope. The principal races are the true Negroes
of Central Africa, the Caffres and Hottentots; the
Bushmen appear to be a degraded tribe of the latter.
OfiDER II.— QUADRUMANA.
THE most essential character of this order is expressed
in its name; the animals composing it are furnished
with four grasping hands, and in the majority of
them these are all provided with opposable thumbs.
In some, however, the anterior extremities are alto-
gether deprived of thumbs, so that the posterior feet
alone are deserving of the title of hands; and this
presence of true hands on the hinder extremities, consti-
tutes the most constant character by which the Quad-
rumana are distinguished from the rest of the placental
Mammalia. It occurs again in the non-placental opos-
sums, and from this circumstance, some naturalists have
thought fit to form a single group under the name of
Pedimana, or Foot-handed animals, for the reception
of the Quadrumana and opossums. The only exception
to the character here given, presented by any animal
which we refer to this group, is that exhibited by the
Galeopithecus, or Flying Lemur, a creature which seems
to unite the Quadrumana with the Cheiroptera or Bats,
having been placed, by different zoologists, sometimes
in one and sometimes in the other of these orders.
In this there are no opposable thumbs either on the
anterior or posterior extremities. From the peculiar
characters presented by the Gakopithecus, some zoolo-
gists, including Professor Van der Hoeven, have even
regarded it as entitled to form a distinct order.
The principal distinctions between the Quadrumana
and the Bimana have already been indicated under the
latter head; we shall, therefore, confine ourselves here
to a general statement of the characters of the present
order. The conversion of the hind feet into hands, and
the accompanying modifications of the general structure
of the hinder extremities, which, as we have already
seen, prevent even the highest apes from easily main-
taining the erect attitude natural to man, adapt the Quad-
rumana most admirably for their mode of life, which
is, in most cases, strictly arboreal ; and as those species
which are not inhabitants of the forest, are dwellers
amongst the rocks, the advantage, even to them, of
their hinder hands will hardly be denied by the most
experienced cragsman. Amongst the branches of the
trees, the apes and monkeys disport themselves with
an agility and security astonishing to the spectator,
and the great African baboons are described as
scrambling up the faces of nearly perpendicular rocks
with the greatest ease.
A. MAMMALIA. QUADRCMAXA.
15
in the general form of the body we find a great
diversity in this order. The apes and monkeys pre-
sent a greater or less resemblance to the human spe-
cies ; the baboons are more quadruped in their appear-
ance; and the lemurs resemble ordinary quadrupeds
in their form. The development of the tail, also, is
very variable ; some, such as the apes, being perfectly
destitute of this appendage, which is also rudimentary
in several of the baboons, whilst the majority of the
monkeys and lemurs are well provided with tails,
and these in the American monkeys are often prehen-
sile, thus furnishing these creatures as it were with a
fifth hand, which is of great service to them in their
arboreal gambols.
The resemblance in the form of the brain and skull
in the apes to that of the same parts in the human
species, is greatest in the young animals, and it is
owing to this, and to the fact that most of the specimens
of the larger apes brought to Europe have been very
young, that we are to attribute the exaggerated notions
frequently entertained with regard to the extent of this
similarity. In the young animals the brain is larger
even in proportion to the rest of the body than in full-
grown specimens; and as long as the dentition is con-
fined to the milk teeth, the jaws are but little produced,
so that the forehead is high, and the facial angle very
large ; but as the first teeth are shed and the permanent
ones produced, the space required for their accommo-
dation becomes greatly increased, and the jaws are
necessarily prolonged, whilst no corresponding change
takes place in the dimensions of the cranium, and thus
the face eventually acquires the form of a prominent
muzzle. In the change of teeth, the canines acquire a
great development, crossing each other, and interlocking
like those of a carnivorous animal, so that the jaws of
an adult ape or baboon present an aspect almost as
formidable as those of one of the larger cats; and as a
consequence of this great size of the canines, gaps are
left between these teeth and the incisors or molars, to
permit the lodgment of the canines of one jaw by the
side of those of the other. The molars, in form, greatly
resemble those of the human subject.
The remaining general characters of the order may
be dismissed in a few words. Except in the genus
GaleopithecuS) already alluded to, the orbits, or bony
sockets of the eyes, are completely closed, as in man.
The external ears are usually small, but variable in
form, sometimes resembling those of the human species,
sometimes erect, as in the cat The fingers are gene-
rally furnished with flat nails, but some species have
curved, compressed claws, either on the whole or on
some of the fingers. The mammge are almost always
placed on the breast, and two in number ; in the Galeo-
pithecus, there are four pectoral teats ; and in the
Cheiromys, a doubtful species of the order, these organs
are situated on the hinder part of the abdomen.
In their geographical distribution upon the face of the
earth, the Quadrumana must be regarded as a tropical
group. They are found in the forests and rocky deserts
of Southern Asia, of Africa, and of South America,
where they live in troops, and feed principally upon
fruits, often descending to plunder the gardens and
fields of the inhabitants. In Africa, the range of the
baboons extends as far south as the Cape of Good
Hope; whilst a species of baboon-like monkey, the
well-known Barbary ape, not only occurs on the south-
ern shores of the Mediterranean, but even crosses to
the European coast, and lives in numerous troops upon
the rock of Gibraltar.
This is at present the most northern range of any
species of the order Quadrumana ; but the fossil remain*
of these animals found in some European tertiary for-
mations prove, that at a former period of the earth's
history several species of monkeys and apes lived upon
the continent of Europe, and even in England. In
some fresh-water sands at Kyson in Suffolk, the tooth
and part of the jaw of a Macacos, a monkey allied to
the Barbary ape, have been found ; these strata belong
to the eocene, or earliest tertiary formations. In the
miocene, or middle tertiary fresh-water strata, at Sansar.
in the south of France, M. Lartet in 1837 discovered
the first known fossil remains of a quadrumanous ani-
mal, considered to be allied to the Gibbons, which are
now confined to the islands of the Eastern Archipelago;
and in 1856 that geologist also found in the same
region, the lower jaw and humerus of a gigantic ape,
larger than any known living or fossil species, and pre-
senting, in some respects, a nearer approach to the
human species than even the chimpanzee. Other fossil
species of monkeys have been found in the south of
Europe at Montpellier and near Athens, both belonging
to the Indian genus Semnopithecus. In the Sivalik
hills of Northern India, the remains of several species
of monkeys have been discovered by Messrs. Fal-
coner and Cautley, and there is no doubt that as the
geological investigation of the warmer regions of the
Old World advances, other forms of Quadrumana will
be found. The fossil monkeys which have been dis-
covered in some caves in Brazil, belong to the same
group as those now inhabiting the South American
continent ; those are considered to have lived in the
pliocene, or latest tertiary period; and it is interesting
to find that ia this, as in some other cases, there was
then the samf difference in the type of the mammalian
inhabitants of the two hemispheres, as at the present
day.
When we examine the various animals belonging to
this order, we find that the greater portion of them may
be included in two sections — the Monkeys (Simice)
and the Lemurs (Prosimice). In the former, the inci-
sors are always four in number in each jaw, and the
rest of the dentition presents a certain resemblance
to that of man ; the nails of the fingers are similar,
either flattened or claw-like, and those of the thumbs
always flat. In the lemurs the number of incisors is
variable ; and the first finger of the hinder hands is
always furnished with a curved, compressed claw. In
both these groups the hinder thumb is opposable, and
this is also the case with the thumb of the anterior \
extremities, except in those cases in which it is rudi-
mentary or altogether wanting. There are other
points of relationship between these two sections, which
may consequently be regarded as forming the true
Quadrumana ; but, besides these, we have to dispose
of two other groups, each including only a single family,
1 and but one or two species, the characters of which am
QUADRUMANA. MAMMALIA. SIMIAD.E.
such as to render the justice of placing them in the
present order almost a matter of doubt. These aber-
rant forms are the Cheiromys and the Galeopithecus
already alluded to.
Commencing with the Simice or Monkeys, as un-
doubtedly the highest group of animals, and including
the species which approach most closely to man, we
find that these also present certain characters, agreeing
most remarkably with the geographical distribution of
the creatures, by which they may be divided into two
sections. The monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere
have the nostrils placed close together, and separated only
by a narrow septum or partition ; the American mon-
keys, on the contrary, have the nostrils placed wide
apart on the sides of the nose, which is broad and flat.
Hence the former are called Cutarrhine, and the latter
Platyrrkine monkeys.
FAMILY I.—
The Catarrhine monkeys, or monkeys of the Old
World, constitute only a single great family, that of the
Simiadse, the genera of which this is composed resem-
bling each other so closely in their most essential pecu-
liarities, and often melting into each other by such
imperceptible gradations in their minor characters, that
not only is any further subdivision of them into accu-
rately-defined subordinate groups almost impossible,
but it is sometimes difficult even to separate the genera
themselves by well-marked peculiarities of structure.
All the Simiadse bear the same number of teeth as
the human species, namely, four incisors, two canines,
and ten molars and premolars in each jaw, making a
total of thirty-two ; they also agree with man in the
general form and arrangement of the teeth, except that
the incisors are more oblique than in any variety of the
human race, and there is always a vacant space in the
vicinity of the canines. The tubercles of the molar
teeth are obtuse. The tail is sometimes altogether
deficient, and when present it varies greaUy in length,
being sometimes a mere tubercle, whilst in other cases
it is longer than the body; but it is never prehensile at
the tip. Naked raised patches or callosities occur on
the buttocks of nearly all the species ; these are formed
by a thickening of the epidermis supported upon a
peculiar process of the ischium, and constitute a sort of
natural cushion upon which the animals sit when taking
their repose. In most cases, also, these monkeys are
provided with cheek-pouches in which they stow away
a supply of food for future consumption.
Taking the general characters of these animals into
consideration, we may distinguish among them three
principal groups — those of the Apes, Monkeys, and
Baboons. In the first of these groups, or the true
apes, the tail and cheek-pouches are entirely deficient,
and the buttocks are either destitute of callosities or
have them very small. It is amongst these apes that
we find the species most nearly approaching man in
their organization ; and hence these animals are called
Anthropoid or Anthropomorphous (Manlike) Apes, by
most naturalists. Of the species at present known, the
one which undoubtedly presents the greatest ampunt
of resemblance to man is
THE CHIMPANZEE (Troglodytes niger). — By alJ
authors, with the exception of Cuvier, and one or two
who adopted the opinion of that great naturalist, the
chimpanzee has been regarded as the highest species
of the apes; and the character upon which Cuvier
founded his preference for the orang-outan has been
shown by later researches to be fallacious. Cuvier
states that the volume of the brain and the promi-
nence of the forehead is greater in the orang-outan
than in the chimpanzee ; and later writers, following
Cuvier, have defined the supposed difference in this
respect by means of the facial angle, saying that in the
orang this angle is 65°, whilst in the chimpanzee it is
only 50°. This, however, is due to the comparison
only of animals of different ages, the forehead being
far more prominent in the young animal than in
older individuals of both species, from the projection of
the muzzle increasing as the creature approaches ma-
i turity; so that, if adult specimens of the chimpanzee
| and orang-outan be compared together, the difference
will be found to be very small, and, if anything, rather
in favour of the chimpanzee. The limbs in the chim-
panzee, also, more nearly resemble those of man in
| structure ; the arms are not much longer than in the
' human species, whilst the legs considerably exceed
| those of the orang in development, both as regards
their comparative length, their muscularity, and their
capability of supporting the animal in an erect posture.
Both in the chimpanzee and the gorilla, the two
species of the genus Troglodytes, the number of ribs i&
thirteen, whilst the orang-outan has twelve ribs like
the human subject.
The adult chimpanzee measures nearly five feet in
height when standing erect. Its body is covered with
long, coarse, black or blackish-brown hair, which is
very thick upon the back, but clothes the breast, belly,
and limbs more sparingly ; at the sides of the head and
face the hair is very long, and hangs down in the form
of whiskers; the face and ears are nearly naked, and
of a brownish flesh colour ; the ears nearly resemble
those of the human species in form, but are very large ;
the eyes are rather small, and the lips thick. The
hands and feet are nearly naked, and the hairs of the
fore-arm are directed towards the elbow, where they
meet those of the upper arm, and usually project in a
point.
The chimpanzee is a native of the vast forests of the
west coast of Africa, extending from the river Gambia,
north of Guinea, as far as the district of Benguela, or
over a space of about thirty degrees of latitude. It
lives among the trees, usually avoiding the neighbour-
hood of man, but forming little huts with branches of
trees for its protection from the weather, at an elevation
of thirty or forty feet from the ground. Its food
consists principally of fruits, and it is also fond of the
succulent terminal bud of the cabbage palm, which is
likewise a favourite article of human food in tropical
regions. In the trees the chimpanzees are very active,
and display astonishing strength and agility in their
movements ; the adult males especially are exceedingly
powerful, and from their being armed with large canine
teeth are very formidable animals. The chimpanzees
are described by several travellers as arming them-
THE APES. MAMMALIA. THE CHIMPANZEE.
17
selves with clubs, with which they attack and often
kill the negroes whom they meet with in the woods ;
and they are even said to assault the elephants with the
same weapons, and drive them out of their districts.
These statements, if true, probably relate to the gorilla,
as even the adult male chimpanzee is said to fly from
a man. In their sexual habits they are described as
being very disgusting ; and, according to Dr. Savage
(an American missionary to whom we are indebted for
the actual discovery of a second species of Troglo-
dytes}, the Negroes have a tradition that the chimpan-
zees once belonged to the human race, but that they
were expelled from society on account of the incorrigible
depravity of their habits.
The chimpanzee does not appear to have been
clearly known to the ancients, and yet in a very old
Carthaginian voyage, the Periplus of Hanno, we have
a curious account of an animal which can only be
referred to this or the following species. At least
five hundred years before our era the Carthaginians
appointed Hanno, one of their admirals, to sail with a
large fleet through the Straits of Gibraltar, for the pur-
pose of founding Carthaginian colonies along the African
coast. According to the journal of this voyage, which
has come down to us, the admiral set sail with no less
than thirty thousand colonists of both sexes, and coast-
ing along the western shores of Africa, succeeded in
establishing numerous colonies at different places. He
describes the coast and its inhabitants, and evidently
entered the Gulf of Guinea, in which he sailed until he
reached a bay called by his interpreters the Southern
Horn. " In the bottom of this bay," says the Cartha-
ginian admiral, " there was an island similar to the one
previously described (in his voyage) ; this contained a
lake, and in this lake there was another island inha-
bited by wild men. The women were most numerous ;
they were entirely covered with hair, and our inter-
preters called them Gorilloi. We pursued them, but
could not capture the men ; they all escaped us by their
great activity, as they climbed the rocks and defended
themselves by throwing stones at us. We only caught
three women, who resisted by biting and scratching
their conductors, and we were forced to kill them. We
skinned them, and brought back their skins to Car-
thage." These skins were placed in the temple of
Astarte in Carthage, where they remained until the
taking of that city in the year 146 B.C., as stated by
Pliny, who, however, only mentions two of them, and
changes the name of these wild men into Gorgones.
The Gorilloi of Hanno, the Troglodytes, Satyrs, and
other fantastic creatures described by the ancient na-
turalists, were regarded by them as monstrous varieties
of the human race, and the idea of their existence was
probably derived from the imperfect accounts gffljpn
by travellers of the Anthropoid apes. These notions
continued to prevail throughout the middle ages, and it
was not until a very recent period that they were
replaced by more correct views. Thus, even Linnaeus
describes a Homo Troglodytes, as a second species of
man, in which he evidently confuses together the older
narratives relating to both the chimpanzee and orang-
outan ; just as, in his genus Simia, he combines these
two species under the common name of S. Satyrus.
VOL. I.
It was not until the latter part of the sixteenth
century, when the intercourse of Europeans with the
west coast of Africa became more extended, that the
accounts of travellers began to furnish more reliable
information upon these large apes, although the earlier
of these accounts are for the most part mixed up with
fabulous narratives obtained from the Negroes. Andrew
Battel, an English sailor, who was taken prisoner by
the Portuguese in 1589, and resided for several years
in Angola, mentions " two kinds of monsters," as he
calls them, which inhabit the woods of that country ;
of these the largest, which, he says, is of gigantic height,
is called Pongo, and the other Enjocko, by the natives.
The former is most probably identical with the newly-
discovered gorilla ; the enjocko of Battel is, no doubt,
the same as our chimpanzee ; and we find from later
sources that in the district of the Gaboon, the Negroes
give the name of N'Tschego to the chimpanzee. De
Laval, a Frenchman, who published his travels in 1619,
mentions the occurrence of these animals in Sierra
Leone, where he says they are called Barris, and adds
that they may be trained " to perform all the duties of a
household servant." He states that they " generally
walk upright, upon the hind feet only ; they will pound
grain or any other substance in a mortar, go to the well,
fill their water-jars and carry them home on their heads ;
but if some person be not at hand to relieve them from
their burden on their arrival, they let the jar fall, and
begin to cry on seeing it broken." Jobson also describes
an ape of five feet in height, called by the Negroes
Quoja Vorau, which, according to him, can be taught
to fetch water and to perform other household offices.
De la Brosse, in his " Voyage to the Coast of Angola,"
published in 1738, refers to the species under the name
of Quimpeze, but seems to have mixed up the chim-
panzee and the gorilla, for he describes the animals as
attaining a height of six or seven feet. He confirms
many of the facts narrated by preceding travellers, and
makes especial mention of the abduction of Negresses
by these creatures, a habit which is so commonly
ascribed both to the large apes and the baboons, stating
that he was acquainted with a woman at Loango who
lived three years amongst these animals. This account
of the predilection of the chimpanzees for human con-
cubines is confirmed, from hearsay, by Smith, who
visited the coast of Guinea in 1744, and who says the
animal is there called Mandrill ; in fact, it appears
that the name of Drill, commonly applied to one of
the large baboons, really belongs to the chimpanzee,
and that it is the root of the Greek word Gorilloi, given
by Hanno as the name of his wild men. These narra-
tives, with the exception of Battel's, probably refer
both to the pongo and the enjocko of the latter.
The first specimen of the chimpanzee seen in Europe
was a young living individual, which was brought to
Holland towards the end of the seventeenth century.
This specimen, which was from Angola, was described
by Tulpius, who, however, confounded it with the
orang-outan, in which, as already stated, he was fol-
lowed by Linnseus. Buffon, also, who had the oppor-
tunity of examining at least one living specimen of the
chimpanzee, did not recognize its distinctness from the
orang. It was first described under the name of Simia
C
QCADRUMAXA. MAMMALIA. SI
Troglodytes by Blumenbach ; and M. Geoffrey Saint-
Hilaira regarded it as the type of the distinct genus
Troglodytes, in which he has been followed by most
subsequent zoologists. The anatomical structure of the
chimpanzee was well described as long ago as the year
1699, by an English anatomist, Tyson, in his "Anatomy
of a Pigmy," where he enters into a detailed exposition
of the characters in which this animal resembles and
differs from man.
The individuals which have been brought alive
to Europe and exhibited in our menageries, have all
been young animals, usually about two years old,
and between two and three feet in height ; they can,
consequently, give us but little idea of the habits and
disposition of the adult chimpanzee. They have all
exhibited a striking amount of intelligence, and a gen-
tleness and docility such as we hardly associate with
the idea of a monkey. The individual observed by
Tyson in 1 699, is described by him as a gentle, affec-
tionate, and harmless creature, which became much
attached to the sailors on board the ship in which it
was brought to England, embracing them with the
greatest tenderness, opening the breasts of their shirts,
and clasping its arms around them. It showed a great
aversion to some small monkeys which were brought
home in the same ship, keeping at a distance from them,
as if it considered itself a being of a superior order. It
became fond of wearing clothes, would dress itself
partly, and apply for assistance in any difficulty to some
of (he crew or passengers.
The celebrated French naturalist, Buffon, has given
the following interesting account of the chimpanzee
observed by him, which he calls the Jocko, but confounds
with the orang-outan. He says — " Its air was melan-
choly, its deportment grave, its movements measured,
its disposition gentle, and very different from that of
the other monkeys ; it had none of the impatience of
the magot (Barbary ape), the ferocity of the baboon,
or the extravagance of the monkeys. It may be said
that it had been well taught ; but the others had also
received their education ; a sign or a word was suffi-
cient for our orang-outan ; whilst the baboon required
the stick, and the others the whip, as they only obeyed
under the fear of chastisement. I have seen this ani-
mal present its hand to lead out its visitors, or walk
about with them gravely as if it belonged to the com-
pany. I have seen it seat itself at table, unfold its
napkin and wipe its lips, use its spoon and fork to carry
its food to its mouth, pour its drink into a glass, and
touch glasses when invited ; fetch a cup and saucer to
the table, put in sugar, pour out its tea and leave it to
cool before drinking it ; and all this without any other
instigation than the signs or words of its master, and
often of its own accord. It was perfectly harmless ; it
even approached one with a certain respect, and pre-
sented itself as if to ask for caresses. It was excessively
fond of sugar-plums, . . . but ate almost anything,
although it preferred ripe and dry fruit to all other ali-
ments ; it drank wine, but in small.quantity, and left
it willingly for milk, tea, or other mild beverages."
This description is interesting, as showing the amount
of education of which the chimpanzee is susceptible ;
but, perhaps, the most striking example of the intelli-
gence of this ape is recorded by the French traveller,
De la Brosse, whose " Voyage to Angola" has been
already referred to. One of two young chimpanzees
purchased by this traveller, was taken ill on board ship.
" He gave himself all the airs, and demanded the same
care as a human being ; he was even bled twice in the
right arm ; and afterwards, whenever he felt indisposed,
he would hold out his arm to be bled, as if conscious
that it "had done him good."
Subsequent observations of other specimens in con-
finement have not only confirmed the idea of the great
intelligence and gentleness of the chimpanzee conveyed
by the preceding extracts, but have also thrown more
light upon the natural habits of the species, and enabled
recent zoologists to correct some errors into which
their predecessors had fallen. Thus Buffon, writing
from recollection, states that his Jocko " always walked
upright on its hind feet, even when carrying heavy
loads." The individuals since observed have shown
that if this was the case, it must have been a result of
education. The chimpanzee, certainly, appears to have
a greater power of sustaining itself in a nearly erect
posture than the other apes ; but in its natural mode
of progression it exactly resembles the latter, its body
being inclined forward in walking, and supported upon
the anterior limbs, of which the knuckles are applied
to the ground.
THE GOBILLA (Troglodytes Gorilla), Plate 1, fig. 1.
— We have already, in treating of the chimpanzee,
indicated that, from the narratives of the older travel-
lers there has always been reason to believe that two
large species of apes lived on the west coast of
Africa. The curious recital of Hanno, already quoted
(see page 17), may indeed apply to either species ; but
as early as the close of the sixteenth century, we have
seen that Andrew Battel clearly indicates " two kinds
of monsters" as inhabiting the woods of Angola : one
of these is the chimpanzee; the other, he says, "is
called Pongo in their language." Of the latter he
states, that " the pongo is in ah1 his proportions like a
man (except the legs, which have no calves), but he is
of gigantic height. The face, hands, and ears of these
animals are without hair; their bodies are covered,
but not very thickly, with hair of a dunnish colour.
When they walk on the ground, it is upright, with the
hands on the nape of the neck. They sleep on trees,
and make a covering to shelter them from the rain.
They eat no flesh, but feed on nuts and other fruit ;
nor have they any understanding beyond instinct.
When the people of the country travel through the
woods they make fires in the night, and in the morn-
I ing when they are gone the pongos will come and sit
I round it till it goes out ; for they do not possess sagacity
•Mfcgh to lay on more wood. They go in bodies, and
kill many Negroes who travel in the woods. When
I elephants happen to come and feed where they are,
they will fall on them, and so beat them with their
clubbed fists and sticks, that they are forced to run
away roaring. The grown pongos are never taken
alive, owing to their strength, which is so great that ten
men cannot hold one of them. The young hang upon
their mother's belly, with their hands clasped about
her. Many of them are taken by shooting the mother?
THE APES. MAMMALIA. -THE GORILLA.
with poisoned arrows." Another early English tra-
veller, Jobson, and Pyrard de Laval, a Frenchman,
appear to have combined the accounts of the Pongo of
Battel with the chimpanzee, as was also done at a
much later period (1738) by De la Brosse. The nar-
ratives of these writers have already been quoted.
(See page 17.)
This view of the identity of the two African apes
was adopted by Buffon, who regarded the pongo as the
adult of the animal described by him under the name
of the jocko, and at the same time confounded both
with the orang-outan of the great Eastern Islands.
Later naturalists, whilst admitting the specific and even
generic difference of the orang and the chimpanzee,
still referred ah1 the accounts of the large African
apes to the latter; and it was not until the year 1829
that attention was called by Mrs. Bowdich to the
reported existence of a second species of ape on the
West African coast. At the close of a paper on the
habits of the Diana monkey, published in London's
Magazine of Natural History, that talented lady refers
briefly to the accounts which she had heard of the
existence of an animal named Enge'-ena in the coun-
tries to the north of the Gaboon river. She says : —
" The natives describe it as the largest of all monkeys,
but of a breadth more tremendous than its height; they
declare that one blow of its paw would fell a man to
the earth. Both males and females are very much
attached to their young, and the latter carry them
about after death until they drop from their arms.
They are fond of imitating men ; walk upright ; and
having seen the natives collect ivory, if they find a
tusk, they carry it on their shoulders till they sink with
fatigue." Although some of these statements are
doubtless fabulous, others have been fully confirmed by
recent authorities, and it is remarkable that this refer-
ence to the gorilla should have hitherto escaped the
attention of naturalists. It was only in 1847 that cer-
tain evidence of the occurrence of a second species of
African ape was obtained. In April of that year, Dr.
Savage, an American missionary, on paying a visit to
one of his confreres, Dr. Wilson, stationed on the
Gaboon river (situated almost exactly under the equa-
tor), obtained several skulls of individuals, of both
sexes and of different ages, together with some other
portions of the skeleton of a large ape, which appeared
to him to differ both from the orang and from the
chimpanzee. On his return to America, Dr. Savage,
with the aid of Dr. Wyman, drew up a description of
these bones, which was published in 1840 in the Boston
Journal of Natural History; he called the species
Troglodytes Gorilla, conceiving that it was identical
with the Gorilloi of Hanno. In the followin
Professor Owen, who had received sketches of
skulls from Dr. Savage, and had subsequently obtain
some specimens by the aid of Mr. Stutchbury of Bristol,
described the species under the name of Troglodytes
Savagei; and in 1849 an adult male specimen, pre-
served in spirits, was brought to Paris by Dr. Fran-
quet; a French naval surgeon. A skeleton was subse-
quently procured for the British Museum, where it has |
now been for some years; and within the last few !
months a fine male, nearly adult, and preserved in ,
spirits, was also obtained, and by this the title of the
animal to rank as a distinct species has been finally
established.
This specimen, which is about five feet in height
when placed in an erect position, has the face and the
palms of the hands and feet naked and black. The
head and neck are thickly covered with brownish
grizzled hair of moderate length, which does not hang
down at the sides of the face so as to form whiskers,
as in the chimpanzee. The ears, also, are much
smaller than in the latter species; they are placed
very high and far back on the sides of the head. The
hair of the shoulders and upper part of the arms is
grizzled ; that of the back and loins has a sooty tinge.
The fore-arms are covered with stiff, black hair, directed
up towards the elbow as in the chimpanzee. The hair
on the chest is very scanty; but the belly is more
thickly clothed, and the hair of this part is reddish-
brown, and exceedingly coarse and harsh, having a
withered appearance. One of the most remarkable
characters of the species, which is now commonly
known as the Gorilla, is that the digits of both pairs
of extremities are united together much further than
in the chimpanzee, whose hands nearly resemble those
of the human species; in the new species, on the con-
trary, the fingers of the hands are united nearly as far
as the ends of the first phalanges, whilst in the hinder
hands the union even goes beyond these, leaving only
four little stumpy fingers free. The thumb of the
anterior hands is comparatively small ; but that of the
hinder pair is of enormous size and power, and the
whole foot forms a grasping apparatus of the most
tremendous character. From the callous marks upon
the knuckles it is evident that the Gorilla, when on
the ground, walks upon all-fours, and that he does
not apply the whole lower surface of the foot to the
ground ; in fact the digits of the hinder hands appear
to be bent naturally in such a way as to render this
impossible.
The inspection of the specimen above described,
which has been most admirably prepared, in spite of
almost insuperable difficulties, by Mr. Bartlett, is quite
sufficient to justify all the accounts given by travellers
of the fearful powers of the gorilla. Although not
fully mature, as is shown by the state of its dentition,
the vast bulk of its body, far exceeding that of even
the most powerful men, its long arms, and enormously
large hands and feet, produce an impression of almost
irresistible strength ; and when we consider that besides
this enormous grasping power — to attempt to escape
from which would be utterly hopeless — the adult male
is furnished with canine teeth as large as those of a
carnivorous beast, set in immensely powerful jaws, of
which the lower one, as evidenced by the great deve-
lopment of the crests upon the skull, is moved by
temporal muscles of enormous bulk; we can easily
imagine that such a creature must be one of the most
terrible antagonists that a man could well meet with,
and cease to wonder that the Negro elephant-hunters
should dread him even more than the lion.
Whether the gorilla really attains the immense size
of six or seven feet attributed to him by some travellers,
is still rather doubtful. The specimen in the Paris
20
QCADRUMASTA. MAMMALIA. SlMIAD.E.
Museum measured about five feet four inches in total
height; and a missionary named Walker is said to have
obtained one measuring five feet eight inches, but this is
the largest on record. Considering the structure of the
animal, however, we can easily believe Battel's state-
ment that ten men would be unable to overcome a
single adult even of this size ; and the great dread
which the natives entertain for it, coupled with the
difficulty of transplanting such a huge carcass through
its native forests to any place frequented by Europeans,
is a sufficient explanation of our long ignorance even
of the existence of the gorilla.
From the statements of Dr. Savage and others, it
appears that the gorilla inhabits the district through
which flow the Gaboon and Danger rivers. Its dwell-
ing is in the interior of the country, whilst the chim-
panzee is met with on the coast. The tribe of Negroes
inhabiting this district is called Mpongwe, whence,
according to Dr. Wilson, is derived the name of Pongo,
applied to the species by Battel — the native name of
the animal being Enge-ena.
In their native forests the gorillas live in troops,
•»hich, however, are not so numerous as those of the
chimpanzees, and consist principally of females ; and
all the natives who furnished Dr. Savage with informa-
tion upon their habits, agreed in stating that there is
only one adult male to each troop, and that as the
young males grow up, they engage in contests for the
superiority, when the strongest, by killing or driving
off all the others, establishes himself as the chief of the
band. The adult male, according to the statements of
the Negroes, never meets a man in the woods without
attacking him. When first seen, he sets up a fearful
howling, the sound of which has been compared to
the syllables Jcha-ah! kha-dh! opens his mouth to
exhibit his terrible teeth, and contracts the skin of his
face, so as to acquire an appearance of incredible fero-
city. The females and the young disappear with the
first sound of battle, and the male then advances upon
his enemy in a state of perfect fury, repeating his cries
at every step. Of course the hunter's only chance under
such circumstances is to kill his assailant with a single
shot; and as this is not always an easy matter, the
Negroes are said to recommend the adoption of a course
which certainly requires more coolness than falls to
the lot of most men. The best plan of making sure of
a gorilla, according to this account, is to allow him to
approach until he grasps the barrel of the gun, and
then to fire at the moment when, as his custom is, he
is about to bite the muzzle. If the piece miss fire, the
gorilla is said to crush the barrel between his teeth,
when, of course, he makes short work with his unfor-
tunate antagonist. Hence, as we may suppose, the
Negroes are not very anxious to go in pursuit of the
gorillas, and only attempt their destruction in self-
defence, when they come suddenly upon them in jour-
neying through the forest, or in their elephant-hunting
expeditions. The destruction of a gorilla is looked
upon as a most honourable exploit. Dr. Savage
records a case in which a Negro slave, having succeeded
in killing an elephant, on his return met with a male
gorilla, which, being a good marksman, he shot, and
poon afterwards, falling in with a female, killed her also.
These feats, performed in a single day, were looked
upon as almost superhuman ; the fortunate slave was
immediately set free, and pronounced the prince of
hunters. Captain Wagstaff, who brought the first skulls
of the gorilla to England, furnished Professor Owen
with information of a somewhat similar nature, and
added that when the natives succeed in killing one of
these animals, they make a fetish of the skull ; those
brought home by him had been used in this way, and
still exhibited traces of sacred marks in the form of red
and white streaks. Although the male is thus so for-
midable an enemy to man, Dr. Savage denies that
there is any truth in the stories of their forcing Negresses
to accompany them to their retreats in the woods, or
attacking the elephants with clubs, narrated both of
this and the preceding species by the older writers.
These stories, however, are confirmed by a recent
French traveller, M. G-autier Laboulaye; but upon
what authority does not appear. Their food, as stated
by Battel, consists of nuts and fruits ; and, according to
Dr. Savage, they are espeeially fond of the acid fruits
of some species of Amomum, and of those of the oil
palm (Ela'is guineensis], the Papaw (Carica papaya),
and the Banana (Musa sapientum). They are also
said to be partial to sugar-canes.
THE OBANG-OTTTAS (Simia Safyrus). Plate 1,
fig. 2.
The remarkable man-like apes of the great Indian
islands, appear to have been entirely unknown to the
ancients, unless Pliny's mention of Indian satyrs
refers to the orang-outan. It is not, indeed, until the
middle of the seventeenth century, that we find any
notice of these animals in the writings of Europeans.
About this period, the Orang-outon is mentioned by
Johnston in his " Historia Animalium," but described
as brought from Angola. In 1658, however, some
genuine observations upon the orang, were published
in Holland; their author, Bontius, a Dutch physician
residing in Batavia, having seen " several of these
satyrs of both sexes" in that country. The English
anatomist, Tyson, whose work on the chimpanzee has
already been quoted, also refers to the orang-outan,
upon the appearance and habits of which he had
obtained some details from a French missionary,
named Lecomte ; and a little later, Leguat, a French
voyager, gave a description of a large ape which he
saw in captivity in Java, and which could only have
been an orang-outan. The notices of the species then
become more frequent in works on Natural History;
but the two great authorities of the eighteenth cen-
tury, Linnaeus and Buffon, both agreed in regarding
the great Indian and African apes as belonging to a
[ingle species. They were imperfectly distinguished
iGmelin, who still describes the pongo as a variety
of the orang-outan, inhabiting both Java and Guinea.
Since the chimpanzee has been clearly recognized as
a species distinct from the orang, there has been a
tendency to multiply the species of the large Eastern
apes; and we find no less than six supposed species
described by different authors, principally from pecu-
liarities in the structure of the skeleton. It would
appear, however, from the recent observations of Mr.
A. R. Wallace upon the orangs of Borneo, that some
THE APES. MAMMALIA. THE ORANG-OUTAX.
21
of the characters which have been chiefly relied upon
for the discrimination of these species are fallacious.
The Bornean orangs all seem to be referable to two
species, the differences between which are, as Mr.
Wallace observes, well marked in the males, but much
less distinct in the females. Both these species appear
to be called Orang-outan, or " man of the woods, " by
the Malays of the coast of Borneo, but the Dyaks, who
are more familiar with them, call them Mias, and dis-
tinguish two or three kinds by particular names.
The largest, species found in Borneo, and the one
which is most abundant there, may be regarded as the
true orang-outan, or Simia Satyrus of Linnaeus. It
is called Mias Pappan, Mias Chappan, and Mias Zimb
by the natives; the second name, according to Sir
James Brooke, being applied to it by the Malays.
The arms are of great length, reaching nearly to the
heel when the animal is in an erect posture; the body
is covered with long reddish hairs, which form a long
beard pendent from the chin; the hairs of the fore-arms
are turned towards the elbow, in the same way as in
the chimpanzee and gorilla; the face is naked, and, in
the males, greatly expanded at the sides by two large
fatty protuberances on the cheeks; the ears are small
and rounded, and greatly resemble those of man in
form; and the lips are very large, and capable of
being protruded and retracted to a great extent. The
largest adult males met with by Mr. Wallace in
Borneo, measured four feet two inches in height, from
the crown of the head to the heel ; but if we can believe
the accounts of other travellers, the species must attain
much larger dimensions. M. Temminck mentions
his having heard of a Bornean specimen of five feet
three inches in height ; and a specimen from Sumatra,
described by Dr. Clarke Abel, was said to measure
about seven feet. The females are considerably
smaller than the males.
In the orang there is a remarkably large guttural
pouch descending in front of the sternum, and com-
municating with the wind-pipe, from which it may be
greatly inflated with air. This occurs also, although
far less developed, in the chimpanzee and gorilla.
The observations of M. Salomon Miiller, and of
Mr. Wallace, have furnished us with a tolerably com-
plete history of the orang-outan in a state of nature.
This animal lives in the lofty primaeval forests of
Borneo and Sumatra, but only in the swampy dis-
tricts, where the forest is unbroken, and the interlacing
branches afford him a means of passing readily from
tree to tree, without the labour of descending to the
ground. Mr. Wallace describes it as a " singular and
most interesting sight to watch a mias making his way
leisurely through the forest. He walks deliberately
along the branches, in the semi-erect attitude which
the great length of his arms, and the shortness of his
! legs give him ; choosing a place where the boughs of
i an adjacent tree intermingle, he seizes the smaller
twigs, pulls them towards him, grasps them together
| with those of the tree he is on, and thus, forming a
kind of bridge, swings himself onward, and seizing hold
of a thick branch with his long arms, is in an instant
walking along to the opposite side of the tree. He
never jumps or springs, or even appears to hurry him-
self, and yet moves as quickly as a man can run along
the ground beneath." Unlike the chimpanzee and the
gorilla, it is a solitary creature ; Mr. Wallace says, that
he has " never seen two adult animals together; but
both males and females are sometimes accompanied
by half-grown young ones, or two or three of the latter
go in company."
When not disturbed, or in search of food, the orang
appears to be sedentary in its habits. It sleeps every
night on a nest made by breaking off the leafy branches
of trees, and laying them over each other upon a forked
horizontal branch, until it forms a bed so thick as to
conceal it entirely from below ; in rainy weather it is
also said to cover itself in a similar manner with small
branches and leaves, and to keep its bed till about nine
o'clock, when the sun has become hot enough to dis-
perse the mists. The nest is usually placed at about
fifty or sixty feet from the ground. As the same animal
appears seldom to use these nests more than once or
twice, they are very abundant in places frequented by
the mias.
The food of the orang-outan consists almost entirely
of fruits ; but when these are scarce, the tender shoots
and leaves of trees do not come amiss to him. An old
male was once found to have in his stomach fragments
of the bark of trees of upwards of a foot in length.
According to Mr. Wallace they seem to prefer their
fruit unripe, and many of them are intensely bitter ; par-
ticularly the large, red, fleshy arillus of one fruit, which
seems to be an especial favourite. Of another large
fruit they only eat the small seed, and in search of this
destroy great quantities of the fruit. " The Durian
(Durio zibethirms}" says Mr. Wallace, "is also a great
favourite, and the mias destroys large quantities of this
delicious fruit, in places where it grows surrounded by
lofty jungle, but will not pass over clearings to get at
them. It seems wonderful how the animal can tear
open this fruit, the outer covering of which is so thick,
tough, and densely covered with strong, conical spines.
It probably bites a few of these off first, and then, mak-
ing a small hole, tears the fruit open with its powerful
fingers." In some places the orangs appear to be
somewhat migratory in their habits, moving after par-
ticular fruits of which they are fond ; thus they are
said to move into the southern parts of Borneo, and to
make their appearance on the right bank of the river
Dousson, at the period when the fruits of a certain
species of fig (Ficus infectoria) are ripe. After this
they disappear from those localities. They seem rarely
to descend to the ground except in search of water,
which they drink by taking a little up in their hands .
and letting it flow into the lower lip, which is protruded
so as to form a sort of channel for this purpose. When
on the ground they walk on all-fours, like the other
apes, and appear to have less power of maintaining
themselves in an erect posture than the chimpanzees.
Some individuals, in confinement, have been seen to
move along a flat surface by resting on the knuckles of
their hands, and then throwing the body and legs for-
ward in the manner of a lame man on crutches ; this
mode of progression is not natural to the species, as has
been supposed, but appears only to be adopted by sickly
individuals.
QlTADRUMANA. MAMMALIA.-
-SlMIADjE.
The orangs appear to have little fear of man, but
will often stare down upon an intruder for a few minutes
and then remove slowly to a short distance. When
pursued, however, as they often are by the Dyaks, who
kill them with poisoned arrows and eat their flesh, they
manifest some alarm, and endeavour to get as quickly
as possible into the loftiest tree in their neighbourhood,
when they climb rapidly to the higher branches, break-
ing off the smaller boughs in their passage, and throw-
ing them down as if to intimidate their pursuers. This
habit has been exaggerated by some travellers into a
truly offensive action, and the orang has been described
as throwing branches down at its enemies ; whilst, on
the other hand, M. Temminck has altogether denied
that the creature breaks the boughs on purpose to
throw them down. According to Mr. Wallace, how-
ever, this is actually the case, although, as he states,
the orang " does not throw them at a person, but casts
them down vertically." He adds that " in one case,
a female mias, on a dtirian tree, kept up for at least ten
minutes a continuous shower of branches and of the
heavy spined fruits, as large as 32-pounders, which
most effectually kept us clear of the tree she was on.
She could be seen breaking them off and throwing them
down with every appearance of rage, uttering at inter-
vals a loud pumping grunt, and evidently meaning
mischief."
In this way the orang remains at the top of the tree
on which he has taken refuge, never venturing to de-
scend either to attack his pursuers, or to escape, by
means of the interlacing lower branches, to another
tree ; but when badly wounded, he sets about making
a bed similar to his ordinary nightly lair, on which he
lays himself down to die. This nest effectually screens
him from below, and he will not quit it after it is once
completed. Mr. Wallace states that he lost two speci-
mens in this way ; they died upon their beds, and he
could not get any one to climb up or cut down the
tree until the next day, when decomposition had com-
menced.
The tenacity of life in the orangs is exceedingly great,
and it usually requires from six to twelve bullets in the
body to kill them. An example of this tenacity of life
was afforded by the Sumatran specimen described by
Dr. Clarke Abel, and already alluded to on account
of its great size. This animal was found at a place
called Ramboon, on the north-west coast of Sumatra,
by a boat's crew who had landed to procure water.
He was upon one of a few trees standing in the midst
of cultivated ground. On the approach of the party
he came to the ground, but soon made his escape to
another tree at a little distance, and was afterwards
driven to take refuge in a small clump. Here his
movements were so quick that it was very difficult to
get a shot at him ; and it was only after cutting down
several of the trees that his pursuers succeeded in
shooting him. He received five balls, some of which
struck him in the body, when he relaxed in his exer-
tions, and reclining exhausted on one of the branches
of a tree, vomited a considerable quantity of blood.
" The ammunition of the hunters being by this time
expended," says Dr. Abel, " they were obliged to fell
the tree in order to obtain him ; and did this in full
confidence that his power was so far gone that they
could secure him without trouble ; but were astonished,
as the tree was falling, to see him effect his retreat to
another with apparently undimiuished vigour. In fact,
they were obliged to cut down all the trees before they
could drive him to combat his enemies on the ground,
against whom he still exhibited surprising strength and
agility, although he was at length overpowered by
numbers, and destroyed by the thrusts of spears, and
the blows of stones and other missiles. When nearly
in a dying state, he seized a spear made of a supple
wood, which would have withstood the strength of the
stoutest man, and shivered it in pieces. In the words
of the narrator, ' he broke it as if it had been a carrot.'
It is stated by those who aided in his death, that the
human-like expression of his countenance and piteous
manner of placing his hands over his wounds, distressed
their feelings, and almost made them question the
nature of the act they were committing. When dead,
both natives and Europeans contemplated his figure
with amazement. His stature, at the lowest computa-
tion, was upwards of six feet — at the highest it wa?
nearly eight;" but, from the examination of the skin,
Dr. Abel concludes that he must have been about seven
feet in height.
M. Salomon Miiller also mentions a male orang,
about four feet in height, which had been wounded by
the Dyaks with poisoned arrows, and afterwards cap-
tured by them alive. Although suffering greatly from
his wounds, this animal exhibited great strength and
ferocity ; he would rise slowly from his ordinary crouch-
ing position, and then, seizing a favourable moment,
would dash impetuously towards the spectators, darting
his long arms through the bars of his cage, and gene-
rally attempting to reach the faces of those nearest to
him.
Like the other apes, it appears that the orang, when
attacked, never makes use of his large canine teeth to
defend himself, but trusts entirely to the enormous
strength of his long arms. His enemies, however, in
the' forest solitudes which he frequents are very few.
In Sumatra, the tiger may occasionally pounce upon
an unlucky orang, when on his way to the water ; but
in Borneo, the only inhabitant of the forests that would
be at all a formidable enemy to the orang is the Bor-
nean bear, and as this animal is almost as exclusively
devoted to a vegetable diet as the orang himself, it is
hard to see what cause of quarrel can arise between
them. Mr. Wallace says — '' The Dyaks are unani-
mous in their statements that the mias never either
attacks or is attacked by any animal, with one excep-
tion which is highly curious, and would hardly be
credible were it not confirmed by the testimony of
several independent parties, who have been eye-wit-
nesses of the circumstance. The only animal the mias
measures his strength with is the crocodile of these
regions (Crocodilus Biporcatus?). The account of the
natives is as follows: — 'When there is little fruit in
the jungle, the mias goes to the river side to eat the
fruits that grow there, and also the young shoots ot
some palm-trees which are found at the water's edge.
The crocodile then sometimes tries to seize him, but he
gets on the reptile's back, beats it with his hands and feet
THE APES. MAMMALIA. THE ORAXG-OUTAX.
23
on the head and neck, and pulls open its jaws till he
rips up the throat. The mias always kills the croco-
dile, for he is very strong. There is no animal in the
jungle so strong as he.'"
The female orangs, like the other large apes, pro-
duce only one young at a birth, and this clings for a
considerable time to the long hair of its mother's body,
and is thus carried about ; the four limbs of the mother
being left at perfect liberty. In fact, so little does the
presence of a young one impede the movements of the
mother, that Mr. Wallace mentions his having shot
two females, bearing their young in this way, without
being aware of the existence of the latter until both
fell to the ground. It is by shooting the mothers that
the natives obtain nearly all the young orangs which
they sell to Europeans.
For some time after their birth, the young orangs
appear to be nearly as helpless as the human infant,
although of course the mere fact of their supporting
themselves by grasping the hair of their mother, is
evidence of a far greater amount of strength than is
possessed by a young child. Mr. Wallace has published
a most interesting account of the habits of an " infant"
orang-outan which he obtained by shooting its mother,
from which we shall extract a few passages. He fed
it with rice-water out of a bottle with a quill in the
cork, which, after one or two trials, it sucked very well.
" When a finger was placed in its mouth, it would suck
at it with remarkable vigour, drawing in its little cheeks
with all its might, thinking, no doubt, it had got hold
of the right thing at last, and wondering that all its
exertions could get no milk out of it. It would perse-
vere for a long time, till at last it gave up with despair
and disgust, indicated generally by a very baby-like
scream." It was quiet when nursed, but cried when
laid down alone. When being washed it winced, " and
made ridiculously wry faces " when the cold water was
poured on its head, but it enjoyed being rubbed dry,
and was particularly delighted with being brushed.
At first it clung vigorously with its four hands to any-
thing that was within its reach ; and on one occasion
having caught hold of its owner's whiskers and beard,
clutched them so tightly that he had considerable diffi-
culty in getting free. From the want of its natural
grasping exercise, Mr. Wallace found that his baby
orang was getting rather weak in its limbs, and
he therefore contrived a sort of ladder upon which it
might hang. This, however, did not answer ; the sticks
not affording it a convenient hold for all its four hands.
It would hang for a time by two hands only, and then,
getting tired of this posture, would move one hand over
to the opposite shoulder to grasp its own hair ; when
" thinking, no doubt, that that would support it much
better than the stick, it would leave hold with the other
hand, and come tumbling down on to the floor." Mr.
Wallace then prepared a sort of artificial mother for
it, by rolling up a piece of buffalo-skin into a bundle
with the hair outside. This suited it much better, but,
unfortunately, it was only too natural. " The poor
little creature thinking it had recovered its mother was
continually trying to suck. It would pull itself up close
by the strength of its arms, and try everywhere for a
likely place, but only succeeded in getting mouthfuls of
wool, when of course it would be greatly disgusted,
scream violently, and if not rescued would soon let
itself fall."
When fed with a spoon this infant orang indicated
its approval or dislike of the food offered to it by the
most ludicrous changes of its countenance — licking its
lips, drawing in its cheeks, and turning up its eyes, like
a true epicure, when the food was to its taste — turning
the mouthful about with its tongue, and pushing it out
between its lips when it was not palatable. If the same
food was continued it would scream and kick violently,
exactly like a baby in a passion. About a month after
it came into Mr. Wallace's possession, it began to show
some signs of learning the use of its legs. When laid
on the floor it would push itself along, or roll over, and
when left in its cradle would lift itself up into an erect
posture, and once or twice succeeded in tumbling out.
tt did not, however, grow, or gain strength — a circum-
stance which Mr. Wallace attributes to his being unable
to feed it with milk ; and it died in a miserable state
after being in his possession about three months.
The specimens of the orang- outau which have been
brought to Europe have been, for the most part, young
individuals. In their general habits, their gentleness
and docility, they resemble the chimpanzees; but
appear scarcely to be so lively as those animals. Like
them, they exhibit a great affection for men, and espe-
cially for those who have the care of them ; they also
sometimes manifest considerable attachment for other
animals, especially cats, but appear to entertain a sort
of contempt for other monkeys, although they will
occasionally condescend to play with them. Like the
chimpanzee they learn to sit at table, eat with a knife
and fork, drink from a glass, etc.; they sometimes
acquire a taste for intoxicating drinks, and under the
influence of this have even been known to steal both
wine and spirits.
Full-grown specimens do not appear to bear captivity,
and indeed their great strength and ferocity render
them dangerous. Nevertheless, some of the older tra-
vellers, such as Leguat, Bontius, D'Obsonville, and
Relian, mention their having seen large specimens in
confinement in Java ; and some of these, from their
size, must have been adult or nearly so. The accounts
of these travellers ascribe a wonderful amount of
modesty to these apes, especially the females; the
last-mentioned writer says that both the male and
female " were very bashful when you looked fixedly at
them, and the female would then throw herself into
the arms of the male and hide her head in his breast.
This touching sight I have witnessed with my own
eyes."
Of the second species of orang found in Borneo, called
Mias Kassu by the natives (Simia Morio of Professor
Owen), Mr. Wallace says that its habits are precisely
similar to those of the larger species, from which it is
distinguished by the absence of the fatty excrescences
on the cheeks, and by the much greater comparative
size of the teeth, and especially of the canines in the
males. The females of the two species appear to be
scarcely distinguishable, except by the difference of size,
and by the smaller ones having the two middle incisor
teeth in the upper jaw proportionally larger, a character
QUADRUJIANJ
-MAMMALIA.-
which also occurs in the smaller males. Mr. Wallace
also heard the Dyaks mention a third kind of orang
under the name of Mias Rambi, which is said to equal
the large species in size, but to be destitute of the cheek-
excrescences, and clothed with very long hair. Mr.
Wallace supposes it to be founded on specimens of the
large orang, in which the excrescences have been but
little developed. The other described species of the
genus Simia appear to have been established on insuf-
ficient characters.
That we have devoted so much space to the natural
history of the preceding large apes — the chimpanzee,
the gorilla, and the orang-outan — is to be attributed
to the interest which attaches to these creatures, as
forming, next to our own species, the highest members
of the animal kingdom. This circumstance, and the
exaggerated notions frequently entertained of the extent
to which these creatures approach man, both in their
structure and endowments, have led us to dwell upon
them at far greater length than will be necessary in
treating of the rest of the Quadrumana, and also to
confine ourselves principally to their history in a state
of nature, in which, alone, their true character can
come freely into play.
THE GIBBONS, or LONG-ARMED APES (Genus
Hylobates).— The remainder of the true apes all
belong to the genus Hylobates, the species of which are
now commonly known as Gibbons ; they are the Long-
armed Apes of the older writers on zoology. They are
all inhabitants of the region of the East Indies — a few
living on the continent of Asia, whilst the majority
are confined to the islands of the Eastern Archipelago,
especially Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.
Pliny's reference to satyrs living in the East Indies
is probably founded partly upon the imperfect accounts
of gibbons which had reached him. Thus he says,
that " Tauron mentions a savage tribe, under the name
of Choromandce, which have no speech, but utter
horrid screams; they have hairy bodies, fiery eyes,
and teeth like dogs;" and adds that "Megasthenes
relates that amongst the nomade Indians there is a
tribe which, instead of a nose, have only two holes ;
they have bandy legs, which they can twist about like
snakes, and are called Scyritcs." Marco Polo states
that the inhabitants of Java were in the habit of shav-
ing and embalming the bodies of gibbons, which they
then sold as pigmies to the merchants who visited their
coast in search of drugs and spices. This was pro-
bably done in still more ancient times, and it may have
been by such means that the ancients became aware
of the existence of these so-called satyrs.
The gibbons have the arms still longer in proportion
than the orangs, but, like them, have the hairs of the
fore-arm turned up towards the elbow. They have the
palms of all the hands naked ; the thumbs of the fore-
hands are cleft very low down, so that the metacarpal
joint of the thumb is not included in the palm of the
hand, and the thumbs thus appear to consist of three
joints ; the first and second toes are more or less united,
and this is also sometimes the case with the second
and third. The skull is smaller than in the orangs,
and the brain is smaller, and presents a greater resem-
blance to that of the monkeys, and less likeness to that
of man than the same organ in the chimpanzee and
orang. The intelligence of these apes is also inferior.
A further difference from the other apes is to be found
in the presence of callosities upon the buttocks of the
gibbons — a character which is of importance as indi-
cating an approach to the monkeys. With one excep-
tion— that of the siamang — they appear to be quite
destitute of the large sacs appended to the wind-pipe,
which occur in the orangs, and also, but rather less
developed in the chimpanzee and gorilla, and even
in some of the lower monkeys. The number of ribs
varies from twelve to fourteen.
The general habits of the gibbons appear to be
rather sedentary than otherwise. Their movements
are slow ; their nature gentle, and rather melancholy ;
and they do not appear to lose their mildness of dispo-
sition so much as the other apes, as they increase in
age. They live in troops in the forests, and usually
raise a tremendous howling noise in concert in the
morning and evening. Of the rather numerous species
of gibbons described, we need only refer to a few of
the best known. The first species that was accurately
described and figured was —
THE WHITE-HANDED GIBBON (Hylobates Lar}—
the Grand Gibbon of Buffon, which was placed by Lin-
nseus, in the earlier editions of his " System a Naturae," in
the same genus with the orangs and the human species.
This animal, which is between two and three feet in
height, is of a uniform black or brownish-black colour,
with the exception of the backs of the four hands, and
a broad band encircling the face, which are whitish.
The black hair of the body and limbs is erect and
woolly ; the white hair of the hands is coarse, harsh,
straight, and depressed. It is an inhabitant of the
peninsula of Malacca, of Siam, and probably also of
some neighbouring regions. The living specimen
observed by Buffon is described by him as being " of a
tranquil nature, and of gentle manners. Its move-
ments were neither very lively nor very precipitate.
It received gently what was given it to eat ; and it was
fed on bread, fruit, almonds, etc. It had a great dread
of cold and moisture, and did not live long out of its
native country."
THE HOOLOC (Hylobates Hooloc) is another con-
tinental species, found principally in the district of
Assam, as far north as the 28th degree of latitude. It
is one of the largest species, measuring, when full grown,
upwards of four feet in height. It is covered with
harsh, shining, black hair, with a broad white or greyish
band across the forehead, above the eyebrows.
Their food consists principally of fruits; but they also
eat some kinds of grass, and the young shoots and
leaves of the peepul and other trees, which they chew,
swallow the juice, and then reject the indigestible part
They are said to go in herds of from one hundred to one
hundred and fifty individuals, raising a howling noise,
which may be heard at a great distance. Dr. Burrough,
who forwarded an account of the habits of this species
to Dr. Harlan, says that " they are easily tamed, and
when first taken, show no disposition to bite, unless pro-
voked to anger, and even then manifest a reluctance to
defend themselves, preferring to retreat to some cor-
ner rather than to attack their enemy;" but, according
THE APES. MAMMALIA. THE SIAMANG.
25
to Mr. Owen, as quoted by Mr. Blyth, they occasion-
ally attack the natives, and bite them severely ; and
Mr. Owen himself was once surrounded by a troop of
them, which he disturbed whilst washing themselves
in a stream, and felt convinced that, had he not taken
to his heels, they would have attacked him. The same
gentleman states that these apes appear to destroy
large snakes. His attention was once attracted by the
noise made by them in some trees over his head. On
stopping to examine into the cause of the uproar, he
was disagreeably startled by the sudden fall of a python,
six or seven feet in length, which was bitten in many
places, and nearly dead.
According to Dr. Burrough the hoolocs walk erect
with great ease, balancing themselves by raising their
urms above their heads ; but if urged to greater speed
they drop their hands to the ground, and assist them-
selves forward, jumping rather than running. If they
succeed in making their way to a grove of trees, they
swing with such astonishing rapidity from branch to
branch and from tree to tree, that they are soon lost
in the forest. In confinement they are gentle and
tractable, and appear to entertain some affection for
their master. In drinking they dip their hands into
the liquid and then suck their fingers ; but when very
thirsty, they will take up the vessel containing their drink
with both hands, and carry it to their lips, so as to get
a more considerable draught. A specimen in Dr.
Burrough's possession was fed principally upon fruits,
boiled rice, and bread and milk, but would also eat
cooked animal food, especially chicken and fried fish ;
he rejected beef and pork; he liked eggs, coffee, and
chocolate, and was very fond of insects, searching in
the crevices for spiders, and if a fly chanced to come
within his reach, would dexterously catch it in one
hand. Hence we may infer, that insects constitute
a portion of the natural food of the hooloc, and
probably also of the other gibbons. The cry of the
specimen just referred to, was a loud and shrill whoo-
whoo, whoo-whoo.
The hooloc was considered by Mr. Ogilby to be
probably the origin of Pliny's Scyritai, and described by
him, in consequence, under the name of Hylobates
Scyritiu.
THE SIAMANG (Hylobaies Syndactylus] is the largest
and most powerful species of the genus, and is entirely
of a black colour, with the exception of a few hairs of
a reddish tinge upon the eyebrows and chin. The
hair is long and coarse, but glossy; the belly is nearly
naked, and the throat completely so ; it incloses a
large sac communicating with the larynx, which can
be filled with air at the pleasure of the animal, and
when thus distended forms a huge goitre-like swelling
of the neck. This sac, which exactly resembles that
of the orang-outan, is supposed to assist in augmenting
the power of the tremendous voice of this animal ; it
also indicates an approach, on the part of the siamang,
to the higher apes, which, like him, occur in the forests
of Sumatra.
The siamang was the first species of gibbon in
which the union of the first and second digits of the
hinder hands was noticed ; and indeed this character is
presented by this animal so much more strongly than
VOL. I.
in the other species of the genus, that it well deserves
the name of Syndactylus, applied to it by Sir Stamford
Baffles. This peculiarity has even induced Dr. Gray
and M. Boitard to propose the formation of a separate
genus for its reception.
M. Duvaucel, who discovered this species in the
neighbourhood of Bencoolen in Sumatra, states that the
siamangs are very common in the forests, where they
assemble in numerous troops, led by a chief, whom the
Malays believe to be invulnerable, probably because he
is more powerful, active, and difficult to get at than the
rest. These troops salute the rising and setting sun
with the most terrific cries, which may be heard at a
distance of several miles, and which, when near, stun
those whom they do not frighten. This is the morning
call of the mountain Malays, but to the inhabitants of
the towns it is a most insupportable annoyance. By way
of compensation, they preserve a most profound silence
in the daytime, at least if their repose is not disturbed.
M. Duvaucel adds, that they are slow and heavy in
their gait, so that they may be easily caught when
surprised, especially on the ground ; but, on the other
hand, their vigilance is so great, and their sense of
hearing so delicate, that it is by no means an easy
matter to surprise them, as at the least noise, even
though it be at a mile's distance, they take to flight.
On the ground they advance by jerks, using their long
arms like crutches. When one of a troop is wounded
it is immediately abandoned by the rest, unless it
happens to be a young one, when the mother stops,
falls with it, and, uttering the most lamentable cries,
attacks the enemy with open mouth and extended
arms. Under ordinary circumstances also, the females,
according to M. Duvaucel, bestow an amount of care
upon their offspring which seems almost to belong to a
rational sentiment. He says — " II is a curious and
interesting spectacle to see the females carry their
young to the river, wash their faces in spite of their
childish outcries, and altogether bestow upon their
cleanliness a time and attention, which, in many cases,
the children of our own species might well envy."
In confinement the siamang, according to M. Duvau-
cel, is gentle, but stupid and sluggish ; in fact, from his
account it would appear, that the very gentleness of
the animal is merely due to its apathy. Mr. George
Bennett, however, who obtained a specimen of this
animal at Singapore in 1830, has published a far more
favourable account of its endowments. Mr. Bennett de-
scribes his specimen as always walking erect when on a
level surface, sometimes holding his arms down so as to
assist himself, by touching the ground with his knuckles
occasionally, but more usually raising them over his
head, ready to seize a rope and climb up on the
approach of danger. This animal preferred vegetable
food, and was especially fond of carrots ; when these
were put upon the table for dinner, the siamang,
although usually very decorous in his behaviour,
immediately forgot his good manners, and it was not
without some difficulty that he could be prevented
from attacking them uninvited. " A piece of carrot,"
says Mr. Bennett, " would draw him from one end of
the table to the other, over which he would walk with-
out disturbing a single article, although the ship was
D
QUADKUMANA. MAMMALIA.-
rolling at the time ; so admirably can these creatures
balance themselves." He would drink tea, coffee, and
chocolate, but never acquired a taste for wine or
spirits; he was excessively fond of sweet things, and
sometimes attempted to lift off the lid of the jar in
which some cakes were kept; he would eat animal
food, especially fowl ; and a lizard having been caught
on board was placed before him, when he instantly
seized it, and devoured it greedily. This specimen
exhibited great attachment to his master, and when
first sold to a European owner, made his escape several
times, in order to get back to a young Malay who had
brought him from Sumatra to Singapore. He exhibited
considerable activity in climbing about the rigging of
the ship, was greatly irritated when confined or dis-
appointed in any way, and on passing the Cape, finding
the temperature too low to allow of his sleeping on the
maintop, as had previously been his habit, he showed
an eager desire to be taken into his master's arms, and
to be permitted to pass the night in the cabin, for
which he afterwards evinced such a decided partiality,
that, on the ship getting again into warmer latitudes,
he would not resume his old station in the maintop, but
showed a strong determination to remain where he
found himself so comfortable. We cannot quote
farther from the interesting account of Mr. Bennett ;
but the preceding statements will be sufficient to show
that the endowments of this animal are far higher than
we should be led to believe from the statements of M.
Duvaucel.
THE AGILE GIBBON (Hylobates Agilis).— The agile
gibbon, which is called Ungka-puti by the Malays
(Ungka being apparently a generic name for the
gibbous) is, like the siamang, a native of Sumatra,
where it was discovered by M. Duvaucel. It is, how-
ever, far less numerous in the forests of that island than
the siamangs, and is more frequently met with in pairs
than in troops. The colours of the agile gibbon are
more variegated than those of the preceding species ;
the head and shoulders, the inside of the arms and legs,
and the whole front of the body being of a deep coffee-
brown colour ; whilst the occiput, the whole of the back,
except the shoulders, and the outside of the thighs are
pale brownish-white. The sides of the face are adorned
with bushy white whiskers, and a narrow white band
runs across the forehead above the eyebrows.
M. Duvaucel contrasts the agility of this gibbon
with the comparative sluggishness of the siamang as
described by him; but it seems probable, from the
narratives of other observers, that the difference be-
tween these two species in this respect is far less than
M. Duvaucel would make it appear. In describing its
surprising activity, the French naturalist says — "It
escapes like a bird, and like a bird can only be shot, so
to speak, flying ; scarcely has it perceived the most
distant approach of danger when it is already far away.
Climbing rapidly to the tops of the trees, it there seizes
the most flexible branch, poises itself two or three times
to secure its balance and acquire a sufficient impetus,
and thus clears, time after time, without effort as with-
out fatigue, spaces of forty feet and upwards." The
same writer adds, that although deprived of the
guttural sac, so conspicuous in the siamang, its cry
is very nearly the same, so that either this organ dues
not produce the effect of increasing the sound usually
attributed to it, or it is replaced in the present species
by some analogous formation. This cry is compared
to the syllables wou-wou, frequently repeated with
peculiar modulations. A somewhat similar cry would
appear to be common to most of the gibbons, and
several of the species, the present one amongst others,
receive the name of Wou-wou from the Malays.
One of these is the CINEREOUS GIBBON (H.Leuciscus),
a native of Java and the Molucca Islands, specimens of
which are occasionally brought to Europe. Of the
habits of this and the other species in a state of nature,
scarcely anything is known ; but we may presume that
they are very similar to those which we have been
describing.
The second group of the Siuiiadse, that of the true
Monkeys, differs from the apes just described by the
constant presence of callosities upon the buttocks, and
by the almost constant presence of cheek-pouches and
a long tail. The arms are never so disproportionate in
length as those of the apes ; and yet the general struc-
ture of the body is much further removed from that of
man. In their character, also, the monkeys generally
exhibit a great difference from the apes — they are
vivacious and petulant in their deportment, and usually
very capricious in their temper; presenting in these
respects a marked contrast to the grave and somewhat
melancholy nature of the species previously described.
It is in the East Indies, in the same region inhabited
by the orangs and the gibbons, that we find those
monkeys which are most distinguished from the rest
of their tribe by ape-like characters ; though even here
we meet with species of a more animal type, and
resembling their African brethren; whilst the great
majority of the latter present a wider divergence from
the apes, and gradually approach the baboons.
THE HOONTJMAN (Semnopitheciu Entellus).~Tbe
Indian monkeys above alluded to form the genus Sem-
nopithecus of F. Cuvier, which is characterized by the
slender form and long limbs and tail of the species, by
the want of cheek-pouches, and by the presence of
thumbs on the fore-hands. The canines of these mon-
keys are but slightly developed, and the molars have
their tubercles so arranged as to form transverse ridges
— a structure which indicates that the animals rather
feed upon the leaves and tender shoots of plants than
upon fruits; and this is also shown by the structure
of the stomach, which is very long and much dilated
in parts, especially at the anterior end into which the
oesophagus or gullet opens. These dilated portions
being separated by constrictions, the stomach acquires
a complicated appearance, somewhat resembling that
of the ruminant quadrupeds. It is a remarkable fact
in connection with this peculiarity of structure, that
the stomachs of these monkeys often contain bezoars,
or concretions of a similar nature to those found in
many Ruminants, and which are so highly prized by
eastern nations. The monkey bezoars are said to be
of more value than those obtained from the Ruminants.
The hoonuman, which is for many reasons one of
the most interesting species of this group, is a large
THE MONKEYS. MAMMALL
HOONUMAX.
27
monkey — the old males measuring nearly five feet in
height — of a yellowish or greyish-white colour, darker
on the back, limbs, and tail, and with the face and
hands black. The hair above the eyebrows forms a
sort of projecting fillet across the front of the head ;
the face is bordered on each side with light whiskers,
and the chin is furnished with a beard, which is peaked
and directed forwards. As the animals increase in
age the fur becomes darker, until it is of a nearly uni-
form rusty brown colour.
The hoonuman is an exceedingly abundant monkey
in India, especially in Bengal. During the summer it
migrates northwards into the hills, travelling as far as
Nepaul, and even to the elevated plain of Boutan. It
is regarded with great veneration by the Hindoos, who
have even deified it, and assigned it a high place in
their almost innumerable multitude of gods. They
look upon the destruction of a hoonuman with the
greatest horror, and believe that the perpetrator of
such a crime will certainly die within a year after its
commission. M. Duvaucel, from whom we have already
quoted, gives an amusing account of the difficulty which
he experienced in obtaining specimens, in consequence
of this superstitious feeling. As soon as he was seen
abroad with his gun, he was surrounded by crowds of
natives, who employed themselves assiduously in chas-
ing the monkeys out of gunshot ; and during a whole
month that a small family of hoonumans remained at
Chandernagore, where he was residing, his house was
constantly surrounded by Brahmins, who tormented
him by incessantly beating tomtoms and drums to scare
the four-handed divinities from so dangerous a neigh-
bourhood. On entering the holy city of Goalpara, he
saw the trees everywhere covered with these long-tailed
deities, which immediately fled with loud cries, whilst
a dozen Hindoos surrounded the traveller and endea-
voured to impress upon him the danger he would incur
by molesting or injuring animals which were nothing
less than metamorphosed princes and heroes. Passing
on, however, he says he met a princess so seductive
that he could not resist the temptation of cultivating a
nearer acquaintance with her. He levelled his gun and
fired ; but then, to quote his own words, he " became
witness of a scene which was truly touching and
pathetic. The poor animal, which had a young one
on her back, had been hit near the heart ; feeling her-
self mortally wounded, she collected ah1 her remaining
force for the effort, seized her young one, and was just
able to throw it up into the branches of a neighbouring
tree, before she fell and expired at his feet. An inci-
dent so touching," adds M. Duvaucel, " made a greater
impression on me than all the discourses of the Brah-
mins ; and the pleasure of obtaining a specimen of so
beautiful an animal, was, for once, incapable of con-
tending against the regret which I felt for having killed
a creature which appeared to be bound to life only by
the most estimable and praiseworthy feelings."
As might be anticipated, these monkeys, being pro-
tected from all injury by the superstitions of the
inhabitants, abound to such an extent, and feel so little
fear of man, that they become a positive nuisance to
those whose minds are not so constituted as to enable
them to regard the hoonuman in the light of a divinity.
They take up their abode in the topes or groves of trees
which the Hindoos plant around their villages, and are
often so numerous in the towns that Sir James Forbes
considered that in Dhuboy there were more monkeys
than human inhabitants. They visit the houses of
the natives, who willingly provide them with food;
and in the villages they often plunder the peasants,
who, however, regard their visits as a high honour.
At Dhuboy, according to Forbes, the roofs of the houses
seemed to be entirely appropriated to the accommoda-
tion of the monkeys, and the same writer gives a ludi-
crous account of his having been compelled to remove
from a shady verandah, in consequence of the pertina-
cious pelting administered to him with fragments of
tiles and mortar from the roof of an opposite house by
these animals. He also describes a curious mode of
revenge sometimes adopted by the Hindoos of that
town, in which the hoonumans are the principal agents.
It appears that before the commencement of the rains,
about the middle of June, it is usual to turn all the
tiles on the roofs of the houses. The tiles are not
fixed with mortar, but accurately adjusted one over
the other, so that, if this operation is performed just
before the setting in of the rains, the roof will be water-
tight during the wet season, and afterwards a few gaps
are of little consequence. It is at this period, when
the tiles have been turned and the first rains are hourly
expected, that the Hindoo who has a grudge to gratify
repairs at night to the house of his adversary, and
strews a quantity of grain over the roof. This is soon
discovered by the monkeys, who assemble in great
numbers to pick up their favourite food ; and, as much
of the grain naturally falls between the tiles, they soon
nearly unroof the house in their efforts to get at it.
In other respects they appear to be exceedingly
mischievous and destructive. They often descend in
troops upon the cultivated fields ; and it is said that
when the troop is pretty numerous, they will strip a
maize field of moderate size in a few hours. The dis-
position of the males, also, is described as so libidinous,
that it is not safe for a woman to pass their haunts.
The only return they make for ah1 the damage they do,
and all the kindness shown them by the natives, is
that, according to Forbes, they frequently destroy
poisonous snakes. They seize them by the neck when
asleep, and then, "running to the nearest flat stone,
grind down the head by a strong friction on the sur-
face, frequently looking at it, and grinning at their
progress. When convinced that the venomous fangs
are destroyed, they toss the reptile to their young ones
to play with, and seem to rejoice in the destruction of
the common enemy." The tigers and other carnivor-
ous quadrupeds of India, having no such scruples as
those of the human inhabitants of the country, are said
to wage a constant war with the hoonumans. The
tiger is described as taking up a position at the foot of
the tree in which the monkeys have taken refuge, when
his roaring so frightens them that they tumble down
and he devours them at his leisure.
The cause of the veneration in which the hoonuman
is held by the Hindoos, which, indeed, is also extended,
although in a less degree, to other monkeys, is doubt-
less partly to be ascribed to the Brahminical doctrine
28
QUADRUMANA. MAMMALIA.-
of metempsychosis, but probably still more to its sup-
posed derivation from one of the personages of their
mythical history. In the great epic poem of the
" Ramayan," which is devoted to the exploits of Rama,
an incarnation of Vishuu, that hero contracts an
Alliance with Hoonuman, king of the monkeys, in his
war with the Rackshasas of Ceylon. Throughout the
war Hoonuman plays the principal part, next to Rama
himself; but having stolen a mango-tree from a garden
in Ceylon for the purpose of giving it to the Hindoos,
he was condemned to have his face and hands black-
ened, a mark of disgrace which his descendants continue
to bear to the present day. According to another
account, Hoonuman was condemned to be burned by
the giant from whom he stole the mango, but escaped
with no greater injury than the singeing of his face and
hands. We learn also that Hoonuman endeavoured
to set Ceylon on fire, by means of a lighted tar-barrel
tied to his tail; but, finding unexpectedly that this
appendage was not fire-proof, he hastened to the Him-
alayas and dipped it into a lake at the source of the
Ganges, which bears the name of Bhunderpouch or
" Monkey's tail " to this day. The Hindoos believe
that every year a single monkey is sent by his fellows
to take his station on the snowy peak of a mountain
which rises from the sacred lake, and there keeps watch
until he is relieved from his severe duty in the following
THE DOTJC (Semnopithecus Nemceus). — The douc or
Cochin China monkey is remarkable in this family for
its vivid and varied colours. It has the face naked
and yellowish ; the top of the head, and the whole of
the back and sides, grey ; the shoulders and thighs, as
well as the hands and feet, black ; the arms white ; and
the legs deep chestnut. The face is surrounded by
white whiskers, and the tail and a patch on the rump
are also white, contrasting curiously with the darker
fur in the vicinity.
This beautiful monkey, which attains a height of
upwards of four feet, is a native of Cochin China, where
it occurs in great abundance in the forests ; but from
the little commerce carried on with that country,
scarcely anything is known of its habits, and specimens
are even rare in our museums. It was long regarded
as the type of a distinct genus, characterized by the
absence of callosities, which, however, it is now found
to possess. The error arose from the circumstance
that Buffon, who first described the species, had only a
badly-stuffed specimen, in which the skin had been
allowed to shrink, so as to conceal the callosities.
THE BTJDENG — (Semnopithecus Maurus} — an in-
habitant of Java and Sumatra, presents a remarkable
contrast to the preceding species in the uniform black
colour of its long silky hair. The young animals are
reddish-brown. A frill of upright hair runs across the
forehead, and the cheeks are adorned with a pair of
large pointed whiskers, directed backwards. This
species is said by Dr. Horsfield to be exceedingly
abundant in the forests of Java, where it lives in the
trees, in troops of fifty or more. It would appear,
from the statements of the same author, that it is
hardly safe to approach them in the forests, not from
any danger of an attack, but because the commotion
produced in the troop by the sight of a man often
causes them to break off the dead branches of the trees,
which are then precipitated on the spectator. The
natives often hunt them for the sake of their fur, when
they kill them with sticks and stones. This species is
also called Lutung or Lotoiig, especially in Sumatra ;
according to Dr. Horsfield its name in Java is Budeng,
and another monkey is known as the Lutung, although
the budeng is also sometimes called Lutung Itam, 01
Black Lutung, the second species being denominated
Lutung Mera, or Red Lutung. The latter (S. Pyrrhus)
is comparatively rare, and is a great favourite with the
natives, who keep it as a pet about their houses. Of
the other species of Semuopithecus very little is known ;
they are rather numerous, and inhabit the same coun-
tries as the preceding.
THE KAHATT, or PROBOSCIS MONKEY (Nasalis
Larvatus), — Plate 1, fig. 3. — This curious monkey
agrees very closely with the Semnopitheci in its
general characters, but differs from them in the sin-
gular form of the nose, which, in the male especially,
looks like an absurd caricature of that prominent and
important member in the human countenance. It is
principally from this circumstance that the kahau has
been regarded as constituting a distinct genus.
The nose in the male forms a curved fleshy pro-
boscis ; in the female it is much smaller, and terminates
in a sharp point, from which it slopes directly to the
upper lip. The nostrils in both sexes are placed on
the inferior surface. The tail, as in the preceding
monkeys, is very long ; the hair is of a reddish tawny
or chestnut colour all over the body, paler in front ; and
the loins in the male are marked with pale spots. The
face, which is naked, is described by some authors as
of a bluish colour ; but Mr. A. Adams states, that in a
live female examined by him it was of a bright brick-
dust red. The hair of the chin, neck, and shoulders is
longer than that on the other parts of the body, pro-
ducing somewhat the appearance of a mane.
The kahau is a large monkey, the adult males often
measuring four feet and a half in height when in an
erect posture. It is a native of Borneo, where it lives
in numerous troops upon the trees in the neighbourhood
of rivers, and is said to move amongst the branches in
a more deliberate fashion than most other monkeys.
According to the old Dutch naturalist, Wurmb, how-
ever, the kahau would appear to exhibit more activity
in the morning and evening at least, when, he says,
they may be seen " leaping with astonishing force and
rapidity from one tree or branch to another, at the dis-
tance of fifteen or twenty feet." He adds that the
natives will have it, that, when thus occupied, the
monkeys hold their noses in their hands, doubtless
from a fear lest so ornamental an appendage should
meet with some injury ; but this, he says, he has never
seen. When disturbed, it emits a short, impatient
cry, described by Mr. Adams as something " between
a sneeze and a scream, like that of a spoilt and pas-
sionate child ;" other accounts compare this cry to the
word kahau, whence is derived the name usually applied
to the animal. It would appear, however, that its true
native name is Banta-jan. It is described as a fierce
and violent animal.
THE MONKEYS. MAMMALIA. THE GUEREZA.
29
The kahau is only known to inhabit the great island
of Borneo, where the Dyaks assert that these monkeys
are men who have retired into the woods to escape
taxation. How they subsequently became ornamented
with tails does not appear. The species is also said to
occur in Sumatra, the peninsula of Malacca, and Cochin
China. From the statement of M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire,
— that the ambassadors sent by Tippoo Sahib to Paris,
just before the French revolution of 1789, recognized
the stuffed specimen in the museum there as an animal
of their country to which they ascribed a high, moral,
and intellectual character — it would appear, also, that
this, or a similar species, should occur in Hindostan
proper. None of these localities, however, rest upon
any sufficient testimony ; and in the case of Tippoo's
ambassadors, it seems probable that they may either
have seen specimens brought as captives from the far
east, or that they may have confounded this monkey
with the hoonuman.
THE GTJEREZA (Cololus Guereza}.— Although the
majority of the African monkeys belong to a group
presenting well-marked differences from the Indian
species above described, there are, nevertheless, some
of them which exhibit a close resemblance to the
Semnopitheci, both in structure, character, and mode
of life, and may be regarded as the African representa-
tives of the Asiatic group which has hitherto occupied
our attention. The stomach has the same sacculated
structure ; the dentition is identical, and the molar teeth
are found to be worn down by use, indicating that the
creatures live upon the leaves and buds of trees, rather
than upon fruits ; the cheek-pouches are wanting,
the body and limbs are slender, and the tail long.
The Colobi are, however, distinguished from their
Indian relatives, and, indeed, from all other monkeys
of the Old World, by a most important character,
namely, the total absence or rudimentary condition of
the thumbs on the anterior members; in most cases
the metacarpal bone of the thumb is alone present, and
in those species in which this is followed by a single
small joint, the only external indication of a thumb is a
mere tubercle, of not the least service in prehension.
The guereza is the only species of this group upon
whose habits we have any information. It is about
the size of a cat, and of a deep black colour, with the
cheeks, throat, and sides of the neck white, and with a
large quantity of long white hairs, growing from the
shoulders, sides, and rump, and hanging down in such
a manner as to conceal the whole lower part of the
body. The extremity of the tail is, in like manner,
concealed by long white hairs.
This beautiful monkey, which is a native of Abys-
sinia, was mentioned by the old traveller Ludolf, who
supposes it to have been the Callithrix of the ancients,
a conjecture which seems very probable from the
description of that animal given by Pliny. Ludolf
says that it is called Foukes in Ethiopic, and Guereza
in the Amharic dialect, and these two names are given
with some variation by later travellers.
Dr. Rlippell, wrio first accurately described the
guereza, informs us that it resides in small families in
the loftiest trees, and usually in the neighbourhood of
Borne stream. It is restless and lively in its habits,
but not noisy; its food consists of wild fruits, seeds,
and insects; and, unlike the ordinary monkeys, it never
commits any depredations upon the cultivated grounds.
In allusion to its harmless nature, and to the constant
persecution to which it is subject, for a reason which
will be hereafter mentioned, Ludolf says that a curious
rhyme is current in some parts of Abyssinia, which
may be translated as follows : —
" I give no man pain —
I eat no man's grain —
They hate me in vain I *
The same traveller notices the tenderness of constitu-
tion of this monkey, which is confirmed by other
observers, from whose narratives it would appear that
the guereza will not endure confinement, but pines to
death in captivity in the course of a few days.
The fur of this animal is much prized in Abyssinia
on account of its beauty ; and in the provinces ot
Damot and Gojam, where the guerezas abound, they
are destroyed in great numbers for the sake of their
skins, which, according to Dr. Riippell, fetch as much
as five shillings each in the market of Gondar. Mr.
Salt places the value rather lower, saying that they
seh1 for about half a dollar. They are chiefly employed
in ornamenting the shields of the native soldiers ; and
the distinguished traveller last quoted, states that every
man in Tigre wears a piece of this skin as an ornament
on his shield. The skins are also sometimes sewn
together, when they form a beautiful covering for a
couch, but their cost prevents their being put to this
use by any but the chiefs.
Several other monkeys of this genus are found in the
tropical regions of Africa, especially on the western
coast, whence the skins of some long-haired black
species are imported into Europe, and used in the
manufacture of muffs. There is much uncertainty as
to the number of species, about half a dozen having
been described, which are considered by some authors
as simple varieties of one or two. This is owing in a
great measure to the imperfect condition of the skins
which reach this country. They are highly prized by
the Negroes, who make caps of them, and will pay from
twenty to thirty shillings apiece for them ; and as it is
only the skin of the body that is valuable as a fur, the
hunters never take the trouble of skinning the head and
The great majority of the African monkeys belong
to the group called Guenons by French authors, forming
the genus CERCOPITHECUS of zoologists. These mon-
keys have the face somewhat produced into a muzzle,
but rounded at the extremity; cheek-pouches are
always present; the eyes are prominent, not shaded
by projecting eyebrows ; and the tail is long, usually
longer than the body. They are distinguished from a
nearly-allied group— that of the Macaques, ah1 the
species of which are inhabitants of tropical Asia — by
the last molar in the lower jaw having only four
tubercles on its surface ; whilst in all the remaining
monkeys and in the baboons, this molar exhibits one
or two additional small tubercles at its posterior por-
tion. In all these moukeys the canines of the upper
jaw are greatly developed, especially in the males, in
QUADRUMANJ
-MAMMALIA. SIMIAD^E.
which they acquire a formidable length as compared
with the size of the animal ; and from their being acute
at the point, and very sharp along the hinder edge,
they constitute most dangerous weapons, which the old
males of most species know well how to use.
Besides the presence of cheek-pouches, the Cerco-
pitheci present another character of distinction from
the Indian Semnopitheci and the African Colobi,
which, although of secondary importance, and common
to them and many of the macaques and baboons, it is
still necessary to mention. This is the annulated
nature of the fur, arising from the individual hairs not
being of the same colour from the root to the tip, but
marked with rings of different colours, by which means
the fur acquires a minutely speckled appearance ; and
the general tint of the animal is usually quite different
from any of the distinct colours which are to be found
in its fur.
In their structure and form, as in their character,
these animals may be regarded as the types of our
notion of a monkey ; they are nearly equally removed
from the apes on the one hand, and from the baboons
on the other. Unlike the mild and gentle Semnopi-
theci and Colobi, they are petulant, capricious, and
often spiteful, especially when old ; whilst on the other
hand they are, for the most part, free from the sullen-
ness and moroseness which are usually characteristic
of the baboons. They live in the forests, each species
usually confining itself to some particular district,
where the animals live in large troops, under the
chieftainship of the old males ; and the inroads of one
species or tribe upon the region over which another
has arrogated the dominion to itself, are highly resented
by the latter, of which the whole community imme-
diately unites to repel the aggression. Even in confine-
ment this party feeling is maintained; and it is not
uncommon in large menageries, where numerous
monkeys of different kinds are kept in the same cage,
to see those of one species combine their powers to
defend one of their brethren against the bullying of
some larger occupant of their common prison. In their
native forests, these monkeys keep at a distance from
human habitations, and usually frequent the banks of
streams. They feed principally upon fruits and seeds,
but also eat the buds and young shoots of trees, and
occasionally diversify this vegetable diet with a repast
of birds' eggs or insects, although they appear to be less
addicted to animal food than the baboons.
The genus Cercopithecus includes those monkeys of
the Old World which are most commonly brought to
Europe, and also those which have most frequently
produced young ones in our menageries. The female,
under these circumstances, carries the young one in
her arms until it has acquired strength enough to cling
firmly to her hair, when, having all her hands at
liberty, she is able to spring and climb about with as
much activity as if she had no burden. The male is
sometimes, if not always, an exceedingly bad father,
quarrelling with the female, and ill-treating the young
one. M. Is. Geoffrey St. Hilaire, mentions, that in
1837, when a female of the Grivet (C. Griseus] had
a young one in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, the
male was obliged to be removed, in consequence of his
unnatural behaviour to his infant offspring; while, in
the very next cage, several male baboons were to be
seen surrounding two females with their young ones,
caressing the two mothers with the most lively demon-
strations of tenderness, pressing them in their arms,
embracing them almost like human beings, and quar-
relling amongst themselves for the pleasure of nursing
the little ones, which, after passing from arm to arm,
were faithfully returned, each to its own mother."
Of the numerous species of this genus known to
naturalists, we can only mention a few. Amongst
these —
THE TALAPOIN (Cercopithecus Talapoin) is the
one which, in the gentleness of its disposition and the
slenderness of its form, would appear to approach most
closely to the preceding monkeys ; it has been separ-
ated by Geoffroy as a distinct genus, on account of the
large development of its brain, the shortness of its
muzzle, and especially the small size of its hinder
molars, of which those of the lower jaw have only
three tubercles.
The talapoin is the smallest of the monkeys of the
Old World. Its fur is of a greenish tint, with the
lower surface of the bod}' and the inside of the
limbs greyish-white ; the hairs of the forehead are
raised, so as to form a sort of tuft ; the whiskers are
yellowish, and the face flesh-coloured, with the nose
and ears dark-brown or black. It is a native of
Western Africa, but is less commonly brought into
Europe than many other species inhabiting the same
locality, although its gentleness and intelligence ren-
der it one of the most interesting of the Old World
monkeys. In captivity it is very lively and amusing.
THE MONE ( Cercopithecus Mono) is a species nearly
related to the talapoin, which it resembles in the ele-
gance of its form, and in its intelligence. It is a little
larger than the talapoin, but is still one of the smallest
of the Simiadse, and its colours are very beautiful.
The head is of an olive-green colour, mixed with
golden-yellow; the forehead is covered with whitish
hairs, and on each side of the face is a large bushy
whisker of a straw colour; the back and sides are
brilliant chestnut, mottled with black ; the legs and
tail are black, speckled with grey, and on each hip,
immediately in front of the root of the tail, is an oval
spot of the purest white — a character which is peculiar
to this species ; the throat, the lower part of the body,
and the inner surface of the limbs, are also pure
white.
The mone inhabits the western coast of Africa, and
is usually brought to Europe from Senegal. Its name
of Mona is a sort of generic name for monkey in some
parts of the south of Europe, and was applied to this
species by Buffon, who also identified it with the Cebus
of the ancients, although without sufficient reason.
In confinement it exhibits a remarkable amount of
amiability, being more docile and less petulant and
capricious than most other monkeys, so that it may be
allowed far more liberty, although the males not unfre-
quently change their character for the worse as they
increase in age. M. F. Cuvier has published an inter-
esting account of an individual of this species, which
lived from its youth upwards in the menagerie at Paris,
THE MONKEYS. MAMMALIA. THE DIANA MONKEY.
31
and preserved its gentleness even after it had arrived
at maturity. This specimen exhibited wonderful ad-
dress in getting at any object that pleased him ; he
would open cupboards by turning their keys, or undo
knots, and had acquired an adroitness in pocket-picking
that would have done credit to a pupil of Mr. Fagin,
performing this operation with so much delicacy that
his hand could not be felt, although the person whose
pockets were under examination might be perfectly
aware of what was going on.
THE DIANA MONKEY ( Cercopithecus Diana) which
is said to be called the Roloway on the Gold Coast, and
Exquima in Congo, is a larger and stouter species
than either of the preceding, but is still distinguished
amongst the monkeys of this genus by the elegance of
its form, and the gentleness and playfulness of its char-
acter. Its general colour is a mixture of black and
grey, with the face, the hands, and the extremity of
the tail deep black ; down the back runs a broad band
of a deep chestnut- red colour; on the forehead there is a
white band, curved so as to form a very open crescent —
a character which induced Linnaeus to give the species
the name of the goddess of the chase ; and the whiskers
and beard are also pure white. The latter appendage
forms one of the most curious characters of this mon-
key ; it is very long and pointed, resembling, as Mr.
Ogilby says, " the formal cut of the peaked beard which
we see in some old paintings about the time of Henry
VIII.;" and the monkey appears to regard it as highly
ornamental, taking great care to keep it trimmed and
neat, and holding it in his hand when he is about to
drink, to prevent it from coming in contact with the
water. Mr. Ogilby says that the first time he observed
this strange action, the ludicrous effect of the creature's
solicitude about his beard made him laugh outright ;
the monkey, after looking up for a moment as if in
astonishment at this sudden explosion, appeared all at
once to discover its cause, and no doubt regarding it as
a personal insult, flew at the offender most viciously,
and was only prevented by the shortness of his chain
from inflicting a severe and summary punishment upon
him.
As a general rule, however, the diana monkey is
exceedingly good-tempered, and very lively and play-
ful. A most interesting account of a specimen of
this species was communicated by Mrs. Bowdich to
London's Magazine of Natural History, vol. ii. This
monkey, which had received the name of Jack,
belonged to the cook of the ship in which Mrs. Bow-
dich returned from Africa. Teasing was one of his
principal accomplishments, and he seems to have
brought the art to a great state of periection. He
would pull off the men's caps and throw them into
the sea, a habit which is said to be common in
nautical monkeys; he would knock over the parrot's
cage for the pleasure of drinking the water as it
trickled along the deck, steal the tea out of the sailors'
mugs, or abstract the pieces of biscuit which the men
had put between the bars of the grate to toast, and carry
off the carpenter's tools. But his favourite amusement
consisted in riding the pigs, in which he was a great
adept. " Whenever the pigs were let out to take a
run on deck," says Mrs. Bowdich, " he took his station
behind a cask, whence he leaped on the back of one of
his steeds as it passed. Of course the speed was
increased, and the nails he stuck in to keep himself on
produced a squeaking; but Jack was never thrown,
and became so fond of the exercise that he was obliged
to be shut up whenever the pigs were at liberty."
Several smaller monkeys were on board the ship, and
of these he was very jealous, going so far as actually
to throw two of them into the sea. On a third he
exercised his spite in a most ludicrous fashion. The
sailors had been painting the ship's side with a streak
of white, and on going down to dinner left their paint
and brushes on deck. This excellent opportunity was
not lost upon Jack ; he called a little black monkey to
him, and when the poor little beast came and crouched
at the feet of his superior, the latter seized him by the
nape of the neck, dipped the brush into the paint, and
immediately covered his victim with white from head
to foot. This absurd spectacle caused Mrs. Bowdich
and the steersman, who h^l both been watching his
proceedings, to burst into a laugh, upon which Jack
dropped the whitened monkey and scampered up into
the rigging, whilst the unhappy little subject of this
practical joke began licking himself, and was only pre-
served from being poisoned by a thorough washing
with turpentine. During this operation, the author of
the mischief was peeping down through the bars of the
maintop, with evident enjoyment of the commotion
that he had occasioned. Fear of punishment, however,
kept him aloft for three days, until hunger compelled
him to come down, when he dropped suddenly into
Mrs. Bowdich's lap, as if to seek for protection. The
skin of the diana monkey forms a beautiful fur, and is
frequently used for that purpose.
THE WHITE-NOSED MONKEYS (Cercopithecus Nic-
titans and Petaurista), which are also nearly related to
the mone, and inhabit the same countries, are distin-
guished by having a large white spot upon the nose.
The best known of these is the Lesser White-nosed
monkey (C. Petaurista), which is one of the quietest
and most playful species of the group ; and from its
familiarity and amusing habits is always a great
favourite with the visitors to our menageries.
THE CALLITHEIX (Cercopithecus Sabceus), so called
because Buffon supposed it to be identical with the
Callithrix of the ancients, belongs to a section of the
genus in which the form is more robust, and the cha-
racter generally far less amiable, than in the preceding
species. It is also called the Green monkey, and the
Cape de Verd monkey, the latter name indicating one
of its dwelling-places ; it also occurs in Senegal. It is
a handsome species, about the size of a large cat ; the
fur of the back and sides is of an olive-green colour,
mixed with brown, that of the belly is yellow, and the
whiskers are yellowish. It is very hardy, and is con-
sequently common in menageries, where its restless
playfulness renders it attractive ; but its temper becomes
uncertain as it grows older, and the adult males are
often very spiteful.
THE GEIVET (Cercopithecus Griseus) is a nearly-
allied, but smaller species, which is also frequently
imported into Europe. It is a native of Nubia and of
several provinces of Abyssinia, where it is a favourite
32
QUADRUMANA. MAMMALIA. SIMIAD.E.
•with the inhabitants, who often keep specimens in their
houses. The grivet was also well known to the ancient
Egyptians, and is often represented on their monuments.
THE PATAS (Cercopithecus Ruber), an inhabitant of
Senegal on the west coast of Africa, is one of the
monkeys most commonly imported into Europe. It is
about the size of the callithrix, and of a general reddish
fawn colour, with the lower part of the body and the
inner surface of the limbs pale grey. Across the fore-
head there is a blackish band, and the extremity of the
nose is covered with very short black hairs. In con-
finement the patas resembles the two preceding species
in its character, being very lively and playful, but at
the same time so capricious ia its temper that any
approach to familiarity with it is attended with danger.
In a state of nature, according to the old French
traveller Brae, the patas possesses a great share of
curiosity, coming down from the tops of the trees to
the lower branches to examine the boats passing
beneath them ; but when tly first novelty wore off, the
monkeys, says he, " became more confident, and began
to pelt us with rotten branches and other missiles, not
always of the most delicate description." This compli-
ment being returned by the sailors with their guns, by
which some of the monkeys were killed and others
wounded, they did not allow themselves at first to be
intimidated, but renewed the assault with great deter-
mination, until finally perceiving that the odds were
jigainst them, they scampered nimbly out of range of
the guns, and afterwards contemplated the boats from
a safer distance.
THE NISNAS (C. PyrrJwnotus}, is a species very
nearly allied to the patas, with which it was formerly
confounded. It is, however, a stouter animal, and
presents several distinctive characters, especially the
whiteness of a portion of the nose. The nisnas is a
native of Abyssinia and Nubia; it was well known to
the ancient Egyptians, and is often represented in their
sculptures. It is also supposed to be the cebus of the
Greek writers on natural history.
The group of the Macaques, already referred to as
distinguished from the Cercopitheci by the presence of
an additional (fifth) tubercle on the hindmost molar
teeth in the lower jaw, nevertheless presents a close
resemblance to the preceding group in its general
characters. In fact, the characters of the species of
these groups shade so gradually into each other — the
Cercopitheci becoming insensibly macaque-like, and the
macaques baboon-like in their general structure — that
some writers have proposed the abolition of the group of
the macaques altogether, by uniting the more monkey-
like macaques with the Cercopitheci, and the more
baboon-like species with the baboons. At the same
time, as the macaques, with but two or three excep-
tions, are all inhabitants of Asia, where they well
represent both the Cercopitheci and baboons of Africa,
it seems desirable to retain the group on account of its
convenience in regard to zoological geography.
The macaques are, in general, of a more robust form
than the other monkeys ; the muzzle is prominent, but
rounded off at the extremity, and the tail is very
variable in length, being sometimes as long as in many
Cercopitheci, sometimes reduced to a mere tubercle,
and in two species altogether wanting. In their general
habits they resemble the Cercopitheci, but their evil
passions acquire a strength proportioned to their usually
larger size and greater physical power ; and although
they are less disgusting and ferocious than the baboons,
they are far more so than the other monkeys.
THE SOOTY MANGABEY, or WHITE-EYELID MON-
KEY ( CercocebusFuli/jiaosus). We have already stated,
that although the macaques are strictly speaking an
Asiatic group, they have a few representatives else-
where. Amongst these are the mangabeys or white-
eyelid monkeys which inhabit Africa, and most closely
resemble the common monkeys of that continent in
their general form, in the length of the tail, and in
their habits. The mangabeys are, however, distin-
guished from the ordinary monkeys and from the other
macaques, by a peculiarity in the structure of the
hands — all the fingers both of the fore and hind hands
being united by webs which extend at least as far as
the first joint, whilst between the first and second fin-
gers of the hinder hands, the web reaches nearly to the
tip. They are also characterized by the dead white
colour of the upper eyelids, which gives them a singular
aspect when brought into view by those perpetual
bliukings in which all monkeys are fond of indulging.
The sooty mangabey, which is the commonest spe-
cies, is of a sooty grey colour on all the upper parts of
the body, the tail and the outer surface of the limbs ;
the chin and throat, and the lower parts of the body
are brownish ash colour. This monkey is a native
of the west coast of Africa, but nothing is known of its
habits in a state of nature. In captivity it is familiar
and gentle, exceedingly active and full of grimace,
throwing itself into such ludicrous attitudes that, as
M. F. Cuvier observes, " it might be supposed to be
provided with a greater number of joints than other
monkeys," or tumbling and dancing in an absurd fashion
to attract the attention of the visitors, from whom it
hopes to obtain a reward for its agility. Mr. Ogilby
mentions that a " specimen in the menagerie of the
Zoological Society was very fond of being caressed, and
would examine the hands of his friends with the great-
est gentleness and gravity, trying to pick out the little
hairs, and ah1 the while expressing his satisfaction by
smacking his lips, and uttering a low suppressed grunt."
This habit appears to be a favourite one with the spe-
cies, as many specimens exhibit it.
Two other species of these monkeys are known — the
COLLARED MAXGABEY (Cercocebus Collaris), and the
WHITE-CROWNED MANGABEY (C. jJEthiops) ; they
are both said to inhabit the west coast of Africa.
THE BONNET MONKEY {Macacos Siniciis), the
Toque of some authors, was called the Bonnet Chinois
by Buffon, from an erroneous notion that it was a native
of China; it is now known to come from the Malabar and
Coromandel coasts, and probably inhabits the whole
southern extremity of the peninsula of Hindostan. It
also lives in a wild state in the Mauritius, but has been
introduced into that island since its occupation by
Europeans.
The bonnet monkey is a species frequently brought
to Europe for exhibition ; it is about the size of a large
THE MACAQUES. MAMMALIA. THE WANDEROO.
33
cat, of a greenish-dun colour on the upper parts and
greyish below, and has a long tail. The whole of the
face is naked, wrinkled, and of a dingy flesh colour ; but
the most striking character of the species is to be found
in the arrangement of the hair of the crown, which is
long and dark-coloured, and instead of standing erect,
spreads in all directions like rays proceeding from a
common centre, lying upon the surface of the head in
the same way as the hair of a scalp wig. It is from
this character that the animal has received the name of
the bonnet monkey. A somewhat similar disposition
of the hair occurs in a nearly allied species, the Crowned
MonJcey (Macacus Pileatus), but this is of a reddish-
brown colour, and the hair of the head is nearly erect.
In its native country the bonnet monkey meets with an
amount of veneration almost equal to that shown in
Bengal to the hoonuman (see p. 27) ; although very
destructive in the gardens and fields, it is forbidden to
kill them, and the natives assemble round any person
guilty of this offence, and give him no peace until he
has paid for a sumptuous funeral for his victim. Such
at least is the account given by Buchanan of the state
of matters in Mysore, which, in all probability, relates
to this monkey ; and that traveller adds, that the pro-
prietors of gardens used to hire men of a particular
class, who captured the monkeys and squirrels (which,
it would appear, are equally sacred) in nets, and then
conveyed them to some distant village ; but as every-
body resorted to the same means of getting rid of such
troublesome neighbours, the gardeners soon found that
the monkey-catchers were the only people who benefited
by these proceedings, and accordingly gave them up.
In confinement, the bonnet monkey is a most amusing
fellow when young, as all his actions are performed with
an amount of gravity which is exceedingly ludicrous.
Of all the species usually kept in our menageries, the
bonnet monkeys exhibit the most striking external
marks of mutual affection. When two or three are kept
together they are constantly to be seen hugging or
nursing each other, or carefully searching in the fur of
their companions for the fleas and other vermin which
doubtless harbour there in sufficient abundance to render
their destruction a matter of gratification. At all
events this appears to be the feeling of the monkeys,
who make it an affair of mutual advantage ; for whilst
one fellow exhibits the most exemplary patience, lying at
full length, and submitting to have every part of his fur
investigated by the sharp nails and sharper eyes of his
companion — the latter rewards himself for his trouble
by immediately devouring any of his friend's troublesome
guests that may come under his fingers. Where a
specimen of this monkey has none of its own species to
contract an intimacy with, it will content itself with
some other animal, and a kitten is not unfrequently
given to it as a companion. Under these circumstances,
as Mr. Ogilby remarks, "nothing can exceed the
ridiculous caricature of humanity which it presents —
petting, nursing, and hugging the unfortunate kitten,
at the imminent risk of choking it, with all the gra-
vity and fondness" of a child similarly employed.
When adult, however, the deportment of the bonnet
monkey becomes entirely changed; instead of the
playful good temper of the young animals, the old
VOL. I.
males exhibit a morose, sullen, and spiteful disposition,
which renders it dangerous to attempt any familiarities
with them, and the aspect of the animal changes at the
same time, and acquires a ferocity which accords but
too well with his temper.
THE MACAQUE (Macacus Cynomolgus) is another
long-tailed species which is also frequently brought to
Europe. It is a larger and more robust species than
the bonnet monkey, which it resembles in most of its
structural characters, and in its disposition. The colour
of the upper parts of the body and the outer surface of
the limbs is greenish-brown, the lower surface and the
inside of the limbs are greyish-white. The tail, when
not injured, is about as long as the body ; but the
macaque has a curious habit of gnawing the end of his
tail, and it is a very common circumstance to see speci-
mens with this member considerably abbreviated, most
probably in this way. The hair of the crown of the
head usually forms a sort of ridge, or crest, running from
back to front, and appearing as though it had all been
brushed up towards the middle. A specimen which
exhibited this peculiarity was described by Buffon under
the name of the Aigrette.
The macaque is far more widely distributed than the
bonnet monkey, being found not only on the continent
of India, but also on several of the large islands, espe-
cially Java, Sumatra, Borneo, and Celebes. According
to Dr. Horsfield, it is the commonest monkey in the
forests of Java, where it is a great favourite with the
natives, who constantly domesticate it and keep it in
their stables, under the impression that its society is ad-
vantageous to the horses. In the European menageries
the macaque appears to thrive ; it supports the severity
of our winters better than most other monkeys, and has
been several times known to breed in Europe. It is
remarkable that, under these circumstances the female
has generally deserted her offspring, although other
nearly-allied species have not only bred in confinement,
but have tended their young with the greatest care.
The habits of this animal in captivity are similar to
those of the bonnet monkey, but the old males become
even more ferocious and spiteful.
THE WANDEROO (Macacus Silenus) is one of those
species of macaques in which the tail is only about a
third of the length of the body. It measures from three
feet to three feet and a half in height, and is of a robust
form; its hair is- of a black or blackish colour, as is also
the naked skin of its face and paws, but its head is sur-
rounded by a long thick mane of greyish hair, resem-
bling an enormous wig falling down upon the shoulders,
in the style of that remarkable head-dress which is still
thought to confer such dignity upon our judges, and per-
haps justly, for between this ornament and the habitual
gravity of its countenance, the wanderoo acquires a
singular air of wisdom and importance, which, in the
monkey at any rate, is exceedingly ludicrous. Its tail
is tufted at the extremity.
The name of Wanderoo, commonly given to this
monkey, is said to be its ordinary denomination in
Ceylon, of which island, and the adjacent coasts of
continental India, it is an inhabitant. It is said, also,
by some writers, to advance far towards the north at
certain seasons of the year, and sometimes even to
QUADRI'MAXA. MAMMALIA. SlMIAD.E.
ascend the Himalayas nearly to the region of perpetual
snow. According to Father Vincent Maria, a Carmelite
monk, this monkey would appear to occupy quite an
aristocratic position amongst the other quadrumanous
inhabitants of the Malabar coast. The old missionary
tells us that "the other monkeys pay such profound
respect to this species, that they humiliate themselves
before him, as if capable of appreciating his superiority
and pre-eminence," and the magnificence of his wig
seems even to produce an impression on the human
inhabitants of Malabar, for the worthy father adds, that
" the princes and great lords hold him in much esti-
mation, because he is endowed above every other with
gravity, capacity, and the appearance of wisdom. He
is easily trained to the performance of a variety of
ceremonies, grimaces, and affected courtesies, all which
he accomplishes in so serious a manner, and to such
perfection, that it is a most wonderful thing to see
them acted with so much exactness by an irrational
animal." Mr. Ogilby is probably in the right when he
attributes the submission of the other monkeys to the
wanderoo, rather to his physical than to his moral
superiority, and the behaviour of several specimens
which have from time to time been exhibited in this
country has proved that the wanderoo is not superior
to his congeners in sagacity. Kobert Knox, another
old traveller, tells us, that in Ceylon this monkey does
little mischief, but lives in the woods, feeding on the
leaves and buds of trees.
THE BBTTH (Macacus Nemestrinus), described by
Buffon under the name of the Maimon, is of a more
robust form than the wanderoo, and has the tail much
shorter, slender, nearly naked, and slightly curled, which
has given origin to the name of the Pig-tailed Monkey,
originally applied to this species by Edwards. The
bruh is of a blackish-brown colour on the back, becom-
ing lighter beneath and on the limbs ; its face is flesh-
coloured. It is an inhabitant of Sumatra and Borneo,
and is described as being more docile and intelligent
than its nearest allies ; but this amiability of character
would seem to disappear with age, although even old
specimens are said to exhibit less ferocity and sul-
lenness than the other large macaques. According to
Sir Stamford Raffles, the natives of Sumatra are fond
of domesticating the bruh, whose docility they turn to
good account. They train it to climb the cocoa-nut
trees for the purpose of picking the fruit, and it is said
to show great discrimination in selecting the ripe nuts,
of which, moreover, it picks no more than its master
requires.
THE BHTJUDEB (Macaeus Rhesus) is a species very
nearly related to the brim, with which it was indeed
confounded by Cuvier. It is, however, furnished with
a rather longer tail ; and this appendage, instead of
being slender and naked, is thick and well covered with
hair ; the upper surface of the body is of a greenish-
grey colour, the individual hairs being annulated with
light dun and dark brown ; the lower surface and the
inside of the limbs are light grey, and the callosities
are bright red. The skin is remarkably loose and
flaccid, hanging in folds even in the young animals;
and this peculiarity, which occurs, although to a some-
what less extent, also in the bruh, enables these mon-
keys to be fattened to such a degree as to exhibit an
enormous corpulence.
The bhunder is a native of continental India, where
it occurs abundantly in Bengal, and is also found in
Assam, Nepal, and Simla. The hoonuman is the only
other monkey which lives in these provinces, and the
bhunder appears to share with this sacred species in
the respect of the natives. Captain Williamson tells
us that in many places revenues are allotted for feeding
whole tribes of bhunders under the charge of a fakeer,
or other mendicant priest, who ekes out the regular
revenues attached to his office by charitable contribu-
tions levied upon travellers principally by the mon-
keys, who show themselves most accomplished beggars.
They never molest any one, unless some cause of
offence is given ; but then they bite severely, and a
trifling circumstance may produce the necessary irrita-
tion. Mr. Johnson also confirms these statements, and
mentions that at a place called Bindrabun, " more than
a hundred gardens are well cultivated with all kinds
of fruit, solely for the support of these animals, which
are kept and maintained by religious endowments from
rich natives." The same writer tells us on good
authority, " that in the district of Cooch Behar, a very
large tract of land is actually considered by the inha-
bitants to belong to a tribe of monkeys which inhabit
the neighbouring hills, and when the natives cut their
different kinds of grain, they always leave about a tenth
part piled in heaps for the monkeys. As soon as their
portion is marked out, they come down from the hills
in a large body and carry off all that is allotted for
them, stowing it under and between the rocks in such
a manner as to prevent vermin from destroying it. On
this grain they chiefly live ; and the natives assert that
if they were not to have their due proportion, in ano-
ther year they would not allow a single grain to become
ripe, but would destroy it while green. It does not
appear whether this singular and primitive payment of
tithes has been settled by mutual agreement between
the natives and the monkeys ; but in other places,
where no such arrangement is described as existing, the
monkeys come freely in search of their dues into the
houses, and carry off whatever they prefer with perfect
impunity. In fact, the destruction of one of these
animals is looked upon as a heinous crime by the Hin-
doos ; and the writer last quoted mentions that two
young officers who had shot at a bhunder, were pelted
with sticks and other missiles by the fakeers and other
inhabitants of Bindrabun, where the supposed outrage
took place, until the elephant on which they rode was
driven into the river, where both the young men, as
well as the driver of the elephant, were drowned.
Nevertheless, the respect thus manifested for the mon-
keys does not prevent the jugglers who swarm in India
from teaching these animals numerous tricks ; ant»,
according to Captain Williamson, " it is very diverting
to see these little mimics counterfeiting the gait and
motions of various professions, and especially corrobo-
rating by their actions the deluge of flattery which the
jugglers pour forth in praise of everything relating to
the English character. Their antics are so excellently
just on these occasions, that many human profes-
sors of the mimic art might, without the smallest
THE MACAQUES. MAMMALIA. THE MAGOT.
35
disparagement, take a lesson from these diminutive
imitators."
The bhunder is one of the few species of Sirniadae
•which have produced young in our menageries, and,
under these circumstances, the female exhibits a won-
derful degree of affection for her offspring. In a case
recorded at great length by M. F. Cuvier, the young
animal continued for the first fortnight of its existence
firmly clinging to the hair of its mother, with its mouth
constantly applied to her nipple, only changing its
position occasionally in order to cross over to the other
side, but constantly turning its eyes to watch every-
thing that occurred in its vicinity. At the end of a
fortnight the little creature detached itself from its
mother, and then, from the very first, exhibited an
address and precision in its movements which could
hardly have been anticipated. Still the mother watched
it with anxious care, always ready to assist it in any
difficulty into which it might fall during its gambols,
and clasping it in her arms whenever she thought it
was threatened with airy danger. At the end of six
weeks, however, when the young one was ready for
more solid nutriment, this otherwise affectionate mother
displayed a singular amount of selfish greediness, driv-
ing her offspring away from the front of the cage when-
ever their food was put in, so that it was only by stealth
that the poor little beast contrived to secure a share of
what was going.
Several other species of macaques inhabit the con-
tinent of Asia and its islands ; but amongst these we shall
only mention the URSINE MACAQUE (M. Ursinus), and
the BED-FACED MACAQUE (M. Speciosus), in which
the tail is reduced to a mere tubercle, and the BLACK
MACAQUE (Macacus Niger), in which there is no trace
of that appendage. The second of these species is
remarkable as being the only monkey inhabiting Japan ;
and the third presents some peculiar characters, which
have caused it to be raised to the rank of a distinct
genus, under the name of Cynopithecus.
THE MAGOT (Inuus Sylvanus), or BARBARY APE,
as it is frequently called, is the last species of the group
of macaques to which we shall refer ; it is remarkable
as being the only monkey found in Europe. It differs
from the rest of the macaques in having the posterior
tubercle of the hindmost molar in the lower jaw divided
into three parts by two little furrows, and from nearly
all of them by the total absence of a tail.
The magot, when full grown, stands between three
and four feet in height, and is of a robust form. The
general colour of its fur is a yellowish olive-green, pale
or greyish beneath ; the face is of a dingy flesh-colour,
much wrinkled, and marked with irregular brown spots;
and the hairs surrounding the face are of a dirty grey.
It usually goes on all fours, and appears to prefer rocky
and mountainous districts for its habitation, where this
quadruped mode of progression is the most practicable
one. In its character it closely resembles the other
macaques, being lively, intelligent, and docile when
young, but becoming morose and intractable with
increasing years. The vivacity and playfulness of the
young and half-grown animals, have always rendered
them great favourites with the itinerant 'showmen of
Europe, and the magot has been well known in this
way from time immemorial. He has, however, another
and still more important claim upon our attention :
during the long series of years when the dissection of
the human body was strictly prohibited, the anatomists
of Europe derived all their notions of anatomy from
the structure of this animal. Galen's description of
the anatomy of man was almost entirely drawn from
his dissections of the magot; and many years after-
wards, when Vesalius published his great and valuable
work, " De corporis humani fabrica," the surgeons of
the old school refused to accept the new views therein
brought forward, and adhered resolutely to Galen in all
points when there was a difference between the state-
ments of the rival anatomists. Some of the most
distinguished physicians of the sixteenth century actu-
ally wrote treatises in support of the old notions ; and
it was not until Camper, two centuries later, proved
that Galen's descriptions applied only to the magot, that
we may consider the question to have been finally
settled.
The chief home of the magot is in the mountainous
parts of Northern Africa, in Algeria, and Morocco,
where these animals reside in the forests in large troops,
and are said to attack and drive away the beasts of
prey which intrude upon their domains, although no
doubt they often fall a prey to the leopard, and some
of the smaller cats which abound in Northern Africa,
and which, by the facility with which they climb
trees, may easily steal upon them unawares during the |
night. Their food in a state of nature, according to
M. Desfontaines, consists of " pine-cones, chestnuts,
figs, melons, pistachio nuts, and vegetables, which they
carry off from the gardens of the Arabs, notwithstand-
ing all the pains they take to exclude these mischievous
animals. While they are committing their thefts, two
or three mount to the summits of the trees and of the
highest rocks to keep watch, and as soon as these
sentinels see any one or hear a noise, they utter a cry
of warning, and immediately the whole troop takes to
flight, carrying off whatever they have been able to
lay their hands on." M. Desfontaines adds, that " in
the wild state, they generally bring forth only a single
young one, which, almost as soon as it is born, mounts
on the back of its mother, embraces her neck with its
arms, and is thus transported in safety from place to
place ; sometimes, however, it remains firmly attached
to the breast."
The origin of the colony of this species, which still
lives upon the rock of Gibraltar under the special pro-
tection of the English garrison, has frequently been a
subject of discussion; some naturalists thinking that the
species must have been imported into the south of
Spain, as some of its Eastern allies have been into the
Mauritius. It would appear, however, that the extreme
southern part of the Spanish peninsula harbours a
considerable number of terrestrial animals, which are
otherwise peculiar to the opposite shores of Africa;
and, according to some authors, the magot itself occurs
in a wild state upon other mountains of Andalusia,
and even of Granada. Ancient writers also are silent
with regard to the occurrence of their Pithecus, which
was undoubtedly the present species, in any other part
of Europe ; although Procopius, a Greek writer of the
36
QOADKUMANA. MAMMALIA. SlMIAD.E.
sixth century of the Christian era, mentions man-like
apes inhabiting Corsica. In the absence of all positive
evidence, one way or the other, we can only suppose
that the magot, with the other African forms of ani-
mals which occur with him in Southern Europe, may
have extended his range into the latter region at a
period when the two continents were united. Even
then it would be curious that the European represen-
tatives of the species should confine themselves to a
bare rock at the most southern point of the peninsula,
as if anxious still to be within sight of the shores which
undoubtedly constitute their true home, but from which
they are for .ever excluded. This, however, may per-
haps be explicable upon the supposition, that important
changes of climate may have taken place in Spain since
the disruption of the continents at the Pillars of Her-
cules.
The group of the Baboons at which we now arrive,
and which closes the series of Old World monkeys,
resembles the macaques in most of its characters, dif-
fering principally in the form of the face, which, in the
baboons, is produced into a snout and more or less
truncated, or, as it were, cut off at the extremity. They
have small eyes, placed closer together than in any
of the preceding groups of monkeys; the hindmost
molars in the lower jaw are furnished with one or two
accessory tubercles as in the macaques ; and the
tail, which is usually short, is placed very high up on
the rump.
The baboons are all of considerable size, larger than
the other monkeys, but usually smaller than the true
apes. They are of a robust form, with stout powerful
limbs, upon which they usually go upon all fours ; they
are, in fact, the most animal of the Simiadse. Their
jaws are enormously powerful, and armed with immense
canine teeth, with which they are able to inflict very
severe wounds upon their adversaries. They usually
take up their abode amongst the rocks, and are con-
fined to the African continent, in all parts of which some
species are found. One species also occurs in Arabia.
They are ferocious and disgusting in their habits, and
during the breeding season the posterior callosities,
which are of large size and generally of a bright red
colour, become so turgid and conspicuous, as to give
the creatures a most repulsive aspect In confinement,
even the females seem to delight in exposing these
disgusting features to the gaze of the spectators, whilst
the males usually exhibit the lasciviousness of their
nature in such an odious light, that they can rarely be
exposed freely to the public. In many cases they have
been known to notice women amongst the spectators
before their cages, sometimes even selecting the young-
est and handsomest for this questionable compliment,
and evincing their preference by unraistakeable ges-
tures ; so that there can be little doubt, that had they
the opportunity, they' would resort to violence for the
gratification of their passions.
THE HANDBILL (Papio Mormon], Plate 2, fig. 4.
The mandrill, the largest and most powerful of the
baboons, belongs to a genus in which the tail is very
short, forming a small naked process which stands up
perpendicularly to the spinal column. The head of
this baboon is of large size, a circumstance which is
due principally to the enormous development of the
facial bones ; in the males, especially, these bones form
a long muzzle, on the sides of which are a pair of large
bony protuberances ; the upper canines are of immense
size ; the lower jaw is enormously powerful and armed
with sharp canine teeth ; the surface of the skull exhi-
bits strong ridges for the attachment of the muscles ;
and no one who looks at the entire skull of a mandrill,
can doubt for a moment that the creature possessing
such formidable weapons and such powerful means of
setting them in motion, would be as terrible an anta-
gonist as almost any beast of prey.
The adult male sometimes attains a height of upwards
of five feet when standing upright. The general colour
of the fur on the back and sides is a light olive-brown,
and on the lower parts of the body a silvery grey. On
the forehead and crown of the head the hair is directed
upwards, giving a curious appearance to the head ; the
face is naked, and the protuberant sides of the nose
are strongly ridged and marked with bright red, light
blue, and purple. The callosities are large, and of a
bright red colour. In the females and young males,
the muzzle is shorter and less protuberant than in the
old males, and of a uniform blue colour.
The native country of this formidable animal is the
western coast of Africa, especially in the district of
Guinea, where it appears to have been often confounded
with the chimpanzee in the stories related by the
Negroes to travellers. It is known to the natives of
different districts by a variety of names, amongst which
Smitten, Choras, Boggo, and Barris are recorded by
authors ; the latter name is the one given to the gorilla
by De Laval (see p. 17), and we have already stated
that the name of Drill, now commonly applied to the
following species, and which evidently forms part of
the name under which the present animal is known,
really belongs to the chimpanzee. Considering the
vicious character of the mandrill, we may, perhaps,
suppose that many of the narratives of travellers, with
regard to women being carried off into the woods by
monkeys, apply rather to this species than to the chim-
panzee, although both of them are charged with this
crime. The mandrills are also described as associating
in large troops, and driving away other wild animals,
including even the elephants, from the districts of the
forest in which they choose to take up their quarters,
whilst their human neighbours are afraid to pass through
the woods in which they reside, except in large com-
panies and well armed. In a state of nature the
mandrills live principally upon fruits, although, like
the other baboons, they doubtless often devour small
animals, and they are said sometimes to make a descent
upon the negro villages, and plunder them of every-
thing eatable. In captivity they eat almost anything,
and usually acquire a strong taste for intoxicating
liquors. A fine specimen which was exhibited many
years ago at Exeter Change, and which had retained
his youthful tractability to a later period than is usual
with the male baboons, was in the habit of drinking
his pot of porter daily, accompanying this indulgence
with a pipe, which he smoked with great gravity.
THE BABOONS. MAMMALIA. THE DEKRIAS.
When thus engaged he would sit in his chair with his
pot of porter in one hand, and no doubt he would have
been as indignant as little Tony Weller, had he been
offered a pint instead of his customary allowance. This
mandrill bore the appropriate name of Happy Jerry,
and his reputation was so wide-spread that he was
actually honoured with an invitation to Windsor Castle
from his Majesty George IV.
THE DEILL (Papio leucophceus) is another species
of short-tailed baboon very nearly allied to the man-
drill, and, like it, an inhabitant of the Guinea coast. It
is rather smaller than the preceding species ; its fur is
of a more greenish colour ; the sides of the muzzle are
less protuberant, and the skin of the face is entirely
black. It was originally described as a distinct species
by Pennant, under the name of the Wood Baboon ; but
little or nothing is yet known of its habits in a state
of nature, although in these it probably resembles the
mandrill.
THE CHACMA (Cynocephalus porcarius} belongs to
another genus of baboons, in which the tail is of
moderate length. The chacma is the largest species
of this genus, equalling a large mastiff in size and form,
exceeding it in robustness and strength. It is of an
olive-black on the back, with the sides and belly paler ;
the whiskers are greyish and the face brown. It is an
inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope, where it lives in
the mountains amongst the rocks in troops of three or
four hundred together. Travellers through the passes
of the Cape Mountains describe the noise made by the
baboons, when they see the loaded waggons intruding
upon their territory, as something terrific ; and should
the travellers outspan for the night in the vicinity of
their habitations, the yells and bowlings of the baboons
are kept up all night, so as effectually to scare sleep
from the intruders' eyelids, and make them long for the
first dawn of day to recommence their toilsome march.
Sometimes, however, it would appear that the baboons
take matters more quietly, sitting peaceably on the
summits of the rocks and gazing down upon the train
of waggons ; should they be within reach of the rifles
of the travellers they scramble away immediately,
climbing up the faces of nearly perpendicular rocks, by
the help of certain creeping plants which, in many
places, form a network over the rocks, and from the
use to which the baboons put them, are called by the
boors Monkeys' ladders. Their movements under such
circumstances are said to be indescribably amusing,
but they cannot always be observed in safety ; for the
baboons sometimes attack travellers by throwing stones
down upon them.
The food of the chacma, like that of the other
baboons, consists partly of fruits and roots, and partly
of animal substances, such as insects, lizards, and the
eggs of birds. In search of vegetable aliments, the
troops often descend into the cultivated districts, where
they do great damage. From this circumstance,
coupled with their ferocity and other evil qualities, the
chacmas are regarded with much antipathy by the
Cape boors, and this feeling appears even to be shared
by the dogs; for we are told that there is no other
animal which they attack so readily, or with so much
determination. Such are the strength and ferocity of
the chacma, however, that some of the dogs generally
pay dearly for their temerity, and the boors would
almost prefer setting their dogs upon a lion, to letting
them go in pursuit of one of these animals. Even the
leopard, which inhabits the same districts as this
powerful baboon, and feeds principally upon the females
and young males of the chacma, often meets with a
disappointment when he ventures upon an old male.
Notwithstanding these bad qualities the young
chacmas are often domesticated at the Cape, when
they are said to show great docility, and to fulfil the
important office of keeping guard and giving notice of
the approach of a stranger as well as or better than a
dog. They are also trained to perform some other
useful duties. Sometimes a smith will be seen with a
chacma attending to his fire, or a peasant committing
the guidance of his oxen to one of these animals ; but
in whatever way they may be employed, they require
to be always under the eye of the master. They are
also noted for the sagacity with which they reject any
unwholesome food, so that a Hottentot will never touch
anything that has been refused by a chacma. This
renders it exceedingly difficult to poison them, and
M. Pucheran mentions a case in which one of these
animals actually abstained for ten days from touching
some poisoned food which had been prepared to kill
him. From the account given by M. Le Vaillant of
one of these baboons which was in his possession in
Africa, they would appear to be good-tempered, amus-
ing, and even affectionate ; but these good qualities in
all probability wear off in course of time, as the adult
specimens which have been kept in menageries in
Europe, have exhibited all the ferocity and other dis-
gusting qualities of their congeners.
THE DERRIAS (Cynocephalus Hamadryad). Several
species of baboons are found abundantly in the north-
eastern part of the African continent, in Nubia, Abys-
sinia, and even in the mountains of Arabia. Amongst
these the most celebrated is the derrias, a large species,
standing about four feet in height when erect, which is
remarkable from its having the whole fore part of the
body, as far as the loins, covered with long shaggy hair,
whilst that of the hinder quarters is short ; so that the
creature has not unaptly been compared to a clipped
French poodle. In its habits the derrias closely resem-
bles the preceding species.
By some writers this is considered to be the ape
T/toth, so commonly represented upon Egyptian monu-
ments, usually in a sitting posture, but variously em-
ployed. He was the emblem of Hermes (Thoth) the
inventor of letters and of the art of writing, and Hora-
pollon, an ancient author, relates that whenever one of
these baboons was brought to the temples, he was met
by a priest who presented him with tablets and pen and
ink, to ascertain whether he really belonged to the
family of those who understood writing.* Subsequently
the thoth appears to have become the symbol of the
supreme judge of the souls of men; and in this capacity
he is frequently represented with a pair of scales, in
which the good and bad actions of those before him
* This may remind our readers of the story in the "Thou-
sand and One Nights," in which a prince, metamorphosed into
an ape, discovers his human quality by writing.
QUADRUMANA. MAMJIALIA.-
are to be weighed. Ehrenberg thinks, with some pro-
bability, that the singular head-dress which is so
frequently represented on Egyptian monuments, was
an imitation of the remarkable hairy covering of this
sacred monkey.
THE COMMON BABOON (Cynoceplialus Papio), the
last species to which we shall refer, is a native of the
western coast of Africa, where it appears to be exceed-
ingly abundant. Of all the baboons it is the one which
is most frequently brought to this country, and its good
temper, familiarity, and curious habits when young,
render it a great favourite with the visitors to mena-
geries. As it increases in age, however, it acquires the
same repulsive habits as its allies, although perhaps in
a somewhat less degree, and in some cases the adult
males have been known to retain much of their youth-
ful docility. It also exhibits great intelligence.
The general colour of this baboon is reddish-brown ;
the whiskers are light fawn colour; the face nearly black,
and the callosities reddish-violet. It is one of those
Simiadae which support the climate of Europe with
least inconvenience, and it has frequently bred in our
menageries. The adults, and even the males, exhibit
much attachment to the young animals, nursing them
with great tenderness whilst they are very young, and
treating them afterwards with far more kindness than
is usually shown by monkeys in captivity towards their
offspring.
With the baboons we terminate the long series of
interesting species which constitute the family Simiada,
and at the same time the first section of the great tribe
of SIMILE or monkeys. In these, as already stated
(p. 14), the nostrils are placed close together and
separated only by a narrow partition; whilst in the
second section of the Simise the nose is broad and flat
and the nostrils separated by a wide interval. We
have already adverted to the remarkable zoological
distribution of these two nearly-related groups of
animals ; the first section, Catarrhine, being restricted
to the eastern hemisphere, while the Platyrrhine, or
Flat-nosed monkeys are as exclusively confined to the
New World. In the Old World, as we have seen, the
monkeys are almost exclusively inhabitants of tropical
regions, and this is still more decidedly the case in
America, where these animals are confined to the
forests of the hottest parts of the southern continent.
Although the species of American monkeys are
exceedingly numerous, they present no such variety of
form and habits as their eastern brethren, and we shall
therefore be able, by selecting a few of the more strik-
ing species, to give the reader a good idea of the whole
group. They are all of small or medium size, and
arboreal in their habits; all are destitute of cheek-
pouches and callosities, which are possessed by the
majority of the Old World species ; their food is of a
mixed animal and vegetable nature ; and in their dis-
positions they are usually good-tempered, docile, and
intelligent. Nevertheless, with all these characters in
common, the American monkeys present certain struc-
tural peculiarities, by which they may be divided into
two distinct families.
FAMILY II.— CEBID.E.
The first and most important of these families is that
of the Cebidae, which is at once distinguished from all the
other monkeys by a most important character, namely,
the presence of four additional molars — there being six of
these teeth in each side of each jaw ; so that, the number
and distribution of the other teeth remaining the same,
there are in all thirty -six teeth in this family, whilst
the rest of the monkeys have only thirty-two. From
the second family of American monkeys the Cebidse
further differ in having the fingers all furnished with
flat nails. With but one or two exceptions they have
very long tails, and in most cases these organs are pre-
hensile at the tip, so that these creatures are, as it
were, provided with a fifth hand, which is of the greatest
service to them in their rapid and agile movements
amongst the branches of the trees.
THE BED HOWLING MONKEY (Mycftes Seniculus),
Plate 2, fig. 5. The Howlers, or howling monkeys
(Mycetes), are the largest and most robust of the
American monkeys, appearing in some respects to
represent in the New Continent the orangs and chim-
panzees of the Old World. Their jaws are large
and powerful, and armed with strong teeth, the struc-
ture of which indicates their food to be principally of a
vegetable nature. Their colours are usually reddish
or brown, and they are furnished with a long and well-
furred tail, which has the tip naked on the lower sur-
face, and is strongly prehensile.
The most remarkable peculiarity of these animals,
and the one to which their name of howlers refers,
consists in the fearful noise which they produce every
morning and evening, and often during the night,
which, according to Humboldt and Azara, may be
heard at a distance of more than a mile. Azara com-
pares the noise " to the creaking of a great number of
ungreased carts ;" and Waterton states that, on hearing
the howlers in the primaeval forests of Guiana, " you
would suppose that half the wild beasts of the forest
were collecting for the work of carnage ; now it is the
tremendous roar of the jaguar, as he springs on his
prey ; now it changes to his deep-toned growlings, as
he is pressed on all sides by superior force ; and now
you hear his last dying moan beneath a mortal wound."
It is still a question whether these terrible bowlings
are produced by a single monkey at a time, or by a
general chorus of a whole tribe ; but the Indians fully
believe that one of the number commences the concert.
Marcgrave, in his "Natural History of Brazil," pub-
lished in 1648, gives us, evidently from the reports of
the Indians, a very circumstantial account of the pro-
ceedings of the howlers. He says that every morning
and evening these monkeys assemble in the woods,
and that one of them then perches himself in the
highest place he can reach, and makes a sign to the
others to sit around him. He then commences his
discourse, with a voice so loud, that, according to our
author, it might be supposed that the whole of them
were howling together, although they sit in the most
decorous manner in perfect silence, listening to the
vociferation of the self-elected preacher. When the
latter ceases, however, he makes another sign with his
HOWLING MONKEYS. MAMMALIA. THE WEEPERS.
89
hand, when the assembly indemnifies itself for the
previous restraint by bursting at once into clamour.
Marcgrave adds, that they again become silent at a sign
from the chief, who then resumes his howling for a
time. When he ceases the assembly breaks up. This
tale evidently contains great exaggerations; but it is
quite possible that one of the monkeys may commence
the howling, and the reports of more trustworthy
travellers prove that a single individual is quite capable
of producing a most unbearable noise.
The structure by which these creatures are enabled
to give utterance to sounds apparently so out of all
proportion to their size, is of a very curious nature.
The two sides or branches of the lower jaw are enor-
mously enlarged, so that they form a pair of bony
plates descending vertically from the skull, and, when
seen from the side, appear fully as large as the latter.
Between these is a rounded bony case, consisting of
the central part of the hyoid or tongue-bone, inflated
into a thin hollow ball. This receives a membranous
pouch, which communicates with the larynx, and it is
by the reverberation of the voice in the hollow space
thus formed, that it acquires the tremendous power to
which we have just referred.
In their habits the howlers are dull and morose ;
their movements are slow ; and they live in small parties
under the guidance of a chief, who is always an old
male. The latter is said to place himself in an elevated
situation, to guard against the approach of danger to the
little band under his care; but, notwithstanding this
precaution, the animals may be easily approached,
although it would appear to be by no means safe to
stand under the trees occupied by them, as a sudden
fright sometimes produces very disagreeable effects.
In passing from branch to branch, the howlers, in com-
mon with many other American monkeys, make use
of their tail as a fifth hand; and so great is its pre-
hensile power, that, even after the animal is killed, it
not unfrequently remains suspended by the tail. In
some places they are eaten by the Indians, after being
roasted on a spit ; but the resemblance of the body
of one of these monkeys, when skinned, to that of a
child, always causes Europeans to regard such food
with a feeling of repugnance. The female produces
only one at a birth, which she carries on her back.
The Red Howler (Mycetes Seniculus), called the
Alouate by Buffon, and the Royal Monkey, or King
of the Monkeys, by the South American Indians, is
a native of Guiana, where it inhabits only the woods
in the lower grounds. Its length, to the root of the
tail, is usually twenty-two inches, and the tail is of
about the same length. The general colour of the
i.air is a fine red, brighter on the head and limbs ;
the face is naked and black. Several other species
are icund in different parts of the South American
continent. Amongst these, the most abundant and
most widely distributed appears to be the Brown
Howler (M. Ursinus), which occurs in several pro-
vinces of Brazil. It is the monkey whose habits fur-
nished Marcgrave with the foundation for the story
given above, and this has obtained for it the name of
the Preacher monkey.
THE HORNED MONKEY (Celus fatuellus], Plate 2,
fig. 7. The Sapajous, Sajous, or Capuchins (Cebus),
also called Weepers, from their plaintive cry, include a
considerable number of American monkeys. In their
general form they resemble the howlers, but are always
of smaller stature and less robust form. Their heads
are short and rounded, and their tails, although prehen-
sile, are destitute of the naked space at the extremity,
which gives that organ, in the howlers and spider-
monkeys, such a firm grasp of any object round which
it may be coiled. Their hands are furnished with per-
fect thumbs, both on the fore and hind limbs.
In nearly all the species the face is bordered by a
profusion of long hair, which gives the little creatures
a most formidably-whiskered appearance, and the top
of the head is often similarly provided. In the horned
monkey the hair of this part forms two strong black
tufts, which give the creature the appearance of being
furnished with horns. Its general colour is chestnut
red, with the chest and belly bright red, and the
limbs and tail brown. It is an inhabitant of Brazil
and Guiana.
These monkeys live in troops in the boundless forests
of the South American continent, where they feed upon
fruits, seeds, insects, and corn, and also upon small birds
and their eggs. In their turn they furnish a considerable
portion of the food of the small carnivorous quadru-
peds, such as the ocelots, which abound in the American
forests, and which are very arboreal in their habits.
The sajous are of a gentle disposition, and easily tamed,
when they may be taught a number of amusing tricks.
They are frequently brought to Europe, not only for
exhibition in menageries, but also to be carried about
by itinerant musicians, who teach them to go through a
variety of evolutions, such as firing off a small gun,
and sweeping up the platform on which they are exhi-
bited with a miniature broom. Their intelligence is
very considerable : they will break a nut which is too
strong for their teeth by beating it between two stones ;
and a specimen which was living some years ago in
the menagerie at Paris, would light a lucifer match by
rubbing it upon the wall of his cage, and then hold it
in his fingers and watch it burning without the least
fear. Rengger, in his " Natural History of the Mam-
malia of Paraguay," mentions several circumstances
illustrative of the high degree of intelligence possessed
by these monkeys. They peel oranges, and tear the
wings and legs off the larger insects before eating them.
When a living bird is given to them, they first bite a
hole in the skull, through which they extract the brain,
then pluck off the feathers, tear the bird limb from
limb, and finally gnaw the flesh off the separate bones.
On giving an egg to a young one for the first time, he
would break it very clumsily, and make a shocking
mess with it ; but in a short time he learnt by experi-
ence to break the end gently against a solid body,
pick off the pieces, and then suck out the contents
without losing a drop. This mode of sucking eggs is
also adopted by the spider-monkeys, and some others.
But perhaps the most remarkable instance of intelli-
gence presented by the sajous is the following :— Reng-
ger had been in the habit of giving his specimens small
quantities of sugar twisted up in paper. One day he
inclosed living wasps in the papers, ami the unfortu-
QUADRUMAXA. MAMMALIA. CEBID,*:.
nate moukeys, opening their prizes incautiously, were
severely stung. But this was never afterwards the
case ; for, becoming wise by experience, they always
held the papers up to their ears before opening them.
The species most frequently brought to Europe is the
BROWN SAJOU, or WEEPER MONKEY (Cebus Apella),
which is exceedingly abundant in Guiana, and also
occurs in Brazil and other parts of South America. It
measures about fourteen inches to the root of the tail,
which is between two and three inches longer than
the body. It is of a reddish-brown colour, darker on
the back, head, limbs, and tail, but with the upper part
of the arms tawny or greyish-yellow.
THE COAITA (Ateles Paniscus), Plate 2, fig. 6. The
Coaita is one of the most widely distributed of the well-
known American monkeys to which the name of Spi-
der monkeys has been given, in allusion to the great
length and slenderness of their limbs. It is found over
the greater part of the South American continent,
from Brazil and Guiana in the West, to Peru in the
East. In common with the other species of its genus
(Ateles), it is totally destitute of thumbs on the anterior
members, which thus consist only of four fingers, the
only trace of the thumb being an imperfect metacarpal
bone, completely concealed within the skin. The tail,
like the limbs, is very long, and exhibits a piece of
naked callous skin on the lower surface at the tip ; this,
coupled with the great muscular power of the tail, ren-
ders it, like that of the howlers, a most powerful pre-
hensile organ, and the animals use it freely as a fifth
hand in almost all the transactions of life. The agility
of movement displayed by these curious creatures when
springing freely about in their arboreal home, is in a
great degree due to this fifth hand; grasping a branch
with it, they swing to and fro in the air, until gaining
a sufficient impetus, they launch themselves towards
some other object ; and thus with the aid of the long
limbs, pass over great spaces with inconceivable rapidity.
Even when confined in menageries they exhibit aston-
ishing agility. We are told also by Dampier and
Dacosta, that when these monkeys want to pass a
river, or to get from one tree to another at a little
distance, without descending to the ground, they form
themselves into a sort of chain, each clinging to the
other by his tail; the whole then swing to and fro, until
the lowest individual at the free end of the chain con-
trives to get hold of the object to be attained, when he
draws up the rest, and the whole pass over.
The coaita measured about two feet in length to
the root of the tail, and is covered with long black hair,
except upon the face which is naked and brown. They
live in the forests in troops, but frequently descend in
search of nourishment to the plantations, especially the
Indian-corn fields, which they plunder to an extent
that is anything but agreeable to the owners. Their
booty is carried off to be eaten at leisure in the woods,
and here again the tail comes into play; for an old
negro told Mr. Gardner, that he had often seen the
coaita making off with three ears of Indian corn, one
in its mouth, one under its arm, and the third in its
tail. The coaita, and the other spider monkeys, also
feed to a certain extent upon animal substances, such
as insects, molluscs, birds' eggs, and even small fishes ;
and those which reside in the vicinity of the sea are
said sometimes to descend to the coast, and regale
themselves with marine luxuries, especially oysters,
which they are ingenious enough to break between two
stones. They are said also to adopt the same course
with nuts which are too hard for their teeth to crack,
and their general intelligence is very high, certainly
higher than that of any other American monkeys, and
inferior to that of few of the Old World.
In captivity the coaita is very gentle, and soon
becomes tame. It is impatient of cold, and rather
melancholy in its aspect, but exceedingly amusing from
its agile gambols. An interesting account of a tame
coaita will be found in Mr. Gardner's " Travels in the
interior of Brazil." It became a favourite of his whole
party, and especially cultivated the friendship of a
large mastiff which accompanied them on their journey.
On the march, Jerry, as the monkey was called, always
rode on the back of his canine friend, but he was not
at all particular as to whether his face was towards the
head or tail of the dog, except in going down hill, when
he always turned his face forwards; and to prevent
himself from being iguominiously slipped over the head
of his charger, made use of his tail as a crupper, by
twisting its prehensile extremity round the root of the
dog's tail.
THE SQUIRREL MONKEY (Callithrix sciureus),
Plate 3, fig. 8. The Squirrel monkey, Saimiri or Tee
Tee, is undoubtedly the prettiest, the most amiable,
and probably the most intelligent of the whole tribe.
The length of its head and body is only about ten
inches ; its tail, which is scarcely prehensile, measures
thirteen and a half; its general colour is olive-grey,
with the arms and legs reddish or orange-coloured;
and the face is bare and whitish, with the nose black.
Its eyes are large, soft, and lustrous, giving the little
creature an expression of intelligence, heightened by
the form of its head, in which the skull is of very large
size as compared with the facial bones. The skull,
with its inclosed brain, is in fact larger in proportion
to the size of the animal than that of any other monkey,
so that, if we may take the mere size of the brain as
a measure of intelligence, we may easily account for
the superiority of this interesting little creature.
The squirrel monkey lives in the forests of Guiana
and Brazil, feeding principally upon fruits and insects.
Its tail is of little use to it in its arboreal gambols, but
it appears to employ it in keeping itself warm, by wind-
ing it round its body. In captivity it is gentle and
affectionate, and one of the most interesting of the
monkey tribe. Humboldt has given some interesting
details with regard to individuals in his possession.
When he spoke to them for some time, they listened
with the most marked attention, but soon raised their
hands to his lips, as if to catch the words as they
escaped. They recognized the objects represented in
engravings, even when not coloured ; and when the
figures of insects and fruits were shown to them, they
stretched out their hands towards the paper, and endea-
voured to seize their simulated food.
THE DOUBOUCOITLI (Nyctipithecus trimrgatus).
The large eyes of the delicate little squirrel monkeys
to which we have just referred, indicate probably that
THE HAPALID^:. MAMMALIA. THE MARMOZETS.
their period of activity is to a certain extent nocturnal;
bnt in the douroucouli, this character is carried to a
far greater extent, and this animal and its allies are
known to sleep through the day, and to roam about
at night in search of their food. Their eyes, like those
of the cats, are luminous in the dark; their voice
is very strong, and, according to Humboldt, resembles
that of the jaguar. It seerns probable, indeed, from a
statement made by that author in his " Aspects of
Nature," that the concert of fearful noises heard during
the night in the forests of tropical America, and usually
attributed to the howling monkeys alone, is due to the
combined efforts of many different vocalists.
The douroucouli shelters itself in the holes of large
trees, and according to Humboldt, lives in pairs, and
not in troops, like most other monkeys. Spix, how-
ever, saj's that he has seen them going about in bands.
The tail is long, but not prehensile, and the animal
winds it round its body when in repose. The ears are
almost entirely concealed by the long hairs on the sides
of the head; the colour of the fur on the upper parts
of the body is grey; the lower parts are orange, and
this colour also appears on the sides of the neck. The
forehead exhibits three black lines, diverging back-
wards; and the tail is yellowish-grey, witb the tip
black. The length of the head and body is about ten
inches, and that of the tail eleven. The douroucouli
feeds principally on insects, and also on small birds,
which it easily surprises when they are asleep.
FAMILY III.— HAPALID.E.
The Marmozets (HapalidcB), forming the third
family of the Quadrumana, and the second of the
American monkeys, are distinguished from the Cebidse,
to which they are in other respects very closely allied
by the absence of the additional molar tooth, which, in
the latter, occurs on each side in each jaw. Thus the
total number of their teeth and that of the different
kinds of teeth becomes the same as in man and the
higher Quadrumana of the Old World. The tubercles
of the molars are also more acute than in the Cebklse,
indicating that the marmozets are more addicted to an
animal diet, and, in fact, a great part of the nourish-
ment of these creatures consists of insects, eggs of birds,
and even small birds themselves, -when these come
within reach of the carnivorous little monkeys. Their
tails are long and well-furred, but never prehensile.
The marmozets are all of small size, rarely exceeding
that of a squirrel ; their heads are small and rounded ;
their ears usually provided with tufts of hair; the
thumbs of the anterior hands are scarcely opposable,
but those of the hinder pair are completely so, and
these are furnished with flat nails whilst all the rest of
the fingers bear claws. In every particular of their
organization these monkeys show themselves to be
inferior to the rest of the great group of Simise, and to
approach more closely to the ordinary mammals, whilst
the almost complete absence of convolutions on the
surface of the brain would seem to indicate a degree
of intelligence far below that, not only of the other
Quadrumana, but even of the majority of the placental
Mammalia. In this respect, indeed, the marmozets
VOL. I.
appear to approach the squirrels, with which they also
have some other analogies ; they are incapable of the
education which most of the other Simiae and some of
the Cebidae in particular, may be brought to receive,
and their instinctive faculties are very highly developed.
The extent of their intelligence will be seen from the
particulars recorded by Audouin of the behaviour of
two marmozets observed by him. In a picture they
could recognize their own likeness, and those of flies,
locusts, and beetles, the latter of which they endea-
voured to seize with great avidity. The picture of a
cat, on the other hand, and that of a wasp, caused them
to shrink with terror, and when occupied in catching
the flies which entered their cage, which they did with
incredible dexterity, the appearance of a wasp attracted
by a piece of sugar fixed in the bars, drove them at
once to take refuge at the bottom of their cage.
Astonished at this instinctive dread of an insect which
they could never have seen before, Audouin took a
wasp and brought it near the two marmozets, when
they immediately hid their heads between their fore
hands and closed their eyes. But as soon as he substi-
tuted for the wasp, a grasshopper, a beetle, or some
other harmless insect, they darted upon it greedily and
devoured it with the greatest gusto. Sugar and sweet
fruits also constituted favourite articles of food with
them, and they possessed the art of sucking eggs in
great perfection. They would not eat flesh ; but when a
small living bird was given to them, they would seize
upon and kill it, then open its skull and devour the
brain, at the same time licking up any blood that might
flow: they would also sometimes eat the bill, the
tendons of the feet, and some other parts, but always
avoided the flesh. Mr. A. K. Wallace during his
voyage up the Amazon had an opportunity of observing
many similar habits in specimens of several species of
this family, which he kept in confinement.
M. Audouin states that his marmozets recognized
those who had the care of them, but this is opposed to
the observations of most other naturalists, and must
have been due to peculiar conditions in the individuals
observed by the great French entomologist.
In their native regions, the luxuriant forests of
South America, these elegant little monkeys live
amongst the trees in small troops, displaying, amongst
the branches, an agility almost as great as that of the
beautiful little inhabitant of our own woods — the
squirrel. Their activity, however, is nocturnal. They
produce as many as three young ones at a birth, which
is an additional indication of their approach to the
lower Mammalia; for the rest of the Quadrumana, and
even the Cheiroptera, usually produce only a single
young one ; and, as if to show this more clearly, it
sometimes happens that when they breed in captivity,
the mother will destroy one or more of her offspring, a
circumstance which occurs still more frequently with
the true Carnivora, and some of the Rodentia. Their
young are born with their eyes open.
From the foregoing account of the intellectual quali-
fications of the marmozets it is evident, that the high
esteem in which they were formerly held as pets must
have been due almost exclusively to the elegance of
their form, and the agility of their movements ; but
F
42
QCADRCMAXA. MAMMALIA. LEMURIDJ;.
whatever may have been their peculiar claims to such
an honour, there is no doubt that in the sixteenth,
seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries they were the
favourite companions of the most fashionable ladies of
Europe, and probably had even more tenderness
lavished upon them than is bestowed upon the
lap-dogs of the present day. We find the word
marmozet applied to young children as a term of
endearment by several writers of the last century. A
remarkable indication of the early prevalence of the
taste for having marmozets as pets, rendered the more
striking by the absurd anachronism involved in it, is
furnished by the fact that Guido has introduced one of
these animals into his picture of the Abduction of
Helen.
Of this group, which includes only a single genus,
the species appear to be rather numerous, about thirty
having been already described, whilst, from the accounts
given by recent travellers, there can be little doubt that
many more remain to be discovered. As, however,
they are all very similar, both in structure and habits,
we shall only refer to a few of the best known species.
THE COMMON MAEMOZET (Jacchus vulgaris), Plate
3, fig. 9, a native of Brazil, is of an ash colour, with
the rump barred with brown, and the tail variegated
with darker and lighter rings ; the head and back of
the neck are of a reddish-brown colour, and on the
sides of the head, both before and behind the ears, are
numerous long hairs of an ash colour. It measures
about eight inches in length, whilst its tail is nearly
eleven inches long.
THE BLACK-TUFTED MARMOZET (J. penicillatus),
also a native of Brazil, closely resembles the preceding,
but has the head and the tufts of long hair about the
ears black ; the latter character also occurs in the
White-headed Marmozet (J. leucoeephalus), in which,
however, the whole front of the head is white, whilst
the general colour of the fur is reddish.
THE MAEIKINA (J. Rosalia), Plate 3. fig. 10, belongs
to a section of the marmozets which has been regarded
by M. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire as forming a distinct
genus (Midas), characterized by having the lower
incisor teeth short and broad, whilst in the rest of the
family they are long and narrow. It is a beautiful
little creature of a golden yellow colour, with the head
and shoulders covered with long hair, forming a sort of
mane, which has obtained it the name of the Lion
monkey from some authors. It occurs in several parts
of South America, especially in Guiana, Brazil, and
Peru, and, from the beauty of its silky fur, its gaiety,
and gentleness, it was formerly one of the greatest
favourites of all the marmozets. The species was first
described by Brisson, from a living specimen in the
possession of Madame de Pompadour.
THE PINCHE (J. (Edipus), another pretty little
species inhabiting the same countries as the marikina,
has the long hairs confined to the forehead and the
crown of the head, where they form a sort of crest or
tuft of a white colour, the general colour of the fur
being a tawny brown, with the lower parts white, the
face black, the ears reddish, and the tail red at the
base and black at the tip.
The marmozets close the great and interesting group
of the Simise, which, as we have seen, includes those
species which approach most nearly to humanity in
their structure, and exceed all other animals in natural
intelligence, whilst the last members of the series cannot
be regarded as greatly superior, in either respect, to
creatures which the necessities of classification compel
us to place at a great distance below them.
In the second group of the Quadrumana, that of the
ProsimicE or Lemurs, the general animal character of
the species is equally if not more strongly marked than
in the marmozets, and yet every species exhibits the
quadrumanous character in perfection, the thumbs of
all the four extremities being opposable. They are dis-
tinguished from the Simise, as already stated (p. 15),
by the presence of a claw upon the first finger of the
hinder hands, although the thumbs and the remainder
of the fingers on both pairs of hands are almost invari-
ably furnished with flat nails. The incisor teeth are
variable in number, being frequently unequal in the
two jaws ; the canines are always present, and usually
of considerable size, and the molars, of which there are
either five or six on each side, are often acutely tuber-
cular, indicating an insect diet.
The whole of the Prosimiae are inhabitants of the Old
World, and the majority of them are confined to the
large island of Madagascar, where they are almost the
only representatives of their order.
FAMILY IV.— LEMURHLE.
Of the species peculiar to the remarkable island of
Madagascar, by far the greater number belong to the
family of the Lemuridse or true Lemurs. In these the
general form of the body greatly resembles that of a
cat set rather high upon its legs ; the thumbs are all
opposable, and the first finger of the forehands well
developed ; the muzzle is elongated and pointed some-
thing like that of a fox, from which circumstance the
name of Fox-nosed monkeys has frequently been applied
to the lemurs. The eyes are large and placed on the
front of the head, the body is clothed with a thick soft
fur, and the tail is long and full.
But the most positive distinctive character of the
family consists in the number of the teeth, of which
there are thirty-six, namely, four incisors, two canines,
and six molars in each jaw. The upper incisors
usually form two pairs, separated by a small space, and
placed almost perpendicularly in the jaw ; the lower
ones are much longer, and project almost in a horizontal
direction ; the upper canines are much longer than the
lower ones, and the salient tubercles of the molars
indicate frugivorous habits.
These beautiful animals, of which numerous species,
varying in size from that of a marten to that of a large
cat or fox, occur in Madagascar, are nocturnal in their
habits, coming forth in troops from their hiding-places
at sundown to exhibit their wonderful activity amongst
the branches of the trees, through which they sweep
with a swiftness and silence that induced Linnaeus to
compare the species known to him to lemures or ghosts.
Their food, as already remarked, consists to a great
extent of fruits, but they also feed freely on insects
THE LEMUR?
-MAMMALIA.
THE
4.'-
and, like all the lower Quadrumana, have a great liking
for eggs and young birds, which they may seize with
great ease during their nocturnal expeditions through
the forest. The females produce only a single young
one at a birth, and attend to this with the greatest
tenderness. At first they carry their offspring about in
their arms, the little creature aiding its mother's efforts
by clinging to her breast; but as the young lemur
increases in size, it coils itself round her middle, and is
thus carried about.
In confinement the lemurs are lively and playful, and
the elegance of their forms and gracefulness of their
actions render them most pleasing objects in our mena-
geries, where, notwithstanding the tropical tenderness
of their constitution, they have been known to live for
many years, and even to breed. They exhibit less
intelligence than the higher Quadrumana, but at the
same time are destitute of the ferocity which often
characterizes the latter as they increase in years. In
general the lemurs are very gentle and harmless, fond
of licking the hands of their visitors, and testify their
contentment by a curious purring noise. According to
the observations of M. F. Cuvier upon the mongous,
the claw of the first finger of the hinder hands is fre-
quently introduced into the ear and kept there some
time, for what purpose does not appear ; the use of the
projecting incisors of the lower jaw seems to be to act
as a sort of coinb in cleaning the fur, which the animals
are very fond of doing, not unfrequently performing
this good office for each other.
THE KING-TAILED LEMTJB, (Lemur Catta), or
MACACO, Plate 3, fig. 11, is one of the most elegant,
and, at the same time, one of the best-known species of
this family. It is about the size of a large cat, and its
general colour is a delicate ashy grey ; the sides of the
head and face, the throat, chest, and belly, are white ;
and the long bushy tail is beautifully marked with
broad rings of black and white. The form of the head
in this species is perhaps more elegant than in any
other lemur, and the vivacity and intelligence of its
appearance are heightened by its white, pointed, and
erect ears. In its manners also it is usually the most
amiable and playful of all the lemurs, and appears to
feel more affection than any of them for its master.
THE MONGOUS (Lemur Mongoz), is another species
which is frequently brought to Europe, and indeed
appears to be one of the most abundant in its native
country. It is a little larger than the ring-tailed lemur,
and its body is entirely clothed with a thick coat of
tawny woolly hair. The sides of the face are orna-
mented with a pair of orange whiskers, the top of the
head is black in the male, grey in the female, and the
tip of the tail is also black. In speaking of the agility
of this species M. F. Cuvier mentions that an individual
in his possession was able to spring from the ground to
the branch of a tree, at a height of at least ten feet.
The only other species of the genus Lemur to which
we shall refer is the Pied Lemur (L. Macaco), which
is remarkable for the distribution of its colours, consist-
ing in large irregular patches of black ar.d white. The
tail and hands are entirely black, as are also the face
and muzzle; a large black patch surrounds the shoulders
and neck, and a still larger one occupies nearly the
whole of the back, leaving only a comparatively narrow
white band between it and the patch on the shoulders.
This is the most usual arrangement of the black and
white in the pied lemur; but it varies considerably, and
specimens have been seen in which only the tail, the
hands, and the muzzle were black. This species
appears to be of a fiercer character than most of its
congeners ; some French travellers declare it to be as
ferocious and eruel as a tiger, and M. F. Cuvier records
an instance of a pied lemur which had lived for some
time on good terms with a mongous having turned
upon his companion the night after a change had been
made in their abode, and utterly destroyed him.
Besides these true lemurs the forests of Madagascar
nourish several other species belonging to this family,
which have been regarded as belonging to distinct
genera. Most of them belong to the genus Cheiro-
galeus, and the most important characters by which
they are distinguished from the rest of the lemurs
consist in the greater roundness of the head, the com-
parative shortness of the muzzle, and the larger size ot
the eyes. The latter character would indicate a more
decidedly nocturnal activity than prevails even among
the lemurs.
THE CHEIROGALETJS MILII, one of the few species
of this group of the habits of which we know anything,
and at the same time one of the largest of them, measures
about fourteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail,
which is rather longer than the body ; it is covered with
a thick silky fur of a tawny -grey colour on all the upper
parts of the body, and white beneath. Its legs are very
much shorter than in the ordinary lemurs. A specimen
in the menagerie of Paris passed the whole day sleeping
in a nest which it made for itself with hay, and the
whole night in active movement. Its agility was so
great that it could spring to a height of six or eight
feet. It fed upon fruits, bread, and biscuits. The
Cheirogaleus Murinus, described long since by Brown
as the Little Macauco, is the smallest of the Lemuridse,
its body measuring only about six inches in length ; it
was described by Buffon in his manuscripts under the
name of the Madagascar rat.
FAMILY V.— LICHANOTID.ffi.
The preceding are not, however, the only quadru-
manous inhabitants of Madagascar. The forests of
that remarkable and still imperfectly-explored island,
nourish another family of these animals, regarded by
some writers as standing in the same relation to the
lemurs as the anthropoid apes to the ordinary monkeys.
These are the Indris, which are distinguished from the
preceding by the presence of only thirty teeth. The
anterior teeth in the lower jaw are, however, placed
almost horizontally as in the lemurs.
THE INDEI (Indris Brevicaudatus), Plate 3, fig.
12, is exceedingly remarkable in its form, and also
deserves notice from its being the largest known species
of the entire group of the Prosimiae or lemurine Quadru-
mana. When in an erect position the indri measures
upwards of three feet in height. Its tail is exceedingly
short, indeed almost rudimentary, and its hind legs
very long — circumstances which render it the most
QUADKI:MASA. MAMMALIA.
manlike of all the lemurs. Its fur is very soft, long,
and thick. Its general colour is black, with the throat
and buttocks whitish. In its nature the indri is
described as being very gentle, and, although not
remarkable for intelligence, it is said to be so far
susceptible of education that the natives of Madagascar,
who honour it with the appellation of the Man of the
woods, sometimes train it to hunt, probably for birds.
If the information that we possess upon the habits
of the preceding species be scanty enough, we know
still less with regard to the other members of this
family, which indeed are very few in number. They
differ from the indri in having the tail, which in that
animal is so greatly abbreviated, well developed and
furred, and also in some particulars of their dentition
upon which we need not dwell.
FAMILY. VI.— NYCTICEBID^.
The animals of this family, which includes the greater
part of the leinurine forms found out of Madagascar,
are distinguished from the preceding families by the
more acutely tuberculate form of their molar teeth,
which must be regarded as indicative of their insecti-
vorous habits, and from those of the following family
by their having, like the lemurs, a curved claw only on
the first finger of the hinder hands. In the number
and arrangement of their teeth they agree with the
lemurs. They are strictly nocturnal animals, and, like
most other animals of similar habits, have the eyes very
large. The species are found in India and Africa.
THE BENGAL LORI (Loris gracilis), Plate 4, fig.
13, as indicated by its name, is an Indian species. It
occurs in Bengal, Assam, Silhet, and the Malayan pen-
insula, and also in the island of Ceylon. The lori
measures about a foot in length, and is of a greyish
fulvous colour, with the lower surface of the body
whitish, and a white band running down between the
eyes, and surrounding the nose. It has a rounded
head, with small ears and a short pointed nose. Its
body and limbs are slender, the first fingers of the
hands are short, and the tail is altogether wanting.
Its fur is very thick and soft The habits of the loris
are strictly nocturnal. They reside in large forests,
usually in mountainous districts, and pass the days
sleeping in the holes of trees. At sunset they come
forth, and move slowly about amongst the branches,
seeking their food, which consists partly of fruits and
the tender leaves of trees, and partly of insects, small
birds, and mice. When on the ground their long
slender limbs seem unable to support them, and they
move, as described by M. F. Cuvier, in a manner
somewhat resembling that of a very young puppy.
Hence many writers have compared them with the
sloths, and it is remarkable that they exhibit an
arrangement of the arteries supplying the anterior
limbs somewhat resembling that which prevails in
those singular creatures. M. Gervais justly compares
the slow and cautious movements of the loris to the
semiparalytic gait of the chameleon.
In their nature the loris are gentle and inoffensive,
and not destitute of intelligence, as will be seen from the
following extracts from an interesting account given by
Sir William Jones, the celebrated oriental scholar, of a
specimen which lived for some time in his possession.
"To me," says Sir William, "who not only constantly
fed him, but bathed him twice a week in water
accommodated to the seasons, and whom he clearly
distinguished from others, he was at all times grateful ;
but when I disturbed him in writer, he was usually
indignant, and seemed to reproach me with the un-
easiness which he felt, though no possible precautions
had been omitted to keep him in a proper degree of
warmth. At all times he was pleased at being stroked
on the head and throat, and frequently suffered me to
touch his extremely sharp teeth ; but at all times his
temper was quick, and when he was unseasonably
disturbed, he expressed a little resentment by an
obscure murmur, or a greater degree of displeasure by
a peevish cry, especially in winter, when he was often
as fierce on being much importuned as any beast of the
woods. From half-an-hour after sunrise to half-an-
hour before sunset, he slept without intermission, rolled
up like a hedgehog,* and as soon as he awoke he
began to prepare himself for the labours of his approach-
ing day, licking and dressing himself like a cat. He
was then ready for a slight breakfast, after which he
commonly took a short nap; but when the sun was
quite set, he recovered ah1 his vivacity. His ordinary
food was the sweet fruit of this country. Milk he
lapped eagerly, but was contented with plain water.
In general he was not voracious, but never appeared
satiated with grasshoppers, and passed the whole night
whilst the hot season lasted in prowling for them.
When a grasshopper or any insect alighted within his
reach, his eyes, which he fixed upon his prey, glowed
with uncommon fire, and having drawn himself back
to spring on it with greater force, he seized the victim
with both his fore paws, but held it in one of them
while he devoured it."
Another species of lori (L. tardigradus), is found
in some of the islands of the eastern archipelago, such
as Java, Sumatra, and Borneo. It is rather smaller
than the preceding species, and has a rudimentary tail,
from which and other characters it has been regarded
by some writers as forming the type of a distinct genus
(Nycticebus). The Javanese lori has also been de-
scribed as a distinct species.
THE POTTO (Perodicticus Potto} is the first African
species of this family to which we shall refer. It is
distinguished from all the rest of the Quadrumana by
the rudimentary form of the first or index finger of the
forehands, which is reduced to a mere tubercle furnished
with a little claw. The potto is a thick-set animal,
with short limbs and a long tail. Its size is about that
of a small cat. Its ears are of moderate size. Its
general colour is a reddish-brown, with the extremity
of the tail black. M. Van der Hoeven mentions, that
in two specimens observed by him, " the spinous pro-
cesses of the last five cervical and of the first two
dorsal vertebrae are long, and pierce through the hairy
integument of the back, with a weak horny covering."
The potto is a native of the forests of the coast of
Guinea, especially about Sierra Leone. Like the lori,
* The individual described by F. Cuvier is said by him to
have slept sitting in a crouching posture.
THK GAI.AGO. MAMMALIA. THE TARSIER.
45
which it resembles much in its general characters, it is
a nocturnal animal, slow in its motions, feeding partly
upon fruits and tender leaves, and partly upon insects
and other animal matters.
THE SENEGAL GALAGO (Galago senegalensis),
Plate 4, fig. 14. — The galagos, which constitute the
remainder of this family, are elegant squirrel -like
creatures, with rounded heads, large eyes, large mem-
branous ears, and long tails. They differ from the
potto in the elongation of the tarsal portion of the foot,
and in the greater development of the first finger
of the hauds. In their dentition and most of their
other characters they agree with the preceding species.
Like these they are nocturnal animals, living amongst
the branches of the forests, where they prey upon
small birds and insects. Fruits also constitute a por-
tion of their nourishment.
The Senegal Galago, which is the best known
species, is an elegant little creature rather larger than
a squirrel, of a grey colour, with a reddish tinge on
some parts, and with the lower surface paler or
whitish. It inhabits a considerable portion of the
African continent, occurring in Senegal, Caffraria,
Abyssinia, and Mozambique. It was first discovered
in the first-mentioned locality by the celebrated Adan-
son, who describes its habits as intermediate between
those of the monkeys and squirrels. It appears from
the statements of the great French voyage/ and of
later observers, that the galagos principally inhabit the
great forests of acacias which furnish the gum-arabic
of commerce, and that the Moors who bring them
down from their native haunts give them the name of
Gum animals, and declare that they feed upon that
substance. It appears, indeed, that they will eat gum
when offered to them ; but they show a very decided
preference for insect food, those which have been
observed in captivity being always on the watch for
insects, exhibiting considerable excitement when they
only hear the sounds produced by these animals, and
seizing upon any unlucky victim that may come within
their reach with the greatest avidity. In their native
haunts they display great agility upon the trees,
amongst the branches of which they are always sport-
ing at night, springing suddenly upon their insect prey
with a velocity greatly aided by the length of their
hinder limbs. They nestle in holes of the trunks of
trees, which they line with soft beds of grass and
herbage for the reception of their young.
Several other species of galago have been described
— all from the African continent. The largest is the
G. ct-assicaudatus, an inhabitant of Mozambique and
Port Xatal, which is about the size of a rabbit.
FAMILY VII.— TARSILLXE.
The galagos, as already stated, are distinguished
from the other members of their family by the great
length of their tarsus, and the large size of then- ears ;
in these respects they show an evident approach to
the little creatures which form the present family,
and which might, perhaps, be included in the same
group with them without much violence to a natural
system. The tarsiers, however, exhibit so many
peculiar characters, that although only a single species
of the group is well-known, this may well be regarded
as the type of a distinct family. The characters
by which this is distinguished, independently of the
elongation of the tarsus, are the presence of only
two incisor teeth in the lower jaw, the uniformity of
position of the four upper incisors, which do not stand
in two pairs, and the existence of claws upon both the
first and second fingers of the hinder hands.
THE TAESIEE (Tarsius Spectrum), Plate 4, fig. 15,
the only species of this family whose existence can be
regarded as well established, is an inhabitant of several
islands of the Indian archipelago, especially Celebes,
Borneo, and Banca ; it also occurs in the Philippine
Islands and Sumatra. It is an elegant little creature,
about the size of a common rat, clothed with a soft
reddish-brown fur, and furnished with a long slender
tail, the extremity of which is tufted. The most
remarkable peculiarity in its structure is the confor-
mation of the hinder extremities, which are of great
length, and upon which this little animal is described
as leaping about in the forest like a frog. The tarsi
are much elongated and very slender, but the feet are
considerably widened at their extremity, and the toes
exhibit a singular relative proportion. The inner toe,
the opposable thumb of the hind feet, is large and
powerful, but its next neighbour is the shortest of all ;
the next toe and the outermost one are about equal in
length, and that between them is the longest. By
this means the foot acquires a singular bunched and
deformed appearance, which, however, is probably in
some way connected with the habits of the animal.
The tarsier is a gentle, inoffensive, nocturnal animal,
which may be easily tamed; when it exhibits both
intelligence and affection to those who have the care of
it. It resides in the damp forests of the islands above
mentioned, where it is said by Dr. S. Mu'ller to frequent
the tops of the trees, and its food is described by
different writers as consisting partly of fruits and partly
of insects. The malays call it Podje, and, according to
Sir Thomas Raffles, the natives of Sumatra have such
a superstitious dread of it, that if they chance to see a
tarsier upon one of the trees in the vicinity of their
rice fields, they will immediately abandon the spot from
a fear that some misfortune will otherwise befall them.
The true position of this curious creature was long a
matter of doubt, some authors having arranged it with
the jerboas, and others with the marsupial animals.
FAMILY VIII.— CHEIROMYID^).
We have already stated (pp. 15, 16) that besides
the Simiae and Prosimiae, or, as they may be called, the
Monkeys and Lemurs, two other families are commonly
placed in the present order, although the peculiarities
of their structure are so remarkable that their true
position may still be regarded as a matter of dispute.
This is especially true of the present family, which
would seem to constitute a connecting link between the
widely distant orders of the Quadrumana and Rodentia,
partaking so much of the characters of both, as to have
been placed alternately, by different zoologists, some-
times in one and sometimes in the other of those orders.
QUADKUMANA. MAMMALIA. -
JALEOPITHECID.E.
THE AYE- AYE (Cheiromys madagascariensis), fig.
7, the only known species of this family is, as implied
by its specific name, a native of Madagascar, where it
was first discovered by the celebrated French traveller
Sonnerat. The name, Aye-aye, conferred upon it by
him is said to have been borrowed from the expressions
of surprise uttered by those natives to whom he showed
Fig, 7.
teeth
The Aye-Aye (Cheiromys Madagascariensis).
his specimen, and who had never seen such a creature
before ; it was, however, supposed by him to be the
native name of his new-found treasure, and is now
generally received as the name of the animal.
In its general appearance the aye-aye is intermediate
between the galagos and the squirrels, with the latter
of which animals it is placed by those zoologists who
refer it to the Rodentia. When adult it measures about
eighteen inches in length, and its tail almost as much
more. It is clothed with a thick fur composed of two
kinds of hair ; a thick woolly down close to the skin,
and longer smooth hairs, which form the outer coat.
'The general colour of the fur is a pale rusty brown,
•with the face and throat lighter ; the tail is bushy, and
the ears -very large and naked. But the most remark-
able characters of the animal are, as may be supposed
from its doubtful position in the system, to be sought
in its structure. The dentition, which, as a general rule,
may be regarded as the best character by which to
determine the systematic position of a mammal, would
seem to indicate the justice of placing the aye-aye
amongst the rodents; the incisor teeth, as in those
animals, are two in number in each jaw, long, stout,
and chisel-like, and the canines are altogether deficient;
but the molar teeth, four in the upper and three in the
lower jaw, although arranged in the same way as in the
Rodentia, present certain characters which are not
usual in that order. The skull, in its form, has some
analogy with that of the galagos, and the bony orbits
are complete — a character which does not occur amongst
the rodents.
Thus the characters to be drawn from the head and
leave the true position of the aye-aye still very
doubtful, and it is only from the structure of
the members that we are induced to place
this animal with the Quadrumana. The bones
of the forearms are distinct throughout their
whole length, and both these and the bones
of the wrist resemble those of the lemurine
animals. The forehands, however, are very
peculiar hi their structure, the thumb is not
opposable, the fingers are exceedingly long
and thin, the fourth being the longest, and
the third the thinnest ; all are terminated by
large nail-like claws. In the hinder-hands,
on the contrary, there is a distinctly opposable
thumb, and the claw of the first finger is
evidently more elongated and awl-shaped
than those of the others, in the same way as
in the true lemurs. Another singular char-
acter is the position of the teats, which are
situated on the groin.
The aye-aye would appear to be rare even
in its native forests; only three specimens
have been brought to Europe, and these are
in the museum of the Jardin des Plantes at
Paris. This rarity may, however, be due to
the habits of the animal, which is a strictly
nocturnal creature, sleeping during the day
concealed in holes in the ground. It is
described as being exceedingly sluggish, but
we still know little or nothing of its general
habits and food. According to Sonnerat
it is insectivorous, and employs its long fingers in
drawing larvae from their holes in the trees ; but the
specimens which lived for two months in his possession
were fed with boiled rice, which they took up with
their hands, " using the slender fingers," as Sonnerat
expresses it, " in the same way that the Chinese
employ their chop-sticks." Other writers have sup-
posed the aye-aye to be a frugivorous animal, and it
must be confessed that the form of its molar teeth do
not indicate an adaptation to an exclusively insect diet.
IX.— GALEOPITHECID>£.
Notwithstanding the singular characters presented
by the animals forming this family, the last that we
shall refer to the order Quadrumana, their position in
the system is by no means so puzzling as that of the
Cheiromys ; in fact there can hardly be a doubt that
they form a connecting link between the two contiguous
orders of the Quadrumana and Cheiroptera, so that the
only question is whether we shall place them with one
or other of these orders, or, as has been done by Pro-
THE FLTIXG LEMUI
-MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.
47
fessor Van der Hoeven, admit a distinct order for their
reception. The latter course does not appear to us to
be at all necessary, and we think it will be evident
from the following description of the conformation of
these singular creatures that their affinities are much
closer to the lemurine quadrumana, than to the bats.
THE GA1EOPITHECI, or Flying Lemurs, differ from
the rest of this order in the want of opposable thumbs
on all the feet, these being composed of five digits of
nearly equal length, arranged in the same plane, and
united to each other by a membrane (fig. 8). The
limbs are rather long and slender, and on each side of
the body, taking its rise from the neck and extending
to the wrists, ankles, and even between the hinder
limbs to the very extremity of the tail, is a broad hairy
membrane, looking, at the first glance, like an ample
cloak, in which the creature might wrap itself up
warmly in case of need. The office of this membranous
expansion is, however, very different ; when in use it
is widely extended by means of the limbs, and then
serves its possessor in the way of a parachute, enabling
him to spring from tree to tree at great distances.
Hence the name of flying lemurs by which the galeo-
pitheci are commonly known. But it must not be
supposed that this action constitutes true flight ; it is
Fig. 8.
Hind foot of Galeopithecus rolans.
merely a parachute-like sailing through the air; the
impetus being given by the spring of the creature from
an elevated position, the expanded membrane buoys
it up for a considerable distance, although it has no
power to sustain or elevate itself in the air by its own
exertions. A similar structure, adapted to the same
end, occurs in the flying squirrels, and flying phalan-
gens, and it is widely different from the true wings by
which the bats are enabled to take their swift and
noiseless flights through the dusky evening air.
In the general form of the skull the galeopitheci
resemble the lemurs, but the orbits are open behind as
in the bats. The structure and arrangement of the
teeth are, however, different from anything we meet
with in any other group of mammals. The incisor
teeth are four in number in each jaw, but those of the
upper jaw are placed quite at the sides, in a line with
the molars, so as to leave a wide vacant space in front
above the lower incisors. The hindmost of the upper
incisors are also remarkable for having two roots, a
Fig. 9.
Lower incisor teeth of Galeopithecus volans.
character which does not occur in any other mammal.
The lower incisors are inclined forwards as in the
lemurs, broad and flat, and with their crowns curiously
cleft in such a way that they resemble small combs
(fig. 9) ; the canines are wanting in the upper jaw,
small and notched at the edge in the lower one ; and
the molars are six in number on each side of each jaw,
and sharply tubercled.
Of the other characters presented by these singular
creatures we need only notice that they possess two
pairs of teats, all placed upon the breast.
THE FLYING LEMUR (Galeopithecus volans), Plate
4, fig. 16, is a native of several of the large islands
of the eastern seas, especially Java, Sumatra, and
Borneo, and also of Penang, Siam, and the peninsula of
Malacca on the continent of Asia. It is of a blackish-
grey colour above, with some whitish spots, and of a
tawny -grey beneath; its feet are blackish, and its total
length about eighteen inches.
In the luxuriant forests of the countries above-
mentioned, the flying lemurs exist in considerable
abundance, but they are said to select particular spots
for their dwelling-places, especially gentle hills covered
with young trees, in the thick branches of which they
find a secure retreat, and quietly sleep away their days.
The night is the season of their activity, and then they
may be seen springing obliquely from one tree to
another, often at a distance of a hundred yards or
more, at the same time uttering a hoarse, croaking,
disagreeable noise. On the ground, however, they
are very helpless, advancing by a succession of little
awkward leaps until they reach some object which
they can ascend, when they climb up by the aid of
their claws, somewhat in the manner of a cat.
They feed upon fruits and young leaves, preferring
those of the cocoa, palm, and the Bombax pentandrum,
to the plantations of which, surrounding the native
villages, they often do much injury. According to
some authors they do not adhere strictly to a vegetable
diet, but feed also upon insects, and even upon small
birds when they can seize them.
48
CHEIROPTERA. MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.
ORDER III.- CHEIROPTERA.
To this small anil well-marked class of mammals, it
must be confessed, naturalists have not given that
attention which the subject demands. Though for the
most part composed of individuals of comparatively
insignificant bulk, they have nevertheless important
claims upon our consideration, both on account of the
singular and characteristic modifications of organic
structure they exhibit, and in respect of the part they
play in the economy of creation.
With regard to the habits of the bats and their man-
ner of living, the first and most conspicuous peculiarity
presented to ordinary observation has reference to their
mode of flight, and the agency by which this function
is performed. As the majority of our readers are
aware, their titular name Cheiroptera, or Wing-handed
family, points at once to the members of the body,
primarily concerned in the office of flying ; but while
the flight of birds is immediately brought about by a
development of special integumentary appendages ic
the form of feathers, we have here the same purpose
| served by a membranous extension of the skin itself.
The membrane is extremely delicate and elastic,
extending in front from the neck and sides of the body
to the extremity of the fingers of each upper limb, and
behind to the tail and to the heels of the feet. It is
thus that nature displays her indefinite resources, being
in no way hindered by such arbitrary laws as operate
in the fabrication of works of art. Look at the char-
acter of a bat's flight Generally speaking its aerial
progression is easy, regular, and sustained. It has a
velocity sufficient to insure the overtaking and capture
of its swiftest insect prey ; while its strength is such as
to enable the maternal parent to carry one or two
young ones on her back at the same time, during her
passage through the air. Considering the solidity of
their bony framework, and the absence of such air
cavities as are found in birds, it would at first sight
appear that bats have relatively a greater specific
gravity than birds, and consequently a greater degree
of aerial pressure to contend with. This apparent dis-
advantage, however, is more than counterbalanced by
a proportionably greater extent of surface presented by
the wings as compared with the weight of the body,
than obtains in the feathered tribe. We have here in
short all the essential conditions for a rapid aerial pro-
gression, namely, an appropriate form, a weak specific
gravity, and a special modification of the anterior loco-
motive organs, forming an elastic extensile membrane.
These conditions enable the Cheiroptera to realize a
capacity of flight second only in degree of perfection to
that of birds. In no other family of the first great
division of the animal kingdom is this physiological
action witnessed, unless indeed we are to exalt the
leaping powers of the Galeopithecus volans to a species
of flight. This animal, more familiarly known as the
flying cat, or flying lemur, is also provided with
an elastic membrane of a more limited extent than
that of bats, but covering and connecting together the
anterior and posterior extremities ; this structure is not
only incapable of raising the creature in the air, but
performs rather the office of a parachute than that of
an organ of flight.
The remarkable adaptations thus rendered subser-
vient to the purposes of flight, are further, and perhaps
more cogently, illustrated by referring to the skeleton
(Plate 3-4, fig. 110). Here we find the solid framework
of the body more or less attenuated in all its elements,
with the view of imparting lightness on the one hand,
and of retaining strength on the other. Every bone
indicates the care taken to provide against any unne-
cessary weight. The skull is elongated from before
backwards, and its constituent parts thinned out in a
striking manner ; this elongation, however, is less con-
spicuous in those bats which feed on insects, and there
are several other cranial peculiarities indicating greater
strength in the insectivorous than in the frugivorous
species. Among these may be mentioned an increased
breadth in the form of the jaws in the carnivorous kind,
this group also having the cusps of the teeth sharp and
pointed, while those of the fruit-eating section are
broader, blunter, and deeply grooved longitudinally.
All the bats display four canine teeth, but the number
of incisors and molars or grinding teeth varies consider-
ably. Of the latter there are never less than three on
either side of each jaw, while very frequently we find
five in the upper and six in the lower, an arrangement
which is occasionally reversed. With regard to the
incisors, or cutting teeth, there are usually two or four
in the upper jaw, and two, four, or sometimes six, in
the inferior jaw. The backbone, or chain of bones,
termed the vertebral column is chiefly remarkable for
the large size of its spinal or neural canal, and the
comparative breadth and strength of the bones of the
neck. The vertebra, to which the ribs are attached
are eleven or twelve in number, according to circum-
stances ; but those succeeding are more variable in this
respect, from four to seven being assigned to this so
called lumbar region. The bones of the tail, or coccy-
geal vertebrae, exhibit a still more striking irregularity,
and present, as it were, a gradual dwindling away
towards the delicate filamentary extremity in those
species of Vespertilio where they are most numerous.
In the genus Pteropus, indeed, there is no tail what-
ever, but in the species of Noctula we find six bones,
while as many as twelve occur in the genus above
mentioned. All the ribs, with the exception of the first
pair, have an extraordinary length, relatively more, we
may say, than occurs in any other mammalian family.
The breastbone, or sternum, is also unusually long and
broad, the anterior part, or manubrium, as it is called,
having a surprising lateral expansion in certain of the
genera, and most conspicuously so in the horse-shoe
bats. In all the species this portion of the little flat
chain of bones, collectively termed the sternum, is pro-
vided with a more or less prominent central ridge on
the under surface, evidently corresponding to the exag-
gerated keel-like process developed in birds to give
attachment to the strong pectoral muscles. We also
CHEIROPTERA. MAMMALIA. CHEIROPTERA.
49
discover an increase of development of the other bones
which enter into the constitution of the shoulder. The
clavicles are elongated and much arched superiorly, the
bladebone or scapula being likewise very surprisingly
developed, more especially in the insect-devouring
species. All these arrangements beautifully illustrate
the adaptability of this mechanism to the peculiar habits
of the Cheiroptera, while they at the same time aSbrd
to the unprejudiced truth-seeker the most satisfactory
evidences of creative design. The teleological argu-
ment, indeed, may be still more vigorously enforced by
a consideration of the osseous elements which enter
into the formation of the arm, forearm, and hand. To
a certain extent we have already touched upon this
mechanism, when speaking of the characteristic function
of flight. It is here, therefore, only necessary further
to observe, that the upper extremity of the humerus or
first bone of the arm is large and rounded, while the
remainder is cylindrical and slender throughout The
two bones of the forearm, namely the radius and ulna,
are curiously modified; the former being extremely
long, and the latter only faintly represented by a
slender styliform process, or in some cases by a mere
rudimentary flat bony nodule. By this significant
disposition of parts all rotatory motion is effectually
prevented, and those movements of pronation and
supination, so essential to the welfare of the human
and quadrumanous species, are entirely dispensed
with. Had not these changes of structure been intro-
duced, the comfort, nay the very existence of these
creatures, would have been jeopardized. Such is the
foresight of the Divine Architect ! And before con-
cluding this part of the subject, we have further to
observe that six small bones enter into the framework
of the wrist, two behind, and four in front ; one of the
former row being singularly bulky, probably because
two other carpal bones, usually assumed to be absent,
do in reality enter into its constitution. Succeeding
these are the immensely elongated metacarpals and
wire-like fingers, the phalanges of which diverge from
one another in the expanded condition of the wing, and
spread out to reach the lower margin of the elastic skin
membrane formerly described. The second digit is
the shortest, and the third the longest, while the thumb
is comparatively insignificant, arid terminated by a
hooked phalanx. Finally, the bones of the pelvis, and
those of the lower limb, although they share in the
general diminution of the osseous fabric quantitively,
do not in other respects relatively exhibit those devia-
tions from the normal type of skeletal structure which
obtain in the shoulder and superior extremities.
Before proceeding to consider the habits of Cheir-
optera, there are several other interesting peculiarities
of organization which cannot pass unnoticed. One of
the most important of these is the great development
of the ears among those bats living upon insects. In
some species the external auricles attain a prodigious
size (fig. 10), being frequently as large as the head, and
occasionally nearly as long as the entire body; and
this curious feature is, moreover, combined with an
increased development of the internal acoustic appar-
atus, and a special enlargement of that part of the
auditory organ termed the cochlea. The eyes of bats are
VOL. I.
small, and in those kinds which have large ears they
are almost concealed from view. The skin, generally, is
Fig. 10.
Head of the Long-eared Bat (Flecotus auritus).
clothed with a soft downy hair, except on the winged
and interfemoral expansions. The sense of smell is
remarkably acute, more particularly in the insect-
hunting group. Here again we find an increased
development of the external organ, precisely analogous
to the external ear. Certain individuals are provided
with leaf-like appendages attached to the nostrils, and
consequently we are fairly entitled to presume that,
as in the case of hearing, the auricles are created with
the obvious intention of catching sonorous vibrations,
so also are the nasal leaflets designed to collect the
odorous particles emitted from the bodies of the insects
on which these animals prey (fig. 11). The sense of
touch is likewise exceedingly sharp. For a long time
Fig. 11
Head of the Greater Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrum-equlnum).
it was a question with naturalists how the Cheiroptera
regulated their flight in caves and recesses of almost
absolute darkness, there being no doubt as to the well
ascertained fact that their movements, under these
circumstances, were conducted with the same skill,
ease, and rapidity as in twilight. To solve this problem
the eminent physiologist, Spallanzani, instituted a series
of cruel experiments. He actually deprived a number
of bats of their sight by extracting the eyes, and filling
the sockets with pieces of leather. They were then
CHEIROPTERA. MAMMALIA.-
JnEIROPTERA.
permitted to fly about, while various obstacles were
placed in their way. Even in this unhappy condition
the poor creatures avoided every hinderance, know-
ingly turned sharp corners, and passed through threads
suspended from the ceiling of an apartment, when the
intervening spaces between the several cords scarcely
exceeded in width the lateral diameter of the animals'
bodies from wing to wing. The results of these experi-
ments have been since confirmed. The astonishing
phenomena thus exhibited at first induced Spallanzani to
believe in the existence of a sixth sense, and this opinion
appeared to receive general favour. It was reserved,
however, for the illustrious Cuvier to suggest that the
faculty in question resided in the winged and inter-
femoral expansions of the skin, and was immediately due
to the high sensibility of that structure. This membrane
was then, as now, well-known to be extensively supplied
with nerves, but it still remains to be demonstrated
whether these nerves terminate in special tactile cor-
puscles, or touch bodies, such as Wagner not long ago
discovered in the tips of the human finger, or whether
any other specialization of neural tissue may not be pre-
sent. In the phyllostomes, or leafy-mouthed bats, the
tongue presents a curious sucking apparatus, consisting
of numerous processes on the surface; and these acting
together enable them to draw in the juices of the
animals or fruits on which they feed. In regard to the
digestive organs we find modifications of structure co-
ordinating with the varying characters of the teeth in
the two principal cheiropterous groups. Those feeding
on insects present a simple stomach, such as we see in
the ordinary Carnivora, whereas this organ in the fru-
givorous species displays characters more in harmony
with the complicated stomach of vegetable-feeding
quadrupeds.
The habits of the bat family are nocturnal or crepus-
cular. During the day they lie concealed in dark
recesses, and are to be sought for in the hollow cavities
of trees, in holes of walls, and in rocky caverns; having
an especial liking for ancient ruinous buildings, among
whose architectural irregularities they discover most
appropriate hiding-places, suspending themselves by
their hind feet, the head being directed downwards.
As the shadows of evening approach with gradually
deepening gloom and silence, our twilight-loving friends
steal forth from their various snug retreats. The soft
moist air of closing day, no longer heated by the
summer's sun, is favourable to the chase, while the
accumulating sweetness of the balmy air, aggravated,
it may be, by the occasional hum or buzz of some
insect wanderer as it flits by the lonesome retreat of a
half-awakening phyllostome, can no longer be resisted.
The contracted crumpled-up wings are now unfolded ;
the drooping auricles become expanded and erect ; the
hour for action has arrived, and one by one each issues
forth with comforting expectancy. Such being the
preparatory attitude and behaviour of our aroused
phyllostome, let us now direct our thoughts to the
objects of pursuit — what of them ? Thus may we
soliloquize. Poor insects! you too have issued forth
on your self-seeking errands. Hither and thither you
glide on in dreamy unconsciousness of the destiny that
awaits you. But in carrying out nature's provision for
your abundant increase, you have, as it were, exceeded
the proper bounds. Though we acknowledge this
excess is more apparent than real, you cannot entirely
lay claim to our sympathy. We admit it is no fault oi
yours, yet, there you are, sometimes disputing possession
of the air by your intolerable profusion. You have
propagated too fast. Like a healthy shrub you have
vegetated too actively, and, in a numerical point of
view, your very budding outbids all human calculation.
To us your success in this particular has become a
nuisance, and our welfare is involved in your partial
abrogation. I am glad to see the cheiropterous des-
troyers are at hand, for to them your multiplicity is an
occasion of rejoicing. Talk of destruction ! In early
days the swift-winged arrow did its appointed work,
and to-day, alas ! the deadly rifle slays its numerous
human victims. But watch yon tiny vespertilio, see
with what skill she steers her rapid flight. One after
another each fluttering victim disappears, as with
sudden stroke its course is finished by the flittermouse's
grasp. Sic transit gloria insectorum. Yet this mode
of living is imposed upon the Vespertilio as' a wise
necessity. She not only purifies the air of super-
abounding insect forms, but at the same time, secures
her proper sustenance ; she supports her delicate fabric
by the legitimate employment of her means, and
accomplishes this purpose without occasioning pro-
longed pain or unnecessary torture. How suggestive
and beautifully tnie to nature, therefore, are the sacred
psalmist's words — " Thou openest thine hand, and
fillest all things living with plenteousness."
Another habit among Cheiroptera must not pass
unnoticed — we allude to hybernation. This remark-
able state of inactivity occurs during the winter season,
and is a provision of nature not so much brought about
by the mere existence of cold, as by the circumstance
of the supply of insect food being stopped. It is well
known, indeed, that some animals belonging to the
insectivorous mammalia, properly so called, hybernate
in tropical countries during the summer months, for the
excessive heat and dryness of the atmosphere causes
the same scarcity of insect life. Whatever may be the
explanation of the changes produced in animals so
circumstanced, it will be readily understood that those
occurring under opposite conditions must be equally
astonishing. Here we have a strangely-modified
existence — a meagre semblance of vitality — at the
portal of whose doors death seems ever ready to enter
in and claim possession. Suspended in the secret
recesses of his temporary grave, our little bat expe-
riences the chill of those coming events that cast
shadows before them. But a short time since we
watched his aerial Sittings, as he joyously snapped up
his prey; but his pastime is over, not a few insects
have perished, and the larvai of others lie buried in the
earth, hoping to assume the more perfect imago form
in the approaching spring. Left in this apparently
forlorn condition, the bat gives itself over to a pro-
found repose, while a series of physiological changes
steal over him such as Professor Owen has thus
faithfully portrayed — " The breathing becomes gradu-
ally slower than in ordinary sleep, the pulsations of the
heart diminish in force and frequency, the supply of
CHEIROPTERA
-MAMMALIA. VESPERTILIOXID.E.
stimulating arterial blood to the muscles and the brain
is progressively reduced, relaxation of the muscular
fibres is converted into stiff inaction, and sleep sinks
into stupor : at length respiration entirely ceases, and
with it those chemical changes in the capillary circu-
lation on which animal heat mainly depends. The
preservation of life in its passive or latent state is now
due to the irritable property of the heart's fibre, which
is excited to contract by the blood in its present dark
or carbonized state, and continues to propel it slowly
over the torpid frame during the whole period of
hybernation. This slow circulation of venous blood
through both the pulmonic and systemic vessels is the
only recognizable vital act during that period, and the
material conveyed by the absorbents into the circulat-
ing fluid is sufficient to counterbalance the slight waste
thus occasioned. So long, therefore, as the state of
torpidity continues, the bat is independent of supplies
from without ; but it purchases that independence by
a temporary abrogation of its vital faculties. Cold,
senseless, motionless, and asphyxiated, its entry into
death's chamber is prevented only by its being brought
to his very door." Such is the sacrifice which this
semicadaverous state involves, yet its super-induction
furnishes the means of warding off the otherwise inevi-
table consequence of death by starvation. On the
approach of summer the vital forces resume by degrees
their wonted functions, and the species again takes part
in the pleasures of active life.
With all our boasted national intelligence, it is sur-
prising to how great an extent the minds of the people
are still imbued with childish superstitions. The
records of our police courts have recently demonstrated
the prevalent existence of this barbarous ignorance, in
a manner which ought to excite the deepest national
self-reproach. Even the harmless, playful, slender
little bat, as it innocently chases its lawful prey, is
foolishly dreaded as an ominous visitant; and when by
any chance an open window gives it entrance to some
airy dwelling, what consternation marks the counte
nances of its human occupants. Ah ! exclaims one,
there will soon be a death in this house. Yes!
replies another, it is a warning to prepare! Stupid
peasant, and yet still more senseless lady. Can you
not shake off such vain associations? What is there,
we ask, in these accidental domiciliary visitations to
occasion mystery, horror, or alarm? Let the simple
statement of these creatures' habits which we have
just given, invite you to admire and caress the beings
you have hitherto regarded with gloomiest forebodings.
Bats are found in all quarters of the globe. There
is no considerable portion of the earth's surface which
cannot produce some members of the family; but,
as in quadrumana, certain generic types are common
to one country, while, on the other hand distinctive
peculiarities characterize those of another. In our
own islands, and in Europe, all the species are insecti-
vorous, and most of them belong to the great family of
VespertilionidcR, being unprovided with those peculiar
nasal leaf-like appendages formerly described. With
regard to the distribution of bats in time, our readers
will anticipate their recent origin in a geological point
of view. The few and fragmentary remains with
which we are at present acquainted, have, for the most
part, been found in the pleistocene, or newest deposits
of the tertiary age. Some cheiropterous fossils found
in the old caves of Kent's Hole, near Torquay in
Devonshire, and in the Mendip hills of Somersetshire,
are clearly referable to existing species, while those
procured from the lower eocine formation at Kyson,
near Woodbridge in Suffolk, and those taken from the
Norfolk crag deposits, also belong to existing European
genera. The fossil forms found in America appear to
be connected with the comparatively recent pliocene
formation. Finally, it is worthy of remark, that no
remains of extinct Cheiroptera belonging to the fru-
givorous class are at present known.
FAMILY I.— VESPEKTILIONID^.
The group of individuals associated under this head
do not exhibit foliaceous nasal appendages. They are
all insectivorous in their habits. They display ten
incisive or cutting teeth, namely, four in the upper,
and six in the lower jaw. There are, as usual, four
canines, but a variable number of molars or grinding
teeth. The ears are not remarkably conspicuous,
that is to say, very seldom longer than the head, and
they are disconnected at the lower part. The fingers
are unprovided with claws. The tail is generally a
little exserted beyond the investing interfemoral mem-
brane.
THE PIPISTBELLE (Vesper tilio pipistrellus). — On
the authority of the Rev. Leonard Jenyns and Professor
Thomas Bell, we are entitled to consider this species as
the common bat of Britain, par excellence. Some time
ago, these gentlemen took considerable pains to show,
and they moreover conclusively established the fact,
that the form of bat invariably described in the older
British natural history works as the common bat of our
country, although extremely abundant in continental
Europe, was in reality referable to a species, indigen-
ous indeed, yet comparatively rare in this country. The
bat here spoken of as scarce, is the mouse-coloured
vespertilio. The pipistrelle is a diminutive creature,
and is only an inch and a half in length when full-
grown. Its ears have an oval-triangular form, and are
about two-thirds longer than the head, being cleft at
the outer margin. In a state of repose it is commonly
detected in the crevices and fissures of old brick walls,
and especially in all kinds of recesses connected with
human habitations. Gnats and other members of the
dipterous class seem to constitute its favourite food,
but it would be difficult to limit its choice in this par-
ticular. Mr. White, in his oft quoted " Natural History
of Selborne," gives an interesting account of the feeding
of a tame bat, which in all likelihood was an example
of the species we are now discussing. He says it was
wont to " take flies out of a person's hand ; if you
gave it anything to eat, it brought its wings round
before the mouth, hovering and hiding its head, in the
manner of birds of prey when they feed. The adroit-
ness it showed in shearing off the wings of flies, which
were always rejected, was worthy of observation, and
pleased me much. Insects seemed to be most accept-
able, though it did not refuse raw flesh when oflered ;
f.2
VESPERTILIOXID^E. MAMMALIA. VESPERTILIOWID.E.
so that the notion that bats go down chimneys and
gnaw men's bacon, seems no improbable story. While
I amused myself with this wonderful quadruped, I saw
it several times confute the vulgar opinion, that bats
when down on a flat surface cannot get on the wing
again, by rising with great ease from the floor. It ran,
I observed, with more despatch than I was aware of,
but in a most ridiculous and grotesque manner." These
latter remarks have received ample confirmation from
the observations of several distinguished naturalists.
Speaking of the pipistrelle, Mr. Bell states, as the
result of his experience, that this bat is capable of
running along the ground with greater celerity than
any other species with which he is acquainted ; whilst
its power of climbing showed a " corresponding degree
of agility." He adds, " I have often seen the pipis-
trelle rise from a plain surface with a sort of spring,
instantly expand its wings, and take flight. This was
repeated by a single individual several times in the
course of an hour, and without the slightest appearance
of difficulty or effort ; it was, on the contrary, evidently
a natural and usual action." The error, therefore, of
the commonly-entertained notion respecting the bat's
inability to rise from the surface of the ground, is
clearly manifest, and if further proofs were wanting,
we might furnish additional evidence to this effect
from equally trustworthy sources.
THE NOCTTTLE (Vespertilio noctula). — This is com-
monly known as the Great Bat of Britain. It is a
large species, measuring very nearly three inches in
length ; nevertheless, it is not, as erroneously stated in
some works, the largest of our indigenous Cheiroptera,
seeing it is considerably exceeded in size by the mouse-
coloured bat above mentioned. The head is rounded
and broad transversely ; the muzzle being short, wide,
and abruptly truncated. One of the most striking
features in this bat, is the length and extent of the
wings, measuring in the full-grown individual, while
outstretched, at least fifteen inches from tip to tip. As
might be expected, this large amount of wing surface
gives a corresponding power of rapid flight ; for the
performance of this function it is, indeed, eminently
distinguished, and exhibits a particular liking for the
higher regions of the atmosphere, where it rapidly
glides along uttering wild discordant cries. The most
interesting and detailed observations on record respect-
ing the habits of this creature, are those communicated
to the Zoological Society of London by Mr. Daniell.
In the published proceedings of that body it is stated,
that "on the 16th of May, 1834, Mr. Daniell procured
from Hertfordshire five specimens of the Vesperlilio
noctula, four females and one male. The latter was
exceedingly restless and savage, biting the females,
and breaking his teeth against the wires of the cage,
in his attempts to escape from his place of confinement.
He rejected food, and died on the 18th. Up to this
time the remaining four continued sulky ; but towards
evening, they ate a few small pieces of raw beef, in
preference to flies, beetles, or gentles, all of which
were offered to them ; only one of them, however,
fed kindly. On the 20th one died, and on the 22nd
two others, each of which was found to be pregnant
with a single foetus. The survivor was tried with
a variety of food, and evincing a decided preference
for the hearts, livers, et cetera, of fowls, was fed con-
stantly upon them for a month. In the course of this
time, large flies were frequently offered to her, but they
were always rejected, although one or two May-chafers
(Melolontha vulgaris) were partially eaten. In taking
the food, the wings were not thrown forward, as Mr.
Daniell had observed them to be in the pipistrelle ; and
the food was seized with an action similar to that of a
dog. The water that drained from the food was lapped ;
but the head was not raised in drinking, as in the
pipistrelle. The animal took considerable pains iu
cleaning herself, using the posterior extremities as a
comb, parting the hair on either side from head to tail,
and forming a straight line along the middle of the
back. The membrane of the wings was cleaned by
forcing the nose through the folds, and thereby expand-
ing them. Up to the 20th of June, the animal fed
freely, and at times voraciously ; remaining during the
day suspended by the posterior extremities at the top
of the cage, and coming down in the evening to its
food. The quantity eaten sometimes exceeded half an
ounce, although the weight of the animal itself was no
more than ten drachms. On the 23rd, Mr. Daniell
observing her to be very restless, was induced to watch
her proceedings. The uneasiness was continued for
upwards of an hour ; the animal remaining all this
time in her usual attitude, suspended by the posterior
extremities. On a sudden she reversed her position,
and attached herself by her anterior limbs to a cross
wire of the cage, stretching her hind legs to their
utmost extent, curving the tail upwards, and expanding
the interfemoral membrane so as to form a perfect
nest-like cavity for the reception of the young. In a
few moments the snout of the young one made its
appearance, and in about five minutes the whole of its
head was protruded. The female then struggled con-
siderably until the extremities of the radii had passed ;
after which, the young one, by means of a lateral
motion of its fore limbs, relieved itself. It was born on
its back, perfectly destitute of hair, and blind. The
mother then cleaned it, turning it over in its nest ; and
afterwards resuming her usual position, placed the
young in the membrane of her wing. She next cleaned
herself, and wrapped up the young one so closely as to
prevent any observation of the process of suckling. The
time occupied in the birth was seventeen minutes. At
the time of its birth, the young was larger than a new-
born mouse ; and its hind legs and claws were remark-
ably strong and serviceable, enabling it not only to
cling to its dam, but also to the deal sides of the cage.
On the 24th, the animal took her food in the morning,
and appeared very careful of her young, shifting it
occasionally from side to side to suckle it, and folding
it in the membranes of the tail and wings. On these
occasions her usual position was reversed. In the
evening she was found dead ; but the young was still
alive and attached to the nipple, from which it was
with some difficulty removed. It took milk from a
sponge, was kept carefully wrapped up in flannel, and
survived eight days ; at the end of which period its
eyes were not opened, and it had acquired very little
hair. From these observations, it is evident that the
VESPERTILIONIDJ
-MAMMALIA.-
53
period of gestation in the noctule exceeds thirty-eight
days." According to the observations of Mr. White of
Selborne, this species does not make its appearance on
the wing until the latter part of April, and not after the
month of July. The same authority first noticed that
the body of the noctule emitted an offensive odour.
Throughout Europe it may be said to be a common
species. In Dr. Gray's catalogue of specimens pre-
served ill the British Museum, this bat is called Noc-
tulinia altivolans, the latter word indicating its most
characteristic habit.
THE SEROTINE (Vespertilio serotinus}. — This is a
moderate-sized bat, having a length of little more than
two inches and a half, exclusive, of course, of the tail.
The ears are tolerably large, the body being clothed
with a long, soft, downy covering of a reddish-brown
colour above, and gradually shading off to an obscure
yellow tint at the under part of the body. Mr. Bell
says, " It appears to have very much the habit of the
noctule, at least as far as regards its late appearance in
the spring, and its sound and long-continued slumber.
It flies from evening till morning, when the state of the
atmosphere is favourable. In France, where it is far
from being rare, it frequent forests, where it flies among
lofty trees. It is also commonly found amongst the
huge piles of wood in the timber yards of Paris, seek-
ing its place of repose on the tops of the highest piles.
With us it appears to be a rare species, not having
hitherto been found anywhere but around London.
Its flight is slow ; it shuns society more than most other
bats, being generally found either solitary or in pairs.
It has only one young one at a birth — about the end of
May in France, probably somewhat later in this country.
It is found in Germany, Holland, France, and Switzer-
land." In the catalogue of Mammalia preserved in the
British Museum, this species is designated Scotophilus
serotinus,
THE MOUSE-COLOURED BAT (Vespertilio murinus).
— There can be no doubt that this is the largest of our
indigenous Cheiroptera, as it far exceeds the noctule in
length, measuring three and a half inches from the
muzzle to the base or root of the tail. It is, as we
have before stated, a common species in continental
Europe, but exceedingly rare in Britain. The head is
elongated, and narrower in front than, obtains in any
of the foregoing species ; the eyes are conspicuous, and
placed well forward ; the ears- are broad at their base,
but markedly pointed at their tips. Its habits are gre-
garious, and it has a special fondness for old buildings.
It is a very pugnacious animal, and it may be remarked
that its general appearance seems to indicate such a
ferocity of disposition. Moths appear to constitute its
principal insect food. In the British Museum catalogue
this is also classed under the genus S'otophUus.
NATTERER'S BAT (Vespertilio Nattereri). — In ac-
cordance with a distinguishing character which more
or less marks this species, Mr. Bell designates it the
Reddish-grey Bat. The rules observed in naming
species are of necessity very arbitrary ; and although,
to the eye of a well-trained practical naturalist, a varia-
tion of colour is readily appreciated, by the general
observer of nature differences in this respect are easily
overlooked ; unless, indeed, they exhibit the most pal-
pable significance. Independent of the opportunity of
variety afforded by the introduction of authors' sur-
names into our natural history nomenclature, it also
offers an agreeable medium for diffusing the names
of distinguished naturalists among those who cannot
be expected to know, in all cases, to whom science
is indebted for its advances in ancient or even more
modern times. Thus, for the sake of illustration, it is
doubtless agreeable to the general reader to be aware
that the Dr. Natterer, whose name is employed in connec-
tion with this bat, was a celebrated Austrian naturalist,
who greatly extended our knowledge of the animals of
Germany, and who, during his travels in the compara-
tively new field opened up to him on the Brazilian
continent, accumulated a prodigious amount of materials
and facts, which have since enlarged the borders of
natural history science in various departments. Having
said thus much, partly by way of apology for adopting
the above English specific title, we have now to observe
that this species is scarcely two inches long. The
head is small, as compared with the species just de-
scribed, while the muzzle is pointed and narrow. The
ears are about the length of the head, while the little
appendage in front, looking like a second ear in some
species, and called the tragus, is particularly thin and
styliform. In regard to its habits but little has been
noticed ; nevertheless, Mr. Bell has recorded some
interesting observations respecting three examples,
which were obtained from one of those well-known
artificial caverns in the chalk-pits at Chiselhurst in
Kent. " These specimens continued alive "for a short
time, feeding on bits of raw meat, and exhibiting great
familiarity not only towards their companions, but
with myself, eating from my hand, and allowing me to
meddle with them without evincing fear or anger. One
of them was one morning found dead, and partially
eaten by his companions; and the remaining two died
shortly afterwards. They were active in their habits,
running about the cage, and climbing with great agility.
Their attitude when running on a plane surface was
more horizontal that that of the long-eared bat, though
perhaps less so than the pipistrelle, which runs along
almost on its belly." Natterer's bat has hitherto, we
believe, only been captured in the eastern counties of
England. This species will be found in the British
Museum catalogue, under the combined generic and
specific name of Myotis Nattereri.
THE PARTICOLOURED -RAX (Vespertilio discolor).—
This is a well-marked form, and one of the most attrac-
tive of the species hitherto seen in this country. It
derives its name from the peculiar mottled colour of
the fur, the tips of the hairs on the back being of a
light-grey colour, while their roots have a rich chestnut
hue. On the under surface of the body the hairs are
still variegated, but they exhibit a much lighter shade.
The particoloured bat measures rather more than two
and a half inches in length. The ears are of moderate
size, the eyes being particularly small. Throughout
Europe this species appears to be everywhere scarce,
and only a single example has been taken in England.
The specimen in question is now in the British Museum,
and is named in the catalogue Scotophilus discolor. ]t
was obtained at Plymouth.
54
VESPERTILIOXID^E. MAMMALIA. YESPERTILIOXID.E.
BECHSTEIN'S BAT (Vespertilio Bechsteinii).—0n\y
a single example of this elegant species has at present
been procured, we believe, in this country. The speci-
men was captured at the new forest in Hampshire, and
is preserved in the British Museum. In the catalogue
it is designated Myotis Beclisteinu. It appears to have
a decided preference for woods and thickets, and takes
up its diurnal abode in hollow trees. It is somewhat
exclusive in its habits, mixing only with individuals of
its own kind, and then only in small companies. Bech-
stein's Bat rather exceeds two inches in length ; the
muzzle is a little attenuated and pointed, while the ears
are scarcely longer than the head.
DATTBENTON'S BAT (Vespertilio Daubentonii).—
Throughout Europe this mammal appears to have a
pretty wide distribution, and in the United Kingdom it
has been taken at the far north of Scotland. It is very
little longer than the preceding, but the head is consi-
derably shorter, and less pointed in front. The ears are
comparatively short, and slightly notched at the external
margin. Its flight is low and rapid, and it frequents
the neighbourhood of still waters.
LEISELE'S BAT (Vespertilio Leislen).— Mr. Bell
appropriately describes this bat under the cognomen of
the Hairy-armed Bat, on account of a remarkable band
of hair which passes along the wing membrane at the
under surface of the forearm. A solitary specimen
has been obtained in this country, and is preserved in
our great national museum, and recorded in the cata-
logue under the generic title of Scotophilus. Its habits
and places of resort are similar to those of the above
species. It is two and a half inches in length; the
head is compressed and pointed anteriorly; the ears
are short and broadly curved at the upper part.
THE WHISKERED BAT ( Vespertilio mystacinus).
— The masculine title in which this little animal re-
joices is imparted to it on account of certain long fine
hairs attached to the upper lip ; and, whatever may be
affirmed by the learned, we think it offers but a feeble
apology for the said development. However, the bat
is not proud ; on the contrary, Mr. Bell avers that it is
a " timid and restless species." The living specimen
procured by this gentleman, instead of accommodating
itself to the lively society of others of the cheiropterous
family with which it was associated both in captivity
and freedom, obstinately refused food and perished.
Its length rather exceeds an inch and a half; the ears
are not so long as the head, and they are somewhat
notched at the outer margin. This bat has been taken
in several of the southern counties of England.
THE BAEBASTELLE (Barbastellus communis). —
This is a very well marked bat, differing from all the
preceding in several peculiarities, although it has the
ordinary length of two inches. The ears are united
below over the forehead, while the nostrils are situated
on the upper surface of its short, truncated muzzle.
The fur is darker than usual, being nearly black over
the region of the spine. The ears are remarkably
broad, and of a more or less quadrilateral form ; they
are irregularly folded at various points, and rather
deeply cleft at the outer margin. The eyes are singu-
larly minute, and seem to be almost included within
the auricles. According to Mr. Bell, however, this is
not actually the case. The eminent naturalist just
named, kept a specimen in confinement for several
weeks, and the account he has given of its habits are
too interesting not to be recorded in extenso. " It
was taken during a very hard frost in the latter end of
December, in a large chalk cavern at Chiselhurst in
Kent, which is excavated at the bottom of a shaft
seventy feet deep. In this cavern, during very severe
frosts, several species of bats are found to retreat ; and
on this occasion I received with the barbastelle a speci-
men of Vespertilio mystacinus, three of V. Nattereri^
and several of Plecotus auritus. My little prisoners,
when brought into a warm room, soon began to exhibit
signs of vivacity ; and the barbastelle, with the others,
fed readily on small bits of meat and drank water.
He was a timid animal, and did not evince the slightest
disposition to become acquainted with me. He would
take his food, however, with his companions, and was
accustomed to rest with them in a cluster at the top of
the box in which they were placed. The barbastelle
certainly became torpid more readily than any of the
others, and more completely so ; but when awake,
evinced extreme restlessness, and was incessantly biting
with great violence at the wires of his box. When
suffered to fly about the room, he flew very low, and
less actively than any other under similar circum-
stances ; and he was fond of lying before the fire on the
hearth-rug, where he appeared quite to luxuriate in the
warmth. Whilst the long-eared bats showed much
attachment to each other, and became very familiar
with me, the barbastelle remained sullen and apart,
until at length I found that he was an object of perse-
cution on the part of his more active companions, one
of whom I detected in the act of giving him a severe
bite on the back of the neck. This occasioned his
immediate removal to another box ; but this sharp
discipline probably hastened his death, which took
place about a week afterwards, though he continued to
eat till the day before he died. The specimen was a
male, and apparently an adult." The barbastelle has
been frequently captured in England ; but it is better
known on the continent, especially in France.
THE LONG-EARED BAT (Plecotus auritus}.— This
is one of the most attractive members of the cheiropte-
rous family, and, as its name implies, is possessed of
singularly-conspicuous auricular appendages. We
have purposely deferred the consideration of it until
now, because it exhibits marked affinities with the
family which will next occupy our attention. In this
bat the ears are more than double the length of the
head, and very nearly as long as the entire body, being j
about an inch and a half from base to apex ; the tragi, j
or lesser ears, as they were termed by old authors, are j
themselves about half an inch long. It is not, however, ,
in the mere extent of these appendages that their
attractiveness is to be considered ; it is rather owing
to their exquisite transparency, and the power the
creature possesses of expanding and contracting them
in such a manner as to produce the most elegant
festoon-like foldings, or, from the regularity of the flex-
ures thus formed, ever and anon displaying a beautiful
feathery appearance (fig. 12). In a state of deep
repose the wings lie doubled up and concealed under
VESPERTIUONIDJ
-MAMMALIA. VESPERTILIONID.E.
55
the arms, while the lesser ears, erroneously so called,
still maintain their ordinary posture. When tamed —
a condition which it can be readily taught to appreciate
• — the long-eared bat exhibits a most amiable disposi-
tion ; and in these days of vivaria it would not surprise
us to hear of some person who had started, what might
be termed a cheiropterarium. It would not, however,
be placed under the management of such superstitious
Fig. 12.
The Long-eared Bat (Plecotus anntus).
individuals as we have formerly described. Yet, seri-
ously, if any doubt the feasibility of such a scheme, or
the interest which such a step might create, let them
first peruse the experiences Mr. Bell has recorded of
our long-eared friends subjected to a state of captivity.
He says — " I have frequently watched them when in
confinement, and have observed them to be bold and
familiar even from the first. They are very cleanly ;
not only cleaning themselves after feeding and at other
times with great assiduity, but occasionally assisting
each other in this office. They are very playful too,
and their gambols are not the less amusing from their
awkwardness. They run over and against each other,
pretending to bite, but never harming their companions
of the same species ; though I have seen them exhibit
a sad spirit of persecution to an unfortunate barbastelle
which was placed in the same cage with them. They
may be readily brought to eat from the hand ; and my
friend, Mr. James Sowerby, had one during last summer
(1836) which, when at liberty in the parlour, would fly to
the hand of any of the young people who held up a fly to
it, and pitching on the hand, take the fly without hesi-
tation. If the insect were held between the lips, the
bat would then settle on its young patron's cheek, and
take the fly with great gentleness from the mouth ; and
so far was this familiarity carried, that when either of
my young friends made a humming noise with the
mouth in imitation of an insect, the bat would search
about the lips for the promised dainty." What think
you of this? Let the hypercritical sceptic give his
attention ! Some people, we know, are shocked at the
idea of making friends with what they are pleased to
term a horrid bat — a creature, which, in their estima-
tion, is almost a representation of Satan himself — a
creature, say they, whose actions will not bear the
light of day — an eventide wanderer, whose boon com-
panions are "spirits of evil and goblins damned" —
Uarpies, they say, such as " fell upon the hastily-spread
tables of Virgil's hero and his friends, and polluted,
whilst they devoured, the feast from which they
had driven the affrighted guests" — beast and bird
united monsters, whose prerogative it is to reveal
whispered utterances of secret thoughts profound!
Hence! hence! ye broad -winged devils, hence!
Reminiscences of dark and bloody deeds long past
already overspread our frame — freezing chills now
enervate and paralyze our souls! Begone, begone,
revolting creatures ! misshapen forms ! who can doubt
your horrid mission ? who abide your thrice-accursed
presence?
Whether real or fancied, such have been the
imaginings of the ignorant and superstitious of ancient
times, whilst to poet and painter alike our innocent and
harmless Vespertilios have furnished ample material
for mysterious and overwrought pictures. Virgil, in
his third ^rieid, represents ^Eneas and his companions
as making a descent upon the coast of one of the Ionian
islands. Proceeding inland, they next secured from
the plains a quantity of cattle, and forthwith prepare
themselves a feast, when, lo! the bats appear, and
thus we may freely render into English the imaginary
scene which he there depicts — " Suddenly, from the
mountains, the harpies descend with terrific violence,
shaking their icings, and uttering piercing cries ! Our
rich dainties are torn asunder and polluted by their
foul grasp ! We retreat under the shelter of an over-
hanging rock, and, relighting our fires, resolve once
more to prepare the desired feast ! Alas! here come
the noisy crowd again, to pollute our precious booty
with their hooked talons and horrid mouths! To
arms ! Let us wage war upon the dreadful race !
Are your swords drawn? From yon lofty spot
Misenus gives the signal! The trumpet sounds!
Away we rush to the attack, lto violate with the
sword these filthy birds of the sea!'1 All in vain!
Unharmed, with swift impetuous flight they disappear
VESPERTILIOXID^E. MAMMALIA. RHIXOI.OPHID.E.
them
(Mol
beneath fa stars, leaving our spoil half-eaten and
corrupt ! *' Such in brief are the sentiments conveyed
by the poet Virgil, who usually speaks of our cheirop-
terous friends as so many " dreadful and filthy birds"
(diraB obscenceque volucres) ; in one place, however,
a character is introduced in the form of an ill-starred
prophetess, who advocates their cause, calling
" innocent harpies (insontes harpyias)."
In conclusion we may remark, that dur-
ing the state of repose, the long-eared bat
is generally found in old buildings and
under the roofs of houses, and when on
the wing it emits a sharp shrill cry. If
placed on the ground, it moves forward
by a peculiar jerking action from side to
side, at the same time keeping the head
well raised. In the published catalogue
of Mammalia preserved in the British
Museum, this species is denominated Ple-
cotus communis.
THE SWIFT-FLYING THICK-LIPPED BAT
sus velox), Plate 5, fig. 19. This species lives on the
Brazilian continent, and certain of the adjoining West
Indian islands. In common with several others of the
cheiropterous group inhabiting the north-east coast of
South America, it is usually known as the Bull-dog
Bat, but this latter term is now better understood
to apply exclusively to that particular species of
the so called bull dog-bats, which is indicated in
the catalogue of Mammalia preserved in the British
Museum under the title of Noctilio Americanus — a bat
also obtained from the coast of Brazil. The genus
Molossus is marked by the presence of large ears and
a short head, which is abrupt and swollen at the
muzzle. The tail is long, and projects beyond the
square-shaped intercrural membrane. The teeth are
twenty-eight in number, that is, four incisors, four
canines, and five molars on either side of the upper
and lower jaws.
FAMILY II.— RHINOLOPHID^E.
The group of bats associated under this head, though
correctly separated into a distinct family, do not, in
their habits at least, depart very materially from the
insectivorous Vespertilionidse already described. Their
distinguishing characteristic consists in the possession
of a membranous appendage, which in some species
is remarkably complicated. In those instances where
this membrane is double, the form of the anterior
division is more or less heart-shaped, the posterior
division having the aspect of an erect lanceolate leaf
with the apex directed towards the forehead. The
ears are invariably large, separated from one another,
and destitute of that usually narrow process called the
Iragus. Occupying the situation of this latter struc-
ture, however, we frequently find a lobed and projec-
ing membrane developed from the base of the external
margin of the auricle.
THE CREATES HORSE-SHOE BAT (Rhinolophus
Ferrum-equinum). — The family characters above given
sufficiently explain the general form of the integu-
mentary appendage which constitutes so conspicuous a
feature in this and other members of the horse-shoe
bats, and imparts to them a strikingly hideous aspect
(figs. 11 and 13). The greater horse-shoe bat is about
Fig. 13.
The Greater Horse-shoe Bat (Rhinolophns ferrnra-equinnm).
two-and-a-half inches long, exclusive of the tail. The
head is elongated and swollen towards the muzzle ;
the anterior leaf-like appendage embraces the nostrils,
and has the remarkable horse-shoe shape from whence
the English name is derived. Between this and the
posterior lanceolated appendage, there is a cup-shaped
cavity surmounted by a sort of overlapping crest.
With respect to the use of these complicated struc-
tures, various suggestions have been offered ; but on
the whole, as we have already hinted, they are rather
to be regarded as extensions of the smelling surface,
with the view of accumulating odorous particles, than
as subserving any other office. In concealment this
bat is only found in the very darkest and most gloomy
recesses, where the light of day can gain no access,
and where a noiseless solitude reigns supreme. Na-
tural caverns among rocks, or subterranean chambers
artificially hewn out in quarries now long ago forsaken,
are its loved retreats. From these situations it issues
forth to seek its twilight repast on maychafers and
their insect associates.
THE LESSER HORSE-SHOE BAT (Rhinolophus hip-
posideros). — Both this and the foregoing are European
species and found in England, though neither of them
can be said to be very common. At one time the
present species was supposed to be only a variety of
the greater horse-shoe bat ; but naturalists no longer
entertain any doubts as to their respective distinctness
from one another. One of the principal marks by
which this form is distinguished, consists in the pre-
sence of an additional filiform nasal appendage placed
immediately in front of the ordinary lancet-shaped
process which occupies the frontal region. On account
of this structure, the eminent zoologist Geoffroy named
the species Rhinolophus lihastatus, while to the greater
horse-shoe bat he applied the specific title of Rhino-
lophus unihastatus. In other structural particulars,
and in their habits, the two kinds bear a very close
resemblance.
RHIXOLOPHIDJE. MAMMALIA. PHYLLOSTOMID.K.
THE NOBLE HORSE-SHOE BAT (Rkinolophm nobi-
lis). — This is one of the largest and rarest individuals
of the horse-shoe family, measuring four inches in
length, and having from tip to tip of the wings a lateral
expansion of nearly twenty inches. It was first de-
scribed by Dr. Horefield, who informs us that in the
native language of the Javanese it is termed Kebbelek.
The body is clothed with a soft downy covering, the
hairs of the fur being extremely fine and long. Accord-
ing to Mr. Ogilby's description, the " nasal apparatus
consists of a broad membrane, stretching transversely
across the nose in the form of a shelf. The sides are
bounded by several parallel folds, and inferiorly it con-
stitutes a semicircular envelope, which has a short
obtusely rounded point in the middle." The colour
is brownish above and greyish beneath. In the British
Museum catalogue it is designated Hipposideros nobilis.
FAMILY III.— PHYLLOSTOMID./E.
The Phyllostomes are, in common with the pre-
ceding family, possessed of complex nasal appendages.
The typical species have four incisors in each jaw, of
which the lower are very small, and are placed quite
in front of the four canines. The latter are remark-
ably large, the number of the molars being variable,
though there are generally five on either side of each
jaw. The tongue is flat, elongated, and extensile, and
clothed with papillae in such a manner as to produce a
kind of sucking organ, the lips being also provided with
rows of regularly-disposed tubercles. The ears are of
moderate size, and furnished with a tragus. The fore-
finger is composed of two phalanges, and the middle
finger of four. They have very considerable power of
running along the ground. The tail is generally short.
In some instances it is altogether absent.
THE VAMPIRE BAT, (Phyllostoma spectrum], Plate
5, fig. 18. — Few members of the great mammalian
series have excited more interest than this celebrated
bat. From the earliest times its blood-sucking quali-
ties have been memorialized ; and there can be little
doubt, as will be presently shown, that its propensities
in this respect are truly formidable. In seeking food
they appear willing to attack any description of animal
coming within their reach ; exhibiting, however, a
special fondness for the blood of cattle, upon which
they fasten themselves while their victims are asleep.
Compared with many others ol the bat family, it is a
huge creature, about the size of a magpie, and measur-
ing upwards of two feet from the tip of one wing to
the other. With regard to the various accounts given
by travellers as to their ferocious and sanguivorous
habits, we prefer to select the authentic statements of
Mr. Stedman, who was himself bitten by a vampire,
not only on account of their circumstantiality, but also
because of the apparently trustworthy source from
which they proceed. Captain Stedman thus speaks
of these vampires: — "Knowing by instinct that the
person they intend to attack is in a sound slumber,
they generally alight near the feet, where, while the
creature continues fanning with its enormous wings,
which keeps one cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of
the great toe, so very small, indeed, that the head of a
VOL. I
pin could scarce be received into the wound, which is
consequently not painful ; yet through this orifice he
continues to suck the blood until he is obliged to
disgorge. He then begins again, and thus continues
sucking and disgorging till he is scarcely able to fly;
and the sufferer has often been known to sleep from
time into eternity. Cattle they generally bite in the
ear, but always in places where the blood flows spon-
taneously. Having applied tobacco-ashes as the best
remedy, and washed the gore from myself and my
hammock, 1 observed several small heaps of congealed
blood all round the place where I had lain upon the
ground, on examining which, the surgeon judged that
I had lost twelve or fourteen ounces during the night."
Whatever may be thought of this narrative, it seems
generally agreed, that while certain of the Phyllosto-
mata live principally on the juices of fruits, there are
others that have a special appetite for the blood of the
higher animals, and even of man himself. From this
circumstance it would mainly appear, that the supposed
existence of certain imaginary spectral monsters, termed
vampires, which, in all ages, have been believed in
and dreaded by the superstitious, has its origin in the
actual mode of life displayed by these creatures. A
distinguished writer has observed that, " upwards of
a century ago, there prevailed in several districts of
Hungary an epidemic dread of vampires, which lasted
some years, and gave birth to many extraordinary
stories. It was believed that in several places, those
among the dead who belonged to the class of vampires,
arose nightly from their graves and sucked the blood
of the living, who fell into consumptions and perished ;
that those who had died in this manner became infected
with vampirism ; and that the only way of exterminat-
ing the plague was by disinterring all the suspected
vampires, and, if it were discovered that they exhibited
the tokens of their hideous character, burning them to
ashes, or driving a stake through their middle. The
attestations which these grotesquely fearful tales
received, are among the most singular instances of
human credulity recorded in all the annals of supersti-
tion. They are, in many instances, related on the
authority of the pastors, and other most credible
persons of villages and towns, who depose to having
been themselves witnesses of the scenes beheld on
opening the vampires' graves. Some, indeed, had
actually seen the spectres themselves on their nightly
excursions; but more generally the subscriptions are
by persons present at the inspection of the dead bodies;
when, if the subject was a true vampire, he was gene-
rally found of a florid and hale complexion ; his hair,
head, and nails had grown ; his mouth, hands, et cetera,
were stained with fresh blood; his eyes open and
brilliant. Sometimes when the stake was driven
through him, he was heard to utter cries like those of
a living person. It was believed that the consumption
produced by the sucking of the vampire could be cured
by eating earth from his grave." Such is a specimen
of the follies displayed by the profoundly ignorant and
superstitious. Surpassing strange it is, that intellectual
human beings can be sufficiently debased to allow a
suggestive idea to gain such entire possession of the
frame. That many of the parties believed what they
H
68
PHYLLOSTOMID.I-. MAMMALIA.-
stated to be strictly true, we have no manner of doubt ;
for the phenomena of mental aberration thus produced,
are strictly analogous to those cerebral manifestations
which a weak mind exhibits when allowed to be under
the controlling power of another. This is the true
solution of mesmerism, as the writer of this article can
confidently state, from having experienced on his own
person all the ordinary mental changes, absurdly termed
electro-biological, sometimes voluntarily forced upon
the mind by his own ideal associations, at other times
superinduced by submission to a so-called mesmerist.
It were well if these practices and their kindred super-
stitions could be eternally abandoned by the ascend-
ancy of a strong-minded intelligence, coupled with a
due supply of common sense ; and thus shall humanity
rejoice in the possession of the mens sana in corpore
\ sano. In some parts of Europe, even at the present
! day, vampires are believed in, and this is particularly
i the case in the island of Crete, where the spectres are
• termed Katakhanas. The Phyllostome, captured by
Mr. Darwin while it was engaged in removing blood
from the neck of a horse, is, we believe, referable to
this genus.
THE AFRICAN LEAF BAT (Megaderma front). —
The members of this genus were formerly classed with
the Vespertilionidse proper, but their affinities connect
them more closely with the present family. In many
respects they differ from the typical Phyllostomata.
They have no cutting teeth in the upper jaw, though
in the lower they have the typical number. They have,
I it is true, the usual four canines ; but of the molars
there are only four on either side of the upper, and
five on either side of the lower jaw. The membra-
nous apparatus of the nose is complicated, there being
three distinct leaflets, " one vertical, one horizontal,
and one inferior of the horse-shoe form." The ears
are particularly striking, being ample, oval, furnished
with a tragus, and so united over the region of the
forehead as to impart a heart-shaped outline to the
Fig. 14.
Head of the African Leaf Bat (Megaderma Irons).
entire physiognomy, more conspicuously, perhaps, than
obtains in any other species (fig. 14). The Mega-
derms are also blood-suckers, and it is probable that
their power of suction is facilitated by the absence
of incisive teeth in the upper jaw; indeed, the very
bones themselves— i. <?., the intermaxillaries— in which
the incisives are normally implanted, are only repre-
sented in this genus by a minute cartilaginous plate.
The Megaderms are confined to the Eastern hemi-
sphere. This species is obtained from Senegal and
Gambia on the coast of New Guinea, West Africa. In
the catalogue of bats contained in the British Museum
it is marked Lavia frons.
FAMILY IV.— FfEROPIDJS.
The bats classed together under this common title
are significantly distinct both in habits and structure.
They are almost exclusively frugivorous. Their heads
are elongated and hairy. The grinding teeth have
flattish tuberculated crowns, with a central longitudi-
nal groove. The ears are not furnished with a tragus.
The fore-finger consists of three phalanges, and is
seldom armed with a claw. The tail is frequently
wanting, or, when present, very short ; the abrogated
interfemoral membrane being represented by narrow
folds connected with the inner margin of the legs.
These bats have a wide geographical distribution over
the Eastern hemisphere.
THE KAIONG (Pteropus edidis), Plate 5, fig. 17. —
This is one of the best known, and at the same
time the largest of the frugivorous bats. The body is
about two feet long, while the expanse of the wings
from tip to tip is sometimes fully five feet. It is
gregarious in its habits, and extremely numerous in the
islands of Sumatra and Java; and to those whose
livelihood depends upon the culture of fmit gardens, it
proves an incorrigible enemy. The graphic account
given by Dr. Horsfield merits special quotation, con-
taining as it does almost all that we know of their
destructive propensities, and the plans adopted to
secure immunity from their attacks: — "Numerous
individuals select a large tree for their resort, and,
suspending themselves with the claws of their posterior
extremities to the naked branches, often in companies
of several hundreds, afford to a stranger a very singular
spectacle. A species of fig, in habit resembling the
Ficus religiosa of India, which is often found near the
villages, affords them a very favourite retreat, and the
extended branches of one of these are sometimes
covered by them. They pass the greater portion of
the day in sleep, hanging motionless ; ranged in suc-
cession, with the head downwards, the membrane
contracted about the body, and often in close contact,
they have little resemblance to living beings ; and, by
a person not accustomed to their economy, are readily
mistaken for a part of the tree, or for a fruit of
uncommon size suspended from its branches. In
general, these societies preserve a perfect silence during
the day ; but if they are disturbed, or if a contention
arises among them, they emit sharp piercing shrieks ;
and their awkward attempts to extricate themselves
when oppressed by the light of the sun, exhibit a
ludicrous spectacle. In consequence of the sharpness
of their claws, their attachment is so strong that they
cannot readily leave their hold without the assistance
of the expanded membrane ; and if suddenly killed in
the natural attitude during the day, they continue
TXSECTIVORA. MAMMALIA. TALPID.*.
suspended after death. It is necessary, therefore, to
oblige them to take wing by alarming them, if it be
desired to obtain them during the day. Soon after
sunset they gradually quit their hold, and pursue their
nocturnal flight in quest of food. They direct their
course by an unerring instinct to the forests, villages,
and plantations, occasioning incalculable mischief,
attacking and devouring indiscriminately every kind of |
fruit, from the abundant and useful cocoa-nut which
surrounds the dwelling of the meanest peasantry, to the
rare and most delicate productions which are cultivated
with care by princes and chiefs of distinction. By the
latter, as well as by the European colonists, various
methods are employed to protect the orchards and
gardens. Delicate fruits, such as mangoes, jambus,
lansas, et cetera, as they approach to maturity, are
ingeniously secured by means of a loose net or basket,
skilfully constructed of split bamboo. Without this
precaution little valuable fruit would escape the
ravages of the kalong. There are few situations in
the lower parts of Java in which this night wanderer
is not constantly observed ; as soon as the light of the
sun has retired, one animal is seen to follow the other
ORDER IV.— INSECTIVOEA.
; SETTING aside for a moment the remarkable devia-
j tions of structure witnessed in the formation of the
j wings and nasal appendages in the preceding order,
j we appear to pass by a very natural transition to the
insectivorous mammalia, properly so called, at least,
when departing from the insect-feeding series of the
. bat family. Baron Cuvier, be it observed, placed the
| Cheiroptera at the head of his third great order of
! unguiculated quadrupeds, collectively termed Carnas-
siers ; regarding the few frugivorous bats then known
1 as aberrant departures from the real carnivorous type.
! As, however, the principal point of similarity connected
; with these groups consists in the cutting character of
j the grinding teeth, it will be understood that many
i other structural considerations, of equal importance in
j the eyes of naturalists, have determined the propriety
j of treating certain insectivorous mammals under a
separate order. Professor Owen, as we have seen,
i even places both the Cheiroptera and Insectivora in his
lissencephalous subclass — an arrangement which, based
j on cerebral characters, separates these orders still
I further from the true carnivora, and brings them nearer
the rodentia. The insect-eating bats also resemble the
order at present under consideration, by their conical
elevations on the molar teeth, while many of the
insectivora likewise hybernate, passing the winter in a
torpid state. A common character, prevailing more or
less throughout the entire order, is noticed in the
remarkable uniformity pervading the whole dental
series, rendering it at first sight somewhat puzzling to
recognize and separate the teeth into their ordinary
triad divisions — incisives, canines, and molars. In
the more typical forms the canines assume their ordi-
nary conspicuity, being also widely separated from each
other, while the incisives are correspondingly small
In some members the dental characters approximate
towards the Rodentia by the elongated form of the
anterior incisors, the remaining cutting teeth, together
with the canines, being even shorter than the molars.
Certain of the Quadrumana also have a dentition very
like this. The head is lengthened, and its constituent
bones more slender than in true Carnivora. Another
cogent difference from the last-named family lies in
the presence of well-developed collar bones or clavicles,
which are only occasionally seen in the carnivorous
mammalia in a very rudimentary condition. The
limbs of Insectivora are generally short, and, with one
or two notable exceptions, rather feeble ; the feet are
furnished with five toes, and in walking the whole sole
or palm is applied to the ground, forming a character-
istic mode of progression termed plantigrade, and
shared by a large section of the Carnivora proper ; the
under surfaces of the feet are also consequently desti-
tute of hair. The lateral integumentary expansions
seen in Cheiroptera have entirely disappeared, while the
nature of the epidermal covering varies considerably in
different genera ; the tail is sometimes very short. In
this order there is no caecal appendage to the large
intestine. The two mammae are situated on the
abdominal surface. The various species feed prin-
cipally upon insects, and like the bats are frequently
nocturnal and subterranean ; a few of them have
arboreal habits.
FAMILY I.—
The group of species associated under this title are
familiarly termed Moles ; and although, on a superficial
examination, there does not appear much to invite us
to the contemplation of their structural and functional
at a small but irregular distance, and this succession
continues uninterruptedly till darkness obstructs the
view. The flight of the kalong is slow and steady,
pursued in a straight line, and capable of long con-
tinuance. The chase of the kalong forms occasionally
an amusement of the colonists and inhabitants during
the moonlight nights, which in the latitude of Java are
uncommonly serene. He is watched in his descent to
the fruit trees, and a discharge of small shot readily
brings him to the ground. By this means I frequently
obtained four or five individuals in the course of an
hour." Several other species of this remarkable
genus are known, and in the year 1855 we had an
opportunity of watching the behaviour of a specimen
of Pteropus edulis in the collection of the Zoological
Society, Regent's Park. Notwithstanding, however,
the great care taken to keep it alive by the necessary
degree of artificial heat, our treacherous climate proved
too much for it. Still more recently the society pro-
cured a living example of an allied species, namely, the
Shoulder-knot Bat (Epomorphorus Whitii} from West
Africa; but this has likewise perished. These bats
fed principally upon raisins. .
TALVID.E. MAMMALIA. TALPIDA
peculiarities, yet, we venture to assert, if any one will
undertake to make a close acquaintance with their
anatomy, that of all known animal beings, man alone
excepted, none will prove more interesting in a struc-
tural point of view ; and further, none will furnish
more striking and incontrovertible evidences of the
truthful doctrine of final causes, and the consummate
wisdom of creative skill. It is well known these
creatures enjoy a subterraneous mode of existence, and
it cannot but delight the high-souled teleologist when
he perceives that their entire organization is beautifully
adapted to, and eminently qualifies them for, such a
habit of life. These adaptations are well seen in the
skeleton, and selecting that of the common mole
(Plate 33, fig. 104), the first peculiarity which meets
the eye' is the apparent length of the osseous frame-
work— a result which arises rather from the shortness
of the limbs and elongation of the head than from
attenuation of the body itself. The bones of the neck,
A, have very strong transverse processes, for the attach-
ment of muscles ; but the second cervical vertebra only
is provided with a superior spinous process, to the extre-
mity of which there is articulated a long slender osseous
style, which is called the nuchal bone. Altogether
there are forty-three vertebrae, that is, seven cervi-
cal, fifteen dorsal, B, six lumbar, c, three sacral, D, and
twelve caudal, E. The several bones of the head are very
early consolidated together, while the nasal cartilage
extends forward in front to support the long projecting
muzzle. The ribs have a tolerably uniform length, a
circumstance which helps to impart a cylindrical aspect
to the skeleton. The long narrow bones of the pelvis
exhibit a similar appearance of being drawn out, as
it were, from end to end. In regard to the hinder
extremities, perhaps the only points worthy of remark
refer to their general shortening, and the union of the
tibia and fibula at the lower third of the leg ; in the
bones of the foot there is a supplementary tarsal
segment of considerable size, assuming in the prepared
skeleton the character of a sixth toe. It is, however,
in the constitution of the anterior extremity that the
most extraordinary skeletal deviations are witnessed,
these being well calculated to excite astonishment.
The sternum, though not usually described in con-
nection with the bones of the fore limb, is here so
intimately associated with the prodigious muscular
developments attached to it and rendered necessary
to move the arms, that hitherto we have purposely
passed it over. It is a very large bone, and the anterior
portion or manubrium, as it is called, is excessively
prominent, serving to support the collar bones and the
first pair of ribs. The clavicles are remarkably short,
thick- and of a quadrate form ; they form a strong
point (fappui for muscular action. The scapula or
shoulder-blade, on the other hand, is extremely long,
and correspondingly narrowed — more resembling, in
fact, one of the ordinary cylindrical bones of the limb
than its normal characteristic flatness. The humerus
or arm-bone proper is, however, the most strangely
altered of all, having not only lost the usual elongated
character so constant in quadrupeds generally, but pre-
senting an oddly-contorted and jagged outline, utterly
incomparable to that seen in any other family. Yet,
in all its typical constituent parts, it is a veritable
humerus, and by its very abnormality demonstrates
how strictly nature adheres to a given archetypal plan,
even when the exigencies of the individual seem to
require the introduction of a supernumerary element of
strength. Observe the remarkable conformity to type.
This bone presents an irregularly square-shaped form,
and is somewhat compressed laterally. Unlike any
other humeri with which we are acquainted, it has two
widely separated and distinct articular facets at the
superior end; one being articulated to the clavicle,
the other to the bladebone. A still more manifest
reversion of the ordinary state of things is seen in the
situation of the elbow-joint, which, instead of occupy-
ing its relatively inferior position, is actually placed on
a higher level than the shoulder-joint ; and as the limb
is turned and fixed in a semi-prone attitude, the palm
of the hand is consequently directed outwards and
backwards. The bones of the forearm, or radius and
ulna, also take part in these abnormal dispositions ; the
head or upper end of the former assuming a hooked
character, while that of the latter is also greatly
enlarged. By these arrangements strength is imparted,
and all rotation of the limb prevented. There are
no less than eleven bones belonging to the carpus or
wrist ; they are placed in two rows, five in each, while j
the eleventh is attached to the lower extremity of the
radius ; this latter is sabre-shaped, and converges out-
wards towards the lower end of the metacarpal bone
of the thumb, giving increased breadth to the spade-
like hand. The digital phalanges of the first two rows
are particularly short and broad, the terminal series
being elongated, pointed, and curved inwards towards
the palm. In addition to these skeletal characters,
there are others of equal importance, when considered
in the light of a family definition. In the typical
forms the teeth are forty-four in number, of which there
are fourteen incisives, six above and eight below, no
true canines, and thirty molars, seven on either side of
the lower jaw and eight similarly disposed in the
upper ; the anterior pair functionally representing the
absent canines. The genera Chrysochloris and Condy-
lura exhibit a slight departure from this dental formula.
The moles have no external auricles; the eyes are
very small, the feet being pendactylous and armed
with strong claws ; the tail is usually short. Speaking
generally, they have a stout thickset appearance ; but
this is chiefly due to their large fleshy muscles and
fatty accumulations, which are also covered by a dense,
smooth, furry coat of close-set hair.
THE COMMON MOLE (Talpa Europcea}— Plate 6,
fig. 22. — Every rustic is familiar with the habits and
oblong form of this little mammal, which measures
five inches in length, not including the tail. Destined
to pursue its prey beneath the surface of the earth, it
is surprising, considering the dense nature of the
medium, that it should be able to swim, as it were,
through the very soil with a rapidity perfectly astound-
ing. We have already partially unravelled the nature
of the mechanism by which these movements are
accomplished in our description of the skeleton ; but
there still remains to be noticed in particular, the
scoop-like configuration of the hands, which are convex
TAI.PIDJE. MAMMALIA. TALPID/E.
Cl
on the back, and shallowed out at the palm (fig. 15).
Every finger is armed with a strong pointed nail, grooved
on the under surface, while all of them converge to-
gether at the tips, forming a powerful kind of digger or
Fig. 15.
Froiit and back
of the hand or fore-foot of the Mole (Talpa
Europsea).
hoe. Of our more common animals, few have had
their behaviour and manner of living more thoroughly
exposed than the mole. Pennant, speaking of its
powers of progression, says—" The breadth, strength,
and shortness of the fore feet, which are inclined side-
ways, answer the use as well as the form of hands, to
scoop out the earth to form its habitation, or to pursue
its prey. Had they been longer, the falling in of the
earth would have prevented the quick repetition of its
strokes in working, or have impeded its course ; the
oblique position of the fore feet has also this advantage,
that it flings all the lose soil behind the animal. The
form of the body is not less admirably contrived for its
way of life ; the fore part is thick and very muscular,
giving great strength to the action of the fore part,
enabling it to dig its way with great force and rapidity,
either to pursue its prey or elude the search of the
most active enemy. The form of its hind parts, which
are small and taper, enables it to pass with facility
through the earth that the fore feet had flung behind ;
for, had each part of the body been of equal thickness,
its flight would have been impeded, and its security
precarious. The skin is excessively compact, and so
tough as not to be cut but by a very sharp knife ; the
hair is very short and close set, and softer than the
finest silk ; the usual colour is black, not but there are
instances of these animals being spotted, and a cream-
coloured breed is sometimes found in dry lands near
Downing. The smallness of the eyes (which gave
occasion to the ancients to deny the sense of sight) is
to this animal a peculiar happiness ; a small degree of
vision is sufficient for an animal ever destined to live
under ground. Had these organs been larger, they
would have been perpetually liable to injuries by the
earth falling into them ; but nature, to prevent that
inconvenience, hath not only made them very small,
but also covered them very closely with fur. To make
amends for the dimness of its sight, the mole is amply
recompensed by the great perfection of two other
senses, those of hearing and smelling ; the first gives it
notice of the most distant approach of danger; the
other, which is equally exquisite, directs it in the
midst of darkness to its food ; the nose also, being very
long and slender, is well formed for thrusting into small
holes in search of the worms and insects that inhabit
them. These gifts may with reason be said to com-
pensate the defect of sight, as they supply in this
animal all its wants, and all the purposes of that
sense." But the most interesting researches concern-
ing this extraordinary creature, are undoubtedly those
of the French writer — Henri le Court. This indefa-
tigable observer pointed out that the mole pushes its
way through the soil, not at mere random, in any
chance direction ; but having selected certain localities
or hunting grounds, as they have been called, con-
structs a habitation or fortress. This is sometimes
formed " under a considerable hillock raised in some
secure place, often at the root of a tree, under a bank,
or any shelter that offers protection. The fortress is
domed by a cement, so to speak, of earth, which has
been beaten and compressed by the architect into a
compact and solid state. Within, a circular gallery is
formed at the base, and communicates with an upper
smaller gallery by five passages, which are nearly at
equal distances (fig. 16). Within the lower and undei
the upper of these galleries is the chamber or dormitory,
which has access to the upper gallery by three similar
passages. From this habitation, we should here
observe, the high road, by which the proprietor reaches
Fig. 16
Fortress or liabK*
' the common Mole.
the opposite end of the encampment, is prolonged, while
the various galleries or excavations open into this road,
which the mole is continually carrying out and extend-
ing in its search for food, and which has been termed
its hunting ground. But to return to the chamber:
from it another road extends, the direction of which
is downwards at first, and that for several inches, when
it again rises to open into the high road of the terri -
tory. Some eight or nine other passages open out
from the external circular gallery, but the orifices of
these never come opposite to the passages which con-
nect the external gallery with the internal and upper
gallery. The extent of these passages is greater or
less according to circumstances, and they each return
by an irregular and semicircular route, opening at
various distances from the habitation into the high
road, which differs considerably from all the other
passages and excavations, both in construction and
with regard to the use to which it is applied. From
the habitation this road is carried out nearly in a
straight line, and forms the main passage of communi-
cation between the habitation, the different portions of
the encampment, and the alleys leading to the hunting
ground, which open into it on each side. In diameter
it exceeds the body of the mole, but its sides will not
admit of two moles passing each other. The walls,
from the reiterated pressure of the mole's sides against
them, become smooth and compact, and its course it,
remarkable for the comparative absence of molehills,
which are frequent in connection with the alleys and
TALPID.E. MAMMALIA. TALPID.E.
quarries, as they have been termed, in constructing
which the earth is removed out of the way to the
surface. Sometimes a mole will lay out a second or
even a third road, in order to the extension of its
operations. Sometimes several individuals use one
road in common, though they never trespass on each
other's hunting grounds. In the event of common
usage, if two moles should happen to meet, one must
retreat into the nearest alley, unless both should be
pugnacious; in which case the weakest is often slain.
In forming this tunnel, the mole's instinct supplies the
place of science, for he drives it at a greater or less depth,
according to the quality of the soil or concurrent cir-
cumstances. When there is nothing superincumbent
threatening a disturbance of its security, it is often
excavated at a depth of some four or five inches ; but
if it is carried under a road or a stream, a foot and a
half of earth, sometimes more, is left above it. Thus
does the little animal carry on the subterraneous works
necessary for his support, travelling, and comfort ; and
his tunnels never fall in. The alleys opening out from
the sides of the high road have generally a somewhat
downward inclination, from their commencement
towards their end. It has been observed, that when
on opening one of these alleys, a plentiful supply of
food is found, the mole proceeds to work out branch-
alleys from its termination, upheaving new molehills
as it advances in quest of prey. Should, however, the
soil be barren of the means of existence, the animal
commences another alley at a different part of the high
road. The quality and humidity of the soil, which
regulate the abundance of earthworms, determine the
greater or less depth of the alleys. The mainroad
being the highway of communication to its different
hunting grounds, it is necessarily passed through regu-
larly in the course of the day, and it is in this road that
the molecatcher sets his traps, or practises his devices
to intercept the animal between its habitation and the
alley where it is carrying on its labours. Some mole-
catchers will tell you that the hours when the moles
move are influenced by the tides ; to which statement
the reader is at liberty to give as much credence as
he chooses. Besides the various traps which are set
for them, there is, or very lately was, a man who
travelled the country with a dog, and destroyed them
without any trap at all, by the following process : —
Taking his station at the proper time and place,
attended by his dog, and armed with a spear or spud,
he waits till the dog indicates the presence of the mole,
and then spears or spuds the animal out as it moves in
its run. Pointers will stop at moles as steadily as at
game, when the former are straying on the surface."
So much for the observations of Le Court, quoted by
Ogilby, whose description appears to have been
borrowed from Geoffroy St. Hilaire's abridged account
of the original discoveries, as recorded in his " Cours
d' Histoire Naturelle des Mammiferes." The mole is
an extremely voracious animal, and it would further
appear from Le Court's investigations, that its appe-
tite is exalted into a regular passion, which occasionally
rises to such a pitch that the desire is accompanied
with violent excitement. A species of madness seems
to take possession of the entire frame, as it furiously
rushes upon its prey. Its food is exclusively animal.
It is true, and worthy of remark, that this point has
been a subject of dispute, but the united testimony
of several distinguished naturalists, has conclusively
shown that the vegetable debris sometimes found in
its stomach, must be regarded as mere accidental
accumulations, consisting of fragments of roots and
other vegetable matters, which have been swallowed
along with its appropriate insect food. After advanc-
ing some very acute reasonings on this subject, Mr. Bell
remarks, that " the principal object of its search is the
earthworm. In pursuit of this, its favourite food, it
occasionally follows it towards the surface with such
eagerness, that it actually throws itself out of its burrow
upon the ground. It has been stated that the mole
will not eat the larvae of the Scarabaeidae and other
coleopterous insects that live under the ground ; but
this is certainly a mistake, as these larvae have
been found in their stomach. It is not, however,
to these and similar kinds of food that the mole
is necessarily restricted; a mouse or a bird, a lizard
or a frog, if placed within its reach, becomes a speedy
victim to its voracity. Toads, however, it rejects even
when famishing with hunger, probably on account of the
acrid secretion of the skin, first noticed by Dr. Davy.
Geoffroy gives a curious picture of the manner in which
it will approach, seize, and devour a small bird — ex-
hibiting, in the first place, a considerable exercise of
stratagem to get within reach of its victim, and chang-
ing on an instant this mode of approach for the most
sudden and impetuous attack ; seizing the hapless ) ird
by the belly, tearing it open, thrusting its muzzle
amongst the entrails, where it appears to luxuriate on
its bloody repast. Even the weaker of its own species,
under particular circumstances, are not exempted from
this promiscuous ferocity ; for if two moles be placed
together in a box without a very plentiful supply of
food, the weaker certainly falls a prey to the stronger.
No thorough-bred bulldog keeps a firmer hold of the
object of its attack than the mole. Mr. Jackson, a
very intelligent molecatcher, says that, when a boy,
" his hand was so severely and firmly laid hold of by
one, that he was obliged to use his teeth in order to
loosen its hold. It is not only in the warm and tem-
perate seasons of the year, when the food of the mole
is of comparatively easy access and exists in great
plenty, that its labours are steadily and regularly fol-
lowed; in the winter, when the frost has penetrated
deeply into the soil, and the ordinary hunting grounds
are rendered useless and impracticable, it descends to
a considerable depth by a perpendicular shaft, till it
arrives at the part to which the earthworms have
been driven by the cold. Here its labours must be
even more toilsome and less productive than ordinary ;
but the voracity of this indefatigable gourmand must
still be appeased : and as it lays up no store for the
winter, and cannot fast with impunity for more than
a few hours, it may well be imagined how incessantly
and laboriously it must work in such a season, and at
so great a depth, to obtain a sufficient supply of worms
to satisfy its insatiable craving. This rage of hunger
alternates with the most profound repose, which the
animal enjoys either within its fortress, during the sea-
TALPID.E. MAMMALIA. TALPID.E.
son in which that domicile is occupied, or in a simple
molehill devoted to this purpose, during the summer.
Its bed is formed of various vegetable matters, such as
grass, leaves, or similar soft substances. It sleeps for
about four or six hours at a time in warm weather, and
principally during the day — its usual working time
being very early in the morning and at night. In the
spring the mole leaves the fortress, and does not return
to this shelter until the autumn, when it does not gene-
rally reoccupy the same edifice, but constructs another,
leaving the old one to the occupation of the fieldmouse,
or other small animal of similar habits. During the
month of June, or longer, it is in the habit of leaving
its runs, and wandering during great part of the night
on the surface of the land in search of its food." There
is also another mode which the mole adopts in captur-
ing his prey, when the soil is light, and when showers
of rain have enticed the worms to the surface. This
is accomplished by boring shallow trenches immediately
under the surface, surprising and catching these unfor-
tunate annelids at the most unsuspected moments.
Every one must have observed these mole-runs in fields
which have been only recently sown with grain. The
mole is a hard drinker, and bis appetite in this respect
is in perfect harmony with his flesh-eating propensities.
He is also a firstrate swimmer, and, as we have seen,
his form is singularly adapted for easy propulsion
through any firmly-resisting medium. He will not only
take the water when inundations or a desire to change
his hunting grounds compel him to migrate, but Mr.
Bell avers that he sometimes takes a swim "merely
for the purpose of enjoying the luxury of a bath." The
male mole is exceeding fierce during the love season,
and readily resents any individual of the same sex who
should unhappily be paying his addresses to the same
female as himself. Formidable pitched battles are
fought, and much blood shed on such occasions, while
the unfortunate object of affection is also somewhat
roughly handled. The nest is generally situated at a
considerable distance from the habitation ; it is well
constructed and compact, but its place of location is
not always to be found indicated by a hillock. When
the latter is present it exceeds in size that of an ordi-
nary molehill. The nest is built " by enlarging and
excavating the point where three or four passages meet
and intersect each other." lu one instance no less
than two hundred and four wheatblades were counted
by Geoffrey St Hilaire, and Le Court. From this
circtJistance alone, therefore, we can well comprehend
the weight of those accusations which have from time
immemorial been levelled against the mole. Some
distinguished naturalists, and most prominently among
them Mr. Bell, have endeavoured to advocate its cause,
and to contend that after all the mole is not such
a thievish villain as some have supposed. Without
entering at any great length into this instructive con-
troversy, we are inclined, all things considered, to
take the view and state the case, as Professor Owen
has succinctly put it, in the following words — "The
farmer views the operations of the mole as destructive
to his crops, by exposing and destroying their roots, or
by overthrowing the plants in the construction of the
molehills ; his burrows, moreover, become the haunts
of the fieldmouse and other noxious animals. The mole
is also accused of carrying off quantities of young corn
to form its nest ; hence every means are devised to cap-
ture and destroy it, and men gain a livelihood exclusively
by this occupation. Some naturalists, however, plead
that the injury which it perpetrates is slight, and that
it is more than counterbalanced by the benefit which
it produces by turning up and lightening the soil, and
especially by its immense destruction of earthworms
and many other noxious animals, which inhabit the
superficial layer of the ground, and occasion great
injury to the roots of grass, corn, and many other plants.
The soundest practical conclusion lies probably in the
mean of these opinions, and the enlightened agricul-
turist, while he takes prompt measures to prevent the
undue increase of the mole, would do well to reflect on
the disadvantages which might follow its total exter-
mination." The common mole is found in nearly all
parts of Europe, but in Greece it is said to be scarce,
while in the more northern counties of Scotland, and
in the contiguous isles of Orkney and Shetland, it is
stated to be altogether unknown.
THE THICK-TAILED STAB-NOSE (Condylura mac-
roura). — The individuals of which this genus is
composed, are closely allied to the true moles, not
only in their general form, but also in their habit of life.
Their dental arrangement is peculiar. Of the ten cut-
ting teeth, six occupy the upper and four the lower
jaw. The two central teeth of the superior row
are remarkably broad, also somewhat triangular and
curved anteriorly. The lower series slope forwards
in an almost horizontal direction. There are no true
canines, as usual ; but the deficiency is sufficiently
compensated by the presence of thirty grinding teeth,
seven on either side of the upper, and eight on those
of the lower. The anterior three of the superior
series, or upper false molars as they are called, are
small, conical, and more or less widely separated from
each other, while the inferior false molars, five in
number on either side, are irregularly serrated and
trenchant. Several species have been described ; but
Fig. 17
Snout of the Star-nose, or Condylura.
their differentiating characters do not appear to be
very strongly marked. In all of them the muzzle is
prolonged into a narrow proboscis, the naked extremity
of which is furnished with a number of moveabie
cartilaginoid, styliform processes or caruncles, radiately
disposed like the spokes of a wheel (fig. 17). All have
C4
TALPID.E. MAMMALIA TALFID;
very miiiule eyes. The ears are destitute of conspicu-
ous auricles ; the feet are pentadactylous or five-toed ;
the tail is of moderate length, varying, however, in
this respect with different species, and only loosely
clothed with hair. In the Thick-tailed
Star-nose " the head is remarkably
large ; the body is stout and short,
and becomes narrower towards the
tail, and the hind legs are conse-
quently nearer to each other than
the fore ones. The nose is rather
thick, and projects beyond tha
mouth. It is naked towards its
end, is marked with a furrow above,
and terminates in a flat surface,
which is surrounded by seventeen
cartilaginous processes, with two
more anterior ones situated above
the nostrils, and a pair of forked ones immediately
below the nostrils. The surfaces of these processes
are minutely granulated. Some white whiskers spring
from the side of the nose, and reach about half the
length of the head. There are others not so long on
the upper and under lips. The fur on the body is
very soft and fine, and has considerable lustre. It is
longer than the fur of the other two known species.
Its colour on the dorsal aspect is dark amber brown,
approaching to blackish-brown. On the belly it is
pale liver brown. When the fur is blown aside it
exhibits a shining blackish-grey colour towards its
roots. It is longer behind the head and on the neck,
than on the belly. The tail is narrow at its origin ;
but it suddenly swells to an inch and a half in cir-
cumference. It then tapers gradually until it ends in
a fine point, formed by a pencil of hairs about half an
inch long. It is round, or very slightly compressed,
and is covered with scales about as large as those on
the feet, and with short, tapering, acute hairs which do
not conceal the scales. The hairs covering the upper
surface of the tail are nearly black ; those beneath are
of a browner hue. The extremities are shaped almost
precisely like those of C. longicaudata, only the
palms and toes of the fore feet project beyond the
body. The palms are nearly circular, and are pro-
tected by a granulated skin, like shagreen. The sides
of the feet are furnished with long white hairs which
curve in over the palms. The five toes are very short,
equal to each other in length, and, together with the
back of the hands, are covered with hexagonal scales.
The fore claws are white, nearly straight, broadly
linear and acute, convex above and flat beneath.
The palms turn obliquely outwards, which causes the
fourth claw to project rather farthest; but the third
one measures as much, the second is shorter, and the
first and fifth are equal to each other, and a little
shorter than the rest. The hind feet are also turned
obliquely outwards, and are scaly, with a few interposed
hairs above, and granulated underneath. The sides
are narrow, and present a conspicuous callous tubercle
pcsterior to the origin of the inner toe. The hind
legs are very short, and are clothed with soft brown
Vairs, a tuft of which curves over the heel. There
are no hairs on the sides of the hind feet, like those
which form a margin to the fore ones. The hind
toes are longer than the fore ones, and are armed with
more slender claws, which are white, awl-shaped,
curved, and acute. They have a narrow groove towards
The Common Star-nose (Condylura cristata).
their point underneath." The length of the body, not
including the tail, is four inches and a quarter. This
minute and accurate account is taken from Sir John
Richardson's description of a specimen captured on
the banks of the river Columbia, and all the examples
hitherto received have been brought from North
American districts. Fig. 18. represents a very closely-
allied form. The generic name Condylura was origin-
ally given to these moles by the naturalist Illiger, who
was misled by a figure which had been executed from
a dried specimen, and consequently showed a knotted
appearance of the tail. This irregularity of the tail
unfortunately suggested to him the generic title now
generally adopted ; but the term Rhinaster proposed
by Wagler, would have been, scientifically speaking,
more correct.
THE LUSTROUS CAPE MOLE (Chrysochloris ca-
pensis). — The members of this small genus are also
pretty closely allied to the true moles. They differ,
however, in some respects, and among the most
important distinctions are those which concern the
skeleton and teeth. Following the authority of De
Blainville, there appear to be twelve cutting teeth, six
above and six below, the two central teeth of the
lower jaw being very minute. Of the grinding series
there are probably twenty- eight, six of which come
under the category of false grinders or premolars, two
of them being superior and four inferior. The true
molars have the form of triangular prisms with trans-
verse crowns, which in the lower set are divided by
corresponding grooves. All the species have the eyes
covered by the integument, while there is no appearance
of an external ear. The muzzle is short and broad, ter-
minating in a slightly pointed and projecting nose. The
fore foot or hand is apparently tetradactylous ; but
there are in reality five toes or fingers, the phalanges
of the third and fourth fingers having coalesced to form
a single gigantic digit. The latter is armed with a pro-
digiously strong claw, which is broad and arcuated,
forming a powerful weapon for digging and burrowing
in the earth ; the fifth digit is particularly small and
rudimentary. The hind feet are obviously pentadac-
tylous, the several toes presenting the ordinary dimen-
sions. The body is short and stout, and unprovided
with a tail. The skeleton offers numerous points of
TALPID.E. MAMMALIA. SORICID^E.
66
interest. The skull exhibits a more conical form than
obtains in the true moles. There are no less than
nineteen pairs of ribs, whilst in one species as many as
twenty have been counted. The sternum is provided
•with small concave lateral appendages ; the first rib is
unusually broad ; the clavicles and the scapulae are
long and thin. The humerus is comparatively longer
than that of the common mole, and at the lower part
it is not only articulated to the radius and ulna, but also
to a third bone, specially developed to strengthen the
arm during the action of burrowing. This strange
supplementary osseous appendage is supposed to
represent one of the carpal elements of the wrist ; be
that as it may, the circumstance of these creatures'
possessing a fore-arm consisting of three long bones,
indicates an anatomical and morphological change
altogether without precedent in this region of the
mammiferous skeleton. The Lustrous Cape Mole or
Chrysochlore — Fig. 19 — is not quite so long as the ' four canines,
or, in other words, are non-fossorial. In some of the
aberrant types we still recognize the peculiar talpine
features, and so much so is this the case in the genus
we shall here first elucidate, that it becomes almost a
matter of indifference whether we class them as moles
or shrews, or, on the other hand, altogether recognize
them as a separate osculant group.
THE SHREW MOLE (Scalops aquaticus}. — This
species, in common with others of the genus Scalops,
presents a stout, thickset, cylindrical body, the limbs
being remarkably short. The pentadactylous feet and
hands very closely resemble those of the common mole,
especially the latter, which are also situated close to
the auditory opening. The head terminates anteriorly
in a movable snout, which is naked at the tip. The
teeth are probably forty-four in number, but a con-
siderable difference of opinion exists on this point.
According to Professor Owen there are twelve incisors,
Fi-. 19.
The Lustrous Cape Mole or Chrysochlore.
common European mole. The fur is of a brownish
colour, capable of reflecting irridescent hues of green
ixteen false grinders, and twelve true
molars ; half of these severally
belonging to either jaw. The
eyes are extremely small and
concealed by the fur. The
colour of the hair is, generally
speaking, of a greyish-black,
approaching to brown in some
regions, especially on the fore-
head, where it assumes a
chestnut tinge. The length of
the body is rather more than
seven and a half inches, nol
including the tail, which is
short, annulated, and very
thinly clothed with hair. The
shrew-moles are inhabitants of
the low grounds and marshy
districts bordering on the river
Columbia, and the adjacent
coasts of the Pacific. Sir
John Richardson speaking of
their habits says, that they resemble our common
European mole, " in leading a subterranean life,
forming galleries, throwing up little mounds of earth,
and in feeding principally on earthworms and grubs.
Dr. Godman has given a detailed and interesting
ind purple, which change to a copper or bronze tint ;
and thus we have brought before us, in the language
of Cuvier, " the only known quadruped which exhibits
any appearance of that splendid metallic lustre which, j account of their manners, particularly of one which
adorns so many birds, fishes, and insects." The species was domesticated by Mr. Titian Peale. He men-
under consideration is found at the Cape of Good tions that they are most active, early in the morning,
Hope, but other kinds are obtained from the same j at mid-day, and in the evening, and that they are
locality, as well as from the neighbourhood of Mozam- well known in the com
bique.
FAMILY II.— SORICID.E.
From a consideration of the moles we pass by a very
natural transition to the Soricidse, which are more
commonly known as the shrews, or shrew-mice. They
have a very general resemblance to ordinary mice;
but while the latter have their front teeth formed for
gnawing vegetable structures, the former are entirely
country to have the remarkable
custom of coming daily to the surface exactly at noon.
They may be taken alive by thrusting a spade beneath
them and throwing them on the surface, but can
scarcely be caught at any other period of the day.
They burrow in a variety of soils, and in wet seasons
are observed to retreat to the higher grounds. The
captive one in possession of Mr. Peale ate considerable
quantities of fresh meat, either cooked or raw, drank
freely, and was remarkably lively and playful, following
the hand of its feeder by the scent, burrowing for a
insect-feeders, as in the case of the moles. The short distance in the loose earth, and, after making a
typical Soricidse exhibit conspicuous eyes and ears, small circle, returning for more food. When engaged
and the feet are not formed for burrowing in the soil, in eating he employed his flexible snout in a singular
VOL. I. I
SOKICID.*:. MAMMALIA. SORICID;
manner to thrust the food into his mouth, doubling it
so as to force it directly backwards."
THE MUSK EAT (Mygale moschata). — This ratber
ugly-looking animal has few characters in common
with the moles, unless we make exception in favour of
the form of the body, the shortness of the limbs, and
some other non-essential features. It possesses a
long snout or proboscis which is very mobile, and
usually more or less curved downwards. The eyes,
though small, are comparatively distinct, while the
short ears scarcely project beyond the fur. The
arrangement of the teeth is somewhat peculiar, there
being six incisors, four of which, that is, two above and
two below, are very largely developed, and look like
canines; of these, however, there are none. There are
no less than thirty-eight grinders, twenty in the upper
and eighteen in the lower jaw. The feet are pentadacty-
lous, the digits being severally connected together by a
membrane to facilitate locomotion in the water. The
tail is about one-fourth shorter than the body, and
compressed from side to side throughout, especially at
the tip ; it is thinly haired, but very scaly, being also
provided with numerous glandular follicles, arranged
in double series along the under surface. These organs
secrete a fatty matter or kind of pomatum giving out a
peculiar musky odour. The fur presents a dusky-
brown colour. The musk rat is very common in the
r'rvers and lakes of southern Russia, and more particu-
larly on the banks of the Volga. According to Mr.
Ogilby, " it does not appear to have been seen on dry
land, and, indeed, it is broadly asserted that it never
goes there, but wanders from lake to lake in fortuitous
Hoods only. It is often seen swimming or walking
under the water, and coming for air to the surface,
where, in clear weather, it is apt to sport. Stagnant
waters, shut in by high banks, are its favourite locali-
ties, and in such places it makes burrows some twenty
feet in length. Its principal food is alleged to consist
of fish, leeches, and the larvae of water insects; but
fragments of roots have been found in its stomach. Its
pace is slow; but it does not seem to be torpid in
winter, at which season it is often taken in nets. The
holes which it makes in cliffs and banks have the
entrance far beneath the lowest level of the water, and
the animal works upwards, never, however, nearing
the surface more than sufficiently high to secure itself
from the farthest rise of the river. Fish, as we have
seen, form part of its food; but the quadruped in its
turn falls a victim to the pikes and siluri, whose flesh
becomes so impregnated with the flavour of musk in
consequence, as not to be eatable." Formerly a very
considerable trade was carried on at Orenberg for the
sale of these animals' skins and tails, which, from their
extraordinary abundance, only realized a sale at the
rate of twenty copecs per hundred— a sum equivalent
to eightpence-three farthings, of English money.
THE ELEPHANT MOUSE (Macroscelides typicus).
— This is perhaps the best known of the seven or eight
species which constitute the members of the genus.
Its name almost suggests a combination of the sublime
and the ridiculous, for the only feature by which this
liny creature in any measure resembles the huge
pachyderm, lies in the circumstance of its possessing
an elongated proboscis-like snout, at the extremity of
which there are two oblique perforations representing
the nostrils. The base of the snout supports numerous
long stiff hairs or whiskers. In regard to the teeth,
there are ten incisors, six above and four below, no
true canines, and thirty-two molars, that is, fourteen in
the upper and eighteen in the lower jaw The ears
are large and thinly haired. The feet are pentadacty-
lous and plantigrade, the digits corresponding to the
thumbs in the fore-feet, and the great toes in the hind-
feet being very short ; the claws are thin and strongly
incurved. The fur has a tawny-brown colour, gradu-
ally becoming whitish on the limbs. The length of
the body is rather less than five inches, the tail being
likewise three and a quarter inches long, a little
swollen immediately beyond the root, and provided, in
the males at least, with minute glandular follicles.
This and some other species of so-called elephant mice
live in south Africa. Their habits are diurnal, and
they are frequently seen hunting for their prey amongst
the roots of brushwood and bushes. On being dis-
covered, however, their timidity soon shows itself, and
they scamper off in hot haste , retreating either into
their natural burrows, or beneath stones and similar
places of security.
THE SOLENODON (Solenodon paradoxus) .— The
distinguished naturalist Brandt has employed this title
to designate a remarkable animal forming a sort of
gigantic shrew. It is an inhabitant of the island of St.
Domingo, is covered with coarse fur, and possesses
very long whiskers. Each jaw is armed with six
incisor teeth, the two central ones of the upper series
being very large and triangular, while the pair next
outside the central ones of the lower jaw are elon-
gated, conical, and hollowed out at the inner surface
by a deep groove. These two pair assume the aspect
of very powerful canines, but the latter have in reality
no true representatives. The molars are twenty-eight
in number, that is, seven on either side of each jaw
This singular creature is larger than our common
brown rat, being upwards of twenty inches in length,
including the naked or scaly tail, which measures nine
inches. The eyes are small, the nose slightly pro-
boscidiform, the ears also being only moderately
developed. The sides of the head and neck, as well as
the abdomen and feet, exhibit a faint yellow-browr
colour, with an occasional mixture of a greyish tint.
THE COMMON SHEEW (Sorex aranews).— Plate 6,
fig. 21. The genus Sorex comprehends an extremely
numerous series of individuals, and it has therefore
been variously subdivided by different naturalists.
Without, however, expressing any opinion as to the
propriety of their arrangements, our object is to impart
a definite and accurate knowledge of the more impor-
tant forms, under whatever names they may be clearly
recognized. Even the species under consideration has
caused much controversy, but it is now very generally
understood that the common shrew-mouse of the
British isles is correctly indicated by the above com-
bined generic and specific title. Among the character-
istics which distinguish this form we may especially
refer to the teeth, of which there are probably ten
incisors, though on this point there seems to be
MAMMALIA. SORICID.E.
67
considerable difference of opinion. They are "much
produced ; the upper ones curved and notched at the
base, the lower ones almost horizontal." There are in
all twenty-four molars or grinding teeth, but no true
canines. The length of the body, not including the
tail, is about two and a half inches. The fur exhibits
a reddish tint on the back, which passes from the
ordinary mouse-colour to a light-grey on the under
surface of the belly. The snout is conical and pointed;
the eyes and ears are small — the latter being scarcely
visible — and furnished with two lobes internally. With
regard to its habits Mr. Bell observes, that " the
common shrew frequents dry situations, feeding upon
insects and worms, in the pursuit of which its attenu-
ated snout enables it to grub amongst the closest
herbage, or under the surface of the soil; for which
habits it is also adapted by its soft, short, velvety coat,
and its extensible form. Like the mole and other
insectivorous tribes, it is very impatient of hunger
during summer ; like that animal too it is excessively
pugnacious, so that it is rare to see two of them
together excepting in the act of fighting. If two shrews
be confined in a box together, a very short time elapses
before the weaker is killed and partly devoured. They
not only destroy each other, but there is reason to
believe that many of them are victims to the voracity
of the mole." A friend also informed him " that, in a
field which had always before been abundantly
inhabited by shrews, scarcely one had been seen during
the then present season ; but that a colony of moles
had occupied the district, to whose voracity he, with
much probability, attributed the disappearance of the
shrews." Touching the early history of this creature
many curious superstitions were formerly held in
this country respecting them ; but though, as we have
recently taken occasion to show, these follies do still
exist in regard to certain animals, we are inclined to
believe that, so far at least as the shrews are concerned,
they have almost entirely passed away. The childish
notion that lameness of the foot or some grave disease
could result from the mere accidental passage of a
shrew over that part of the body of another animal
was really credited, and, absurdly enough, induced our
intellectual peasantry to prepare a ridiculous charm,
which they swore to be an unfailing antidote against
these imaginary injuries. This preparation was called
shrew-ash, and a twig or fragment of it constituted the
remedy. Tho modus operandi in the manufacture
of this ash is thus described by Mr. Gilbert White : —
" At the south corner of the plestor or area, near the
church, there stood about twenty years ago a very old,
grotesque, hollow pollard-ash which, for years had
been looked upon with no small veneration as a shrew-
ash. Now a shrew-ash is an ash whose twigs or
branches, when applied to the limbs of cattle, will
immediately relieve the pains which a beast suffers
from the running of a shrew-mouse over the part
affected ; for it is supposed that the shrew-mouse is of
so baneful and deleterious a nature that, whenever it
creeps over a beast, be it horse, cow, or sheep, the
suffering animal is afflicted with cruel anguish, and
threatened with the loss of the use of the limb.
Against this accident, to which they were continually
liable, our provident forefathers always kept a shrew-
ash at hand, which, when once medicated, would
maintain its virtue for ever. A shrew-ash was made
thus: — Into the body of the tree a deep hole was bored
with an auger, and a poor devoted shrew-mouse was
thrust in alive, and plugged in, no doubt with several
quaint incantations long since forgotten." Some other
methods of cure were likewise had recourse to, but of
these it is unnecessary to speak further. The shrew-
mouse propagates very rapidly, the female bringing
forth six or seven young ones at a birth. The nest
is rudely constructed of grass and other vegetable
materials, and is placed in superficial holes in the
earth, especially amongst hedgebanks, the debris and
snug recesses of which afford abundant security. An
excess of these animals is wisely prevented by the
agency of owls, moles, and weasels, and also, it would
appear from the statements of several writers, by a
special mortality which cuts them off by hundreds
during the autumnal months. The immediate cause of
this phenomenon yet remains to be explained.
THE WATER SHREW (Sorex fodiens). — This form
is darker than the common shrew upon the back, and
also, on the other hand, of a lighter colour beneath the
belly, being in point of fact, quite white. The feet
and tail are provided with conspicuous, but thinly set
hairs. The ears and eyes are very small, the auricles
being furnished with three internal lobes. It is also a
somewhat stouter species, while, at the same time, it
measures three and a quarter inches in length. The
fur is very close, smooth, and downy — a circumstance
hich, together with an increased breadth of the feet,
favours the development of its swimming propensities.
Perhaps the best account of the habits of this pretty
little animal, is that long ago recorded by Mr. Dovaston
in the second volume of London's Magazine of Natural
History. Speaking of the behaviour of one of these
shrews, he says — " It swam with great agility and free-
dom, repeatedly gliding from the bank under water,
and disappearing below the mass of leaves at the
bottom, doubtless in search of its insect food. It
very shortly returned and entered the bank, occasion-
ally putting its long sharp nose out of the water, and
paddling close to the edge. This it repeated at fre-
quent intervals from place to place, seldom going more
than two yards from the side, and always returning in
about half a minute. Sometimes it would run a little
on the surface, and sometimes timidly and hastily come
ashore, but with the greatest caution, and instantly
plunge in again." This species has a pretty wide dis-
tribution throughout the British isles, being found in
Devonshire, and also as far north as Scotland. The
female brings forth six or seven young at a birth.
THE OARED SHREW (Sorex remifer). — This is a
comparatively large species, and, like the two pre-
ceding, indigenous to the islands of Great Britain. Its
body is rather more than three inches long, the tail
also being two-thirds of the entire length of the animal.
The last-named organ has a quadrilateral shape. It is
flattened towards the tip, being also provided with
stoutish hairs along the under surface. The fur is of
a rich black colour, except at the lower part of the
belly, where, in some specimens at least, it is greyish-
SOEICID.i
-MAMMALIA.-
black, and also of a yellow tinge towards the region of
the throat. The snout is compressed, the eyes and
ears are small, the latter being bordered by a fringe of
whitish-coloured hairs. The teeth exhibit a rusty or
chestnut hue at their tips — a peculiarity, however, not
confined to any particular species. Like the water
shrew, its habits are essentially aquatic.
THE INDIAN SHEEW (Sorex indicus).— Though in
general appearance tin's species closely resembles the
common shrew, the size at once distinguishes it, being
in this respect equal to our common brown rat. In
virtue of a very strong musky odour, it imparts a pecu-
liarly nauseous smell to every thing with which it
may happen to come in contact. Some of the stories
told of its powers of communicating odoriferous pro-
perties to particular objects, appear to be rather
exaggerated. For example, we are informed that wine
in a properly-closed bottle will become impregnated
with a musky flavour, merely by the circumstance of
this animal's passing over the exterior surface of the
glass ! Surely this savours a little of the imaginative.
At all events, the little beast enjoys an unenviable
credit on this score. It is better known by the name
of the Indian musk rat.
THE AMERICAN MAESH SHBEW (Sorex palustris) .
— This species is principally marked by the possession
of an unusually long tail, combined with very short
hairy ears which lie entirely concealed beneath the
fur. The hairy covering exhibits a hoary black colour,
except on the belly, where it is lighter and of an ash^
grey tint, the texture throughout beirjg dense, soft, and
lustrous. The teeth are thirty in number; that is,
four incisors and twenty-six molars. Sir John Rich-
ardson was the first to describe this shrew, and he
obtained several specimens in British America during
his explorations with the expedition under Sir John
Franklin. With regard to its habits, he says that it
" lives in the summer on similar food with the water
shrew, but," he adds, " I am at a loss to imagine how it
procures a subsistence during the six months of the
year in which the countries it inhabits are covered
with snow. It frequents the borders of lakes, and
Hearne tells us that it often takes up its abode in beaver
houses." The length of the body, not including the
tail, is precisely three and a half inches.
FOESTEB'S SHEEW (Sorex Forsten) — The shrew
thus named appears to have been first noticed by For-
ster, and described by him in the sixty-second volume
of the Philosophical Transactions. It resembles the
oared shrew in respect of the quadrangular form of the
tail, and in some other minor particulars. The length
of the body is about two and a quarter inches. It is
armed with thirty-two teeth, four being incisors and ;
the remainder true and false molars. The snout is j
much attenuated ; the whiskers are conspicuous, and j
the ears completely enveloped by the fur. The author |
of the "Fauna Boreali Americani," speaks of it as fol- j
lows :— " This little animal is common throughout the !
whole of the fur countries to the sixty-seventh degree .
of latitude, and its minute foot-prints are seen every- j
where in the winter when the snow is sufficiently fine
to retain the impression. I have often traced its
pathway to a stalk of grass by which it appears to
descend from the surface of the snow ; but a search
for its habitation by removing the snow was invariably
fruitless. I was unable to procure a recent specimen.''
And further on he says — "It is the smallest quadruped
the Indians are acquainted with, and they preserve
skins of it in their conjuring bags. The power of
generating heat must be very great in this diminutive
creature, to preserve its tender limbs from freezing
when the temperature sinks forty or fifty degrees below
zero."
SAVTS SHEEW (Sorex etruscus). — To the general
observer of nature, the distinctions established between
the numerous species of shrew may not at first sight
appear very satisfactory, and it is partly on this account
that we find it necessary to confine our attention to the
more striking or better known forms. There is a little
North American form, emphatically called the small
shrew-mouse — the Sorex parvus of Say and Richard
son — which is only two inches and three-quarters in
length; but this specific title might perhaps with greater
propriety be applied to the species under consideration ;
for Savi's shrew js not only believed to be the smallest
in existence, but it is probably the tiniest of all
living quadrupeds, excepting, of course, those which
have not attained their adult or fully developed state.
The body of Say's small shrew measures two inches
and three-quarters, without reckoning the tail ; whereas
the little Sorex etruscus scarcely exceeds two inches
and a half, two entire fifths of which measurement
belong to the caudal appendage. It is an inhabitant
of Italy and the northern coasts of Africa. Notwith-
standing what we have here advanced, it will doubtless
occur to our readers that some of the bats scarcely
exceed this animal in length ; although, if placed side
by side with the pipistrelle, this bat would appear in
all likelihood comparatively bulky.
THE BTJLATJ (Gymnura Rafflesii). — The members
of this and the two following genera offer such pecu-
liarities as scarcely to entitle us to classify them with
the Soricidse, properly so called ; and on the one hand,
they neither sufficiently agree in their respective char-
acters, so as to enable our associating them together
under a separate family title, nor, on the other, are
they clearly referable to the Tupaiadce ; yet, as they
exhibit characters of a very mixed kind, we cannot at
present, perhaps, do better than briefly record them
in the order here adopted. The head of the bulau is
much elongated and compressed from side to side, the
muzzle being proboscidiform, obtuse at the tip, and
continued forward a considerable distance beyond the
lower jaw. The eyes are rather small, and the ears
rounded, conspicuous, and naked. The bod}7 is stoutish
posteriorly, and terminates in a long, smooth, scaly
tail which supports a few thinly scattered hairs.
The mass of the fur is soft ; but from beneath this
downy covering there projects a multitude of long
harsh, bristle-like hairs, which are particularly numer-
ous along the back. The lirnbs are well developed,
and terminate in plantigrade pentadactylous feet, having
the three middle toes longer than the other digits.
The jaws are armed with forty-four teeth, which Pro-
fessor Owen has divided into twelve incisives, four
canines, sixteen false, and twelve true molars. They
-MAMMALIA.
are equally distributed above and below. It is also
worthy of remark, that the skeleton displays fifteen
pairs of ribs and five lumbar vertebrae. In external
form this animal approaches the American marsupials;
but little or nothing is known of its habits.
THE RHYNCHOCYON (Rhynchocyon etVnez).— The
eminent naturalist Peters has given this name to an
extremely rare and very curious animal, discovered by
him during his travels in the Mozambique. In certain
particulars it resembles the bulau; but its snout is very
much more prolonged, forming a conspicuous proboscis.
The ears are moderately developed ; but the eyes are
comparatively large. The jaws are furnished with
thirty -six teeth, somewhat irregularly disposed, there
being only two incisors above while there are six below ;
and of the twenty-eight molars, the anterior pair in
the upper series are sufficiently elongated to be at
first sight mistaken for canines. The feet are planti-
grade, tetradactylous, and armed with strong claws,
the outer toe of the fore-feet being widely separated
from the others. As in the preceding species, the
hind feet are longer than the front ones. The tail
is considerably developed, annulated, and sparingly
clothed with hair.
THE HYLOMYS (Hylomys suillus).~M. Salomon
Miiller employs this name to designate a small and
rare animal inhabiting the islands of Sumatra and
Java, and living at a height of from twelve hundred to
two thousand feet above the level of the sea. In the
form of the skull and other cranial peculiarities, it
appears to approach the members of the succeeding
family ; but the back of the orbit is not closed in by a
bony ring, such as is found in that remarkable group.
The teeth are forty-four in number ; that is, twelve
incisors, and thirty-two molars. The snout is pro-
longed forwards into a movable proboscis, which is
directed a little downwards at the tip, where the
nostrils are laterally disposed. The eyes are not
large ; but the ears are conspicuous, and thinly pro-
vided with hair. As in the bulau, the feet are penta-
dactylous, the three central digits being paramount,
and the hind feet longer than the fore ones, the claws
being sharp and strongly curved. The tail is particu-
larly short, and but thinly clothed with hair. Very
little is known respecting its habits. The teeth, bow-
ever, indicate its insectivorous propensities.
FAMILY III.— TUPAIAD^B.
The Tupaias are here collected into a separate group,
chiefly on account of several well-marked anatomical
peculiarities. The most important of these consists in
the presence of an osseous ring completing the posterior
part of the orbit, and entirely circumscribing that
cavity. In all other species of the order Insectivora,
a communication exists between the orbits and the
spaces occupied by the temporal muscles which act
upon the lower jaw. In this, and in some other fea-
tures, we observe a structural and morphological
approach towards the insectivorous monkeys. Through-
out the family we have an elongated head, which is
very much narrowed towards the pointed muzzle, and
at the extremity of this snout the semilunar nostrils
are placed sideways. The ears and eyes are largely
developed, the latter projecting sufficiently to enable
the animals to see backwards almost in a straight line.
The body is long and narrow, but provided with toler-
ably strong limbs, terminating in plantigrade, five-toed
feet, the digits being armed with sharply-curved claws.
All the species at present known are inhabitants of the
Sunda islands, while some few have been found in
Pegu and on the shores of the Indian peninsula.
Their habits are diurnal and active, and from this
circumstance they have always been associated with
the squirrels by the native Malays.
THE JAVANESE BANGSEING (Tupaiajavanica). —
This species was first familiarly made known to natu-
ralists by Dr. Horsfield, who during his travels in Java,
in the year 1806, discovered numerous examples in
the thickly- wooded forests of the province of Blam-
bangan. The body being slender and compact is
eminently fitted for active pursuits. The limbs are
gracefully formed, imparting to the creature an easy
and attractive appearance. The five-toed feet ter-
minate in compressed and strongly-curved claws,
which are firmly implanted into the somewhat swollen
tips of the several digits. The tail forms a very con-
spicuous organ. It is fully as long as the body, having
an almost uniform thickness from root to tip, and is
clothed with regularly arranged hairs spreading out
like those of the squirrel, but in a more limited degree.
The fur consists, for the most part, of fine straight
hairs closely applied to the skin ; the back, neck, sides,
and limbs being provided with a few longer, stouter,
and darker-coloured hairs. The colour is of a greyish-
brown, varying considerably at different spots, being
lighter underneath the throat, chest, and belly. The
head is narrowed anteriorly, and the eyes are particu-
larly prominent. The bangsring and its allies appear
to be very easily tamed ; for a specimen of this
genus which came under the notice of Sir Stam-
ford Raffles, behaved itself like a pet spaniel, freely
partaking of fruits and milk at the breakfast and
dinner table, and scampering through the house with
evident satisfaction.
FAMILY IV.— ERIN ACE A DM.
The hedgehogs are readily recognized by their
peculiar spinous integument and the remarkable power
possessed by the more typical forms of rolling them-
selves up into a ball. This function is accomplished
by the agency of a special development of the sub-
cutaneous muscular bands, which are more or less
developed in all the mammalia, forming in scientific
nomenclature the muscular mass termed the panniculus
carnosus. It is of such strength in these creatures,
that in their doubled-up state they are capable of
resisting almost any force which their enemies employ
to unroll them, while the points of the setae or spinous
bristles inflict severe wounds upon the aggressors. In
other respects the hedgehogs exhibit a general con-
formity to the insectivorous type. The muzzle is
pointed, and prolonged beyond the lower jaw. The
eyes and ears are tolerably conspicuous; the latter,
however, are rather short. The feet are pentadae-
7U
ERINACEAD/
-MAMMALIA. ERLNACEAI>V£.
tylous and armed with powerful claws ; but the anterior
pair are not specially modified for the purposes of
burrowing like the moles. The tail is either very
short or altogether absent.
THE TENEEC (Centenes setosus.)—This animal dif-
fers from the ordinary hedgehogs both in respect of
certain structural modifications, and also in the circum-
stance of its not being able to fold itself up into a ball ;
at least, its powers in this particular are extremely
limited. The skin along the back is armed with a
mixture of slender spines and bristles, and the body
terminates abruptly behind without any trace of a tail.
Some difference of opinion exists in regard to its den-
titioo, owing, perhaps, to the fact that many of the
specimens examined were quite young. In the adult
state there are probably twelve incisors, four canines,
twelve false and also twelve true molars — that is, forty
teeth in all, equally divided between the two jaws, the
canines being large and of a conical shape. The
muzzle is much attenuated and proboscidiform. The
tenrec is a native of the island of Madagascar ; it is
possessed of nocturnal habits, and passes three months
of the year in a state of hybernation. According to
the statements of Brugiere, the torpidity occurs during
the period of greatest heat.
THE SOKINAH (Echinops Telfain). — Under this
title Mr. W. C. L. Martin has described, in the second
volume of the Transactions of the Zoological Society
of London, a kind of hedgehog which, like the forego-
ing, is an inhabitant of Madagascar. This animal is
chiefly distinguished by the peculiarities of its den-
tition. It possesses ten incisors, four only of these
occupying the upper jaw, the anterior pair being
strongly developed and placed somewhat in front of
the others ; there appear to be four canines and but
twenty-four molars — that is, five on each side of the
upper, and seven on either side of the lower jaw ; the
crowns of the r.pper molar series are longitudinally
grooved. Notwithstanding this dental arrangement,
the sokinah cannot be said to differ very materially
from the hedgehogs properly so called.
THE COMMON HEDGEHOG (Erinaceus europceus)
Plate 6, fig. 20. — Most persons are familiar with this
bristly urchin. All who have dwelt amid rural scenes
or wandered along grassy hedgerows, have surely come
in contact with our thorny friend. Yes! we shall
deign to consider him a friendly individual, notwith-
standing that he turns his back upon us and displays a
cheveux de frise of little bayonets pointing in every
conceivable direction. " Stay !" remarks one of my
readers, " he is an enemy ! To my certain knowledge,
he has the credit of pilfering milk direct from the cow ;
he is a notorious stealer of apples and pears ; he is an
unsparing egg-poacher; and, moreover — which to my
mind is the most cogent argument against him — he is a
nasty, dirty little beast for, as old Pliny observes, he
sprinkles himself all over with urine, for the express
purpose of disgusting alike his tormentors and admirers,
thereby necessitating a respectful distance ! What do
you say to that, Sir ; will you still call him a friend?"
Patience ! impetuous reader, and you shall have my
answer to your hypercritical censures upon this com-
paratively harmless animal. In the first place, with
regard to the asseverations of the ancient historian of
nature, they may safely be regarded, as the gratuitous
offspring of a fertile imagination, having, in point of
fact, no other foundation than such as I have myself
witnessed — namely, an involuntary expulsion of the
fluid secretion on the part of the animal itself, when
suddenly and violently alarmed. Secondly, in regard
to the milking propensities, no one has ever yet
witnessed the animal's indulgence of this refreshing
experiment. Thirdly, with respect to his alleged carpo-
logical thefts, the body is but ill-adapted for climbing
fruit-trees, though I admit, in a time of famine, he will
not refuse apples and pears which have accidentally
fallen to the ground ; but the story to which you allude
bears on its face the very stamp of absurdity, seeing it
would have us believe that he not only ascends the
tree, but, in the doubled-up state, voluntarily throws
himself from the branches with sufficient precision
to alight on the fallen fruits; these, in consequence,
adhere to his skin, and, having unrolled himself, he
hurries off with the desired booty upon his back !
Fourthly, while I grant there is strong evidence of his
being a poacher, you must bear in mind, before hastily
pronouncing him to be a worthless character, that he
only resorts to fowls' and pheasants' eggs when the
supply of mice, snails, slugs, worms, and various
insects, fail to satisfy his legitimate demands. On the
whole, therefore, will you not be disposed to regard
the hedgehog as an erring creature which does more
good than harm? Let me direct your attention to
its organization. On closely contemplating the struc-
ture o.f the hedgehog, we cannot fail to be struck with
the marvellous adaptations provided for its comfort
and security. " Deprived," says Mr. Bell, in his
admirable history of British quadrupeds, " of all means
of attacking its enemies, of defending itself by force, or
of seeking safety in flight, this harmless animal is yet
endowed with a safeguard more secure and effectual
than the teeth and claws of the wild cat or the fleetness
of the bare. Its close covering of sharp spines, which
are hard without brittleness, sufficiently elastic to bear
great violence without breaking, and fixed with aston-
ishing firmness in the tough leathery skin, forms not
only a solid shield to protect it from the effects of
blows or falls, but a shirt of prickly mail sufficiently
sharp and annoying to deter all but a few thorough-
bred dogs, or a half-starved fox, from venturing to
attack it. Immediately it is touched, or when it
sees danger approaching, it rolls itself up into a com-
pact round ball, by the contraction of the powerful
muscles which cover the body immediately under the
skin, and presents this impenetrable panoply, beset by
innumerable spines standing out in every direction:
and the more it is irritated or alarmed, the more firmlv
it contracts, and the more strongly and stiffly the
spines are set. The strength and elasticity of this
covering is such, that I have repeatedly seen a domes-
ticated hedgehog in my own possession run towards
the precipitous wall of an area, and, without hesitation,
without a moment's pause of preparation, throw itself
off, and, contracting at the same instant into a ball, in
which condition it reached the ground from a height
of twelve or fourteen feet, after a few moments it
CARNIVORA. MAMMALIA. CARNIVORA.
71
would unfold itself and nm off unhurt." This last-
mentioned phenomenon appears to give some clue to
the ridiculous story of the hedgehog's voluntary falls
from the branches of fruit-trees ; at all events, the cir-
cumstance illustrates the well-known remark, that all
widely-spread notions, however false and egregious,
have their origin in some misinterpreted fact or other
element of truth. Hedgehogs are readily tamed, and
are, we believe, still kept by a few persons to eat up
cockroaches and other noxious insects which infest our
houses. Some aver that the flesh is good eating, but
others dispute its merits in this respect; gipsies, at any
rate, will cook and eat them. Without entering into
a lengthened description, we may remark that a full-
grown example measures about nine and a half inches,
not including the rudimentary tail, which is only three-
quarters of an inch long. The jaws are armed with
thirty-six teeth — that is, eight incisors, six above and
two below, and twenty-eight molars. The ears are
short and oval, the eyes being bright and distinct.
At the lower part of the body the spines degenerate, as
it were, into mere bristles and stout hairs. The
animal's habits are essentially nocturnal, and during
the winter it remains in a torpid state, hybernating in
the hollows of decayed trees and similar secure retreats.
The nest is carefully constructed and rain-proof. In
the early part of the summer the female produces from
two to four young ones at a birth, their skin being
covered with soft white elastic bristles, which in a very
few days assume the ordinary hard epinous character.
ORDER V.-CARN1VORA.
IN the arrangement of Cuvier, this eminently carni-
vorous group of animals constitutes the third family of
those unguiculated mammals, which he associated
together under the common title of Carnassiers. It is
in these Carnivora, properly so called, that we observe
the highest development of physical force combined
with a purely zoophagous appetite. If, for example,
we examine the skeleton of a lion, we shall find its
mechanism specially adapted for the purposes of active
pursuit, and for the employment of overbearing
strength (Plate 33, fig. 105). The skull is short, broad,
and massive, the hind part supporting at the vertex a
longitudinal ridge or crest. The object of this median
elevation is to afford attachment to the powerful tem-
poral muscles which act upon and are inserted into the
base of the lower jaw. The several bones of the face,
and consequently those of the jaw, bear a remarkable
contrast to the same osseous elements in the order
previously considered ; for, whereas in the latter we
invariably notice a more or less marked attenuation
towards the snout, in the lion and other typical Carni-
vora we find the facial bones terminating abruptly in
a broad and short muazle. The orbital fossae are spa-
cious, in order to accommodate the largely-developed
eyes. That part of the temporal bone immediately
connected with the function of hearing, is remarkably
developed for the purpose of exaggerating the power
of appreciating the most delicate sonorous vibrations —
a circumstance obviously connected with the animal's
nocturnal habits. From the internal surface of the
occipital and parietal bones a peculiar shelf-like osseous
plate projects, so as to divide the cerebral cavity into
two or more parts ; in the living state these osseous
laminae occupy the narrow interspaces between the
principal divisions of the brain, and they are evidently
intended to protect the great nervous centre from
injury, during the violent and oft-repeated shocks to
which the animal's habits necessarily expose it. The
prodigiously strong jaws are armed with thirty teeth,
twelve of these being well-developed incisors, six
above and the same number below ; the four canines
are long and stout, having almost the appearance of
' tusks, while the majority of the molars are trenchant
or cutting, two only being tuberculated, and these
belonging to the upper series. In other Carnivora we
find a larger number of tuberculated molars ; and so
uniformly is the balance of structure and function
marked by this peculiarity, that the degree of tubercu-
lation on the one hand, and of sharpness on the other,
affords a very accurate indication as to the amount of
carnivority possessed by any one particular species.
According to Professor Owen, only four of the fourteen
molars are true, the other ten being what are termed
spurious, false, or pre-molars. The vertebral column
of the lion is amazingly strong, yet, at the same time,
very flexible; this combination of strength and elasticity
being particularly well seen in the bones of the neck,
where the first two segments, termed the atlas and
dentata, are remarkably enlarged, the transvere pro-
cesses of the former and the spinous process of the
latter also affording admirable support and attachment
to those muscles which act upon the occiput. There
are thirteen ribs, but the number varies in different
genera. The skeletal elements of the fore-limbs dis-
play evidence of great power. The scapula or
shoulder-blade, is particularly broad ; the upper end of
the humerus, or arm-bone, R, is specially enlarged to
give insertion to the strong muscles of the shoulder ;
the radius, s, and the ulna, T, together with the bones
of the carpus, u, and metacarpus, v, are likewise cor-
respondingly stout and powerful. In the lion and
other digitigrade Carnivora — that is, those which walk
on the tips of their toes — the ultimate digital phalanges,
w, are curiously modified for the support and protec-
tion of their terrible claws. The extremity of each
phalanx is invested by the hooked nail, the base being
also deeply grooved and hollowed out for the lodge-
ment and fixation of its root. With regard to the
posterior pair of limbs, the femora, H, tibise, I, and
fibulas, K, do not exhibit any more remarkable features
than those referable to an increased power ; the calca-
neum or heel-bone, L, is bulky, and with the metatar-
sals, M, directed vertically upwards. This arrangement
facilitates the actions of springing and leaping. Tlie
URSID.E. MAMMALIA. URSID.*:.
digital phalanges, N, closely resemble those of the
fore-feet. Such is a brief sketch of the more striking j
peculiarities seen in the skeleton of the lion, these
characters being for the most part shared by all the
more typical members of the order. The variations
that occur in aberrant forms will be alluded to in the
general remarks given at the head of each separate
family.
FAMILY I.— URSID^J
The bears differ from the more typical Carnivora in
several very important particulars. In the first place,
they are plantigrade, applying the entire sole of the
foot to the ground during progression ; and in this
respect, as well as in the circumstance of their noctur-
nal habits, associated with a comparative slowness of
pace, we perceive a close alliance with the Inseclivora.
In the construction of the skeleton also, we find the
bones less robust, while their mode of inter-articulation
does not admit of the same degree of easy mobility
which obtains in the cats. The elongation of the skull
contrasts strongly with the short, massive cranium of
the lion and tiger. The bears, properly so-called,
usually carry forty-two teeth, twelve being incisive,
four canine, sixteen spurious, and ten true molars ;
eight of the latter — that is, two on either side of each j
jaw — are tnberculated. The snout is prolonged and
abrupt at the tip ; it contains internally a movable
cartilage. The ears are short, rounded, and erect.
The tail is inconspicuous or feebly developed. Differ-
ent members of the family are severally found inhabit-
ing various parts of the globe. Their food is of a
mixed character, scarcely anything being refused,
whether animal or vegetable ; this corresponds with
the dentition, which, as we have seen, is even more
frugivorous than carnivorous. The majority of the
species are stout, thickset animals, and when attacked
or excited, they frequently assume an upright attitude,
fighting and striking with their powerful hands. They
pass the winter in a semi-torpid half-starving condition,
retreating for this purpose into dens and holes which
they have excavated among the rocks. Fossil remains
of bears have been found in the newest tertiary or
pleistocene deposits, and in caverns referable to the
subsequent glacial period. Among the several extinct
forms at present known, the Great Cavern Bear (Ursus
spelccus) appears to have been the largest, being
probably about one-fifth more bulky than any species
now living. Caverns containing these remains occur
in England, at Kent's Hole near Torquay, in Devon-
shire; also in Essex, Norfolk, Yorkshire, andCambridge-
shire ; as well as in various parts of Germany , Italy,
and the south of France.
Fig. 20.
The Kate! (.iJellivora
THE BATEL (Mellivora capertsis). — Following out
Cuvier's arrangement as far as possible, we place this
interesting animal among the bears ; yet, at the same
time, we are fully aware that not only the ratel, but
also several of the succeeding forms, exhibit, in a
structural point of view, many important features in
common with the Mustelidse. On scientific grounds
a distinct group might be formed, osculant between
the two families ; these refinements, however, as well
as the more complicated classifications of some recent
natural history authorities, would ill serve our present
purpose. The ratel (fig. 20) is an Inhabitant of the
Cape of Good Hope and the region of the Mozambique.
The body is about three feet in length, including the
tail, which measures at least six inches; its height
from the ground is scarcely one foot. The skin is
very dense, the fur consisting of long, stiff, wiry hairs
which are greyish above, inclining to white on the
head, but very dark or black on the belly ; a white
line or stripe separates these two colours. The head
is smooth, short, and stout, with an abrupt muzzle ,
the auricles are small or rudimentary, being repre-
UKSID.K. MAMMAUA.-
7.1
sented only by a slight elevation of the integument
round the auditory opening. The teeth are thirty-two
in number — that is, twelve incisive, four canine, a
dozen spurious molars, and four true ones ; none of
these so-called grinding teeth are tuberculated, and
this peculiarity alone constitutes a distinctive character.
The limbs are short, terminating in semi-plantigrade
pentadactylous feet, the digits of which are furnished
with very powerful claws, and are admirably adapted
for the purposes of burrowing. The ratel by this
means grubs up the nests of wild bees, and is led to
their haunts by watching the behaviour and return of
these insects at evening-time. He is said also, like the
native Hottentots, to listen to the note of the Honey
Guide Cuckoo, which indicates the spot where the
desired treasure is to be found. According to Peters,
it also feeds on birds, rats, and snakes, a statement
which entirely coincides with the opinion formed by
a distinguished naturalist who, from a careful exami-
nation of the dentition, was led to express the follow-
ing sentiments: — "It requires," observes Mr. Bennett,
" the most positive evidence to convince us that an
animal, the number and disposition of whose teeth cor-
respond more closely with those of the cat than any
other animal with which we are acquainted, and
exhibit a carnivorous character scarcely, if at all,
inferior to that which is evidenced by the same organ
in the hyaenas, should subsist entirely, as from these
accounts we are led to believe, upon the petty rapine
of a hive of bees and the honied produce of their comb.
Still there exist such decisive marks of a diminished
capacity for preying on animal food, in the thickset
and clumsy form of its body, the shortness of its limbs,
its parti ally -plantigrade walk, the structure of its
muzzle, and even in the form of the teeth themselves,
as to induce us to pause before we determine to reject
the popular testimony as unworthy of credit, although
we must regard it as doubtful on some particular
points, and insufficient and imperfect on the whole."
Messrs. Shaw and Hardwicke have described, in the
Transactions of the Linnaean Society, another species of
ratel (Mellivora indica] inhabiting the upper regions of
the Indian peninsula. The tail of this form is shorter,
and there is no appearance of the characteristic white
band above mentioned.
THE GLTTTTON OR WOLVERENE (Gulo luscus). —
As before remarked, we do not now discuss the nicely-
balanced question as to whether the genera here allied
together would be more appropriately placed among the
weasels or cats. No injury is done to the harmony
of zoological sequence by placing these animals side
by side with the typical forms of the great ursine group,
provided it is understood that we only employ the
family title in its most comprehensive signification.
The wolverene (Plate 2, fig. 36) is about the size of the
common badger, and measures two and a half feet in
length, not including the thick bushy tail, which is
rather more than -half a foot in length, the terminal
hairs reaching four or five inches further. The body
is strongly arched, especially along the back. The
head is broad and pointed at the muzzle, the ears being
short, rounded, and partly concealed by the fur. The
jaws are provided with thirty-eight teeth— there being
twelve incisors, four canines, sixteen false and six true
molars, four of the latter belonging to the lower jaw.
The limbs are short, and terminate in semi-plantigrade
five-toed feet, the digits of which are furnished with
powerful sharp claws. The fur exhibits a dark maroon
or reddish-brown colour, becoming almost black as
winter sets in ; on either side a light reddish band,
inclining to white, extends from the shoulder to the
hip, but it is more conspicuous in some individuals
than in others. The hair of the tail is black, the under
part of the throat and chest being more or less marked
with pale whitish streaks. In regard to the gluttonous
habits of this animal, perhaps no creature has had
its digestive capacities more wantonly exaggerated ;
and in these days it is well that our records of the
instincts and habits of various creatures should be
marked by the enunciations of sober truth, and the
distinctions between fact and mere fiction sedulously
maintained. The legendary tales of Ysbrandt, Olaus
Magnus, Buffon, and many others, in which the fero-
city, cunning, and voracity of the glutton are duly set
forth, have too often been accepted as embodying
actual truths. But by far the best account yet given
of this animal is that by Sir John Richardson, who
thus fairly estimates his stomachal powers and cunning
propensities : — " The wolverene is a carnivorous ani-
mal, which feeds chiefly upon the carcasses of beasts
that have been killed by accident. It has great
strength, and annoys the natives by destroying their
hoards of provisions and demolishing their marten
traps. It is so suspicious that it will rarely enter a
trap itself, but, beginning behind, scatters the logs of
which it is built, and then carries off the bait. It feeds
also on meadow-mice, marmots, and other Rodentia,
and occasionally on other disabled quadrupeds of a
larger size. I have seen one chasing an American
hare, which was at the same time harassed by a snowy
owl. It resembles the bear in its gait, and is not fleet ;
but it is very industrious, and no doubt feeds well, as
it is generally fat. It is much abroad in the winter,
and the track of its journey in a single night may be
traced for many miles. From the shortness of its legs,
it makes its way through loose snow with difficulty,
but when it falls upon the beaten track of a marten-
trapper it will pursue it for a long way. Mr. Graham
observes that the ' wolverenes are extremely mischiev-
ous, and do more damage to the small fur trade than
all the other rapacious animals conjointly. They will
follow the marten-hunter's path round a line of traps
extending forty, fifty, or sixty miles, and render the
whole unserviceable, merely to come at the baits,
which are generally the head of a partridge or a bit of
dried venison. They are not fond of the martens
themselves, but never fail of tearing them in pieces or
of burying them in the snow by the side of the path,
at a considerable distance from the trap. Drifts of
snow often conceal the repositories thus made of the
martens from the hunter, in which case they furnish a
regale to the hungry fox, whose sagacious nostril unerr-
ingly guides him to the spot. Two or three foxes are
often seen following the wolverene for this purpose.'
The wolverene is said to be a great destroyer of
beavers, but it mu&t be only in the summer when those
74
MAMMALIA. UBSII..K.
industrious animals are at work on laud, that it can sur-
prise them. An attempt to break open their house in
the winter, even supposing it possible for the claws of
a wolverene to penetrate the thick mud walls when
frozen as hard as stone, would only have the effect of
driving the beavers into the water to seek for shelter
in their vaults on the borders of the dam. The wolve-
rene, although it is reported to defend itself with bold-
ness and success against the attack of other quadrupeds,
Hies from the face of man, and makes but a poor fight
with a hunter, who requires no other arms than a stick
to kill it" The geographical distribution of the wolve-
rene is co-extensive with the length and breadth of the
colder regions of the great North American continent,
indications of its presence having been found as far
north as Melville Island. The female produces from
two to four young ones at a birth, which are clothed
with a soft light cream-coloured fur.
THE AMERICAN BADGER (Mdes labradoria).—
This animal is also recognized by the names of the
Brairo and Taxel. Mr. Waterhouse and others sepa-
rate it from the badgers, properly so called ; but, as it
is closely allied to them in all essential particulars, we
prefer to retain the above title. The dental elements
correspond numerically with those of the common
badger, but their carnivorous character is more
marked, although the grinding surfaces of the molars
are remarkably flat and even. The length and bulk
of the body is similar to that of the glutton. The
head is broad, and truncated posteriorly. The ears
are short and round, the internal auditory bullte being
largely developed. The fur is coarse and short on the
head and limbs, but everywhere else it is beautifully
tine and silky, the individual hairs measuring several
inches in length. Near the skin, the hair exhibits a
purplish-brown colour; the free ends, however, are
white, producing a pretty mottled grey appearance.
A white band extends from the muzzle over the head
along the middle line, gradually disappearing toward
the shoulders. The limbs are stoutish, the fore-feet
being furnished with strong light-coloured claws, which
are longer than those of the common badger. In
regard to its habits and geographical distribution, Sir
John Richardson states that it "frequents the sandy
plains or prairies which skirt the Rocky Mountains as
far north as the banks of the Peace river, and sources
of the River of the Mountains in latitude 58°. It
abounds on the plains watered by the Missouri, but its
exact southern range has not, as far as I know, been
defined by any traveller. The sandy prairies in the
neighbourhood of Carlton House, on the banks of the
Sasketchewan, and also on the Red river that flows
into Lake Winipeg, are perforated by innumerable
badger-holes, which are a great annoyance to horse-
men, particularly when the ground is covered with
snow. These holes are partly dug by the badgers for
habitations, but the greater number of them are merely
enlargements of the burrows of the Arctomys Hoodii
and Richardsonii, which the badgers dig up and prey
upon. Whilst the ground is covered with snow, the
badger rarely or never comes from its hole, and I sup-
pose that in that climate it passes the winter from the
beginning of November to April in a torpid state.
Indeed, as it obtains the small animals on which it
feeds by surprising them in their burrows, it has little
chance of digging them out at a time when the ground
is frozen into a solid rock. Like the bears, the badgers
do not lose much flesh during their long hybernation ;
for, on coming abroad in the spring, they are observed
to be very fat. As they pair, however, at that season,
they soon become lean. This badger is a slow and
timid animal, taking to the first earth it comes to when
pursued ; and as it makes its way through the sandy
soil with the rapidity of a mole, it soon places itseli
out of the reach of danger. The strength of its fore-
feet and claws is so great, that one which had insinu-
ated only its head and shoulders into a hole, resisted
the utmost efforts of two stout young men who endea-
voured to drag it out by the hind legs and tail, until
one of them fired the contents of his fowling-piece into
its body. Early in the spring, however, when they
first begin to stir abroad, they may be easily caught by
pouring water into their holes ; for, the ground being
frozen at that period, the water does not escape
through the sand, but soon fills the hole, and its tenant
is obliged to come out. The American badger appears
to be a more carnivorous animal than the European
one. A .female which I killed had a small marmot,
nearly entire, together with some field-mice, in its
stomach. It had also been eating some vegetable
matters."
THE INDIAN BADGEE (Meles collaris}.— Some
naturalists also regard this species as an aberrant form
of badger, and they go so far as to place it with the
digitigrade teledus ! It is an inhabitant of Hiudostan,
and is commonly called by the natives the Bhalloo-soor,
or Bear-pig. This title is by no means inappropriate,
for, if we are to accept the description of Frederick
Cuvier, the combination of swinish and ursine charac-
ters is very evident. It is similar to the European
form in respect of bulk, but the tail is considerably
longer, measuring nine inches. Mr. Johnson, in his
" Indian Field Sports," says they " are marked exactly
like those in England, but they are larger and taller,
are exceedingly fierce, and will attack a number of
dogs." The tame specimens kept in the menagerie of
the governor-general at Barrackpoor, when irritated,
| gave out a peculiar kind of grunt, and stood up on
their hind limbs to show fight precisely in the same
manner as ordinary bears. The female appeared more
docile than the male. Their movements were sluggish,
and they always preferred vegetable to animal food,
being particularly fond of bread and fruits. In the
wild state, the Indian badger appears to be exceedingly
savage. It occurs chiefly in the hilly districts, but is
not very abundant anywhere.
THE EUROPEAN BADGER (Meles taxus), fig. 21.—
Before noticing this creature's habits, we offer a few
remarks on the principal characters wThich distinguish it,
especially as we have designedly omitted entering upon
minute details in our description of the two preceding
aberrant forms. The body is broad and depressed,
and is furnished with short powerful limbs, termi-
nating in plantigrade, pentadactylous feet, whose digits
are armed with long, powerful, fossorial claws. The
fur consists of shaggy, coarse, bristly hairs, those on
URSID.E. MAMMALIA.
the belly touching the ground during progression.
The head is remarkably long and attenuated in front.
The ears are short, almost concealed, and placed well
back. The mouth is provided with thirty-six teeth, of
which there are twelve incisors, four canines, sixteen
spurious, and four true molars, a moiety being appro-
priated by either jaw. The back is feebly curved, the
tail being particularly short and only reaching down
to the middle of the limbs. One of this animal's most
remarkable peculiarities consists in the presence of a
The European Badger (Me'es taxus).
glandular pouch situated under the tail. This organ,
which also exists in many other carnivorous animals,
such as the skunks and weasels, secretes an unctuous
oily material having a disgusting fetid odour. It is
this circumstance which has suggested the common
proverb, by which ill-savoured matters are said to
" stink like badger." With regard to the varied
colour- of the fur, Mr. Ogil'»y gives the following
minute description : — " The head of the badger is
white, except the region beneath the chin, which is
black, and two bands of the same colour, which rise on
each side, a little behind the corners of the mouth, and
after passing backwards and enveloping the eye and
ear, terminate at the junction of the head and neck.
The hairs of the upper part of the body, considered
separately, are of three different colours — yellowish-
white at the bottom, black in the middle, and ashy-
grey at the point; the last colour alone, however,
appears externally, and gives the uniform sandy-grey
shade which covers all the upper parts of the body.
The tail is furnished with long, coarse hair of the
same colour and quality, and the throat, breast, belly,
and limbs are covered with shorter hair of a uni-
form deep black." The European badger can scarcely
be considered a common animal. It is by no means
abundant on the continent, while in this country it
appears to be rapidly approaching extinction. It has
lost its ursine companion of former days, and in a few
centuries more our persecuted friend will probably be
better known by his fossil remains than by the smell
of his greasy fur. At, or immediately succeeding, the
close of the glacial period, he associated himself with
several species of bears and hyaenas, whose specific
characters and habits are only known to us by the
bony relics they have left in caverns and among the
sands of time. A master hand has thus portrayed
the habits of a living badger : — " Heavy, sleepy, and
slothful, endowed with but a moderate degree of intel-
lect, and with instincts dull and obtuse, it yet possesses
a character and qualities which, if not peculiarly inter-
esting and intelligent, are far from being disgusting
and ferocious ; and, if it do not boast the admirable
sagacity and lively attachment of the dog, it is yet free
from the cunning and rapine of the fox, and the
fierceness and treachery of the cat. Its favourite
haunts are obscure and gloomy. It retires to the
deepest recesses of woods, or to thick coppices cover-
ing the sides of hills; and there with its long and
powerful claws, digs for itself a deep and well-formed
domicile, consisting of more than one apartment, the
single entrance to which is by a deep, oblique, and
even tortuous excavation. The general form of the
elongated but robust body, the long taper muzzle ter-
minating in a movable snout, the hard coarse hair,
the loose and leathery skin, the low and plantigrade
limbs, and the fossorial character of the claws — combine
to fit the badger for a subterraneous abode, and to
enable it to form that abode by its own labour.
There it sleeps during the greater part of the day,
coming abroad only for a short period in the evening
or night to seek its sustenance, in the choice of which
it exhibits as completely an omnivorous character as
perhaps any animal with which we are acquainted.
Its food, in fact, consists indifferently of various roots,
earth-nuts, beech-mast, fruits, the eggs of birds, some
of the smaller quadrupeds, frogs, and insects. Buffon
states that it digs up wasps' nests for the sake of the
honey — a fact which has received an interesting con-
firmation from the observation of a correspondent of
London's Magazine of Natural History, who seems,
however, to attribute the destruction of these nests to
the fondness of the badger for the larvae of the wasp,
as he says that the combs were found scattered about,
but none were left that contained the maggots." Mr.
Bell also observes, further on, in regard to the methods
of taking this animal — " The favourite mode, and
that which is perhaps the most successful, is by catch-
ing him in a sack placed at the entrance of his hole.
The haunt of a badger being ascertained, a moon-light
night is chosen when he is out feeding, and a small
sack is placed within the mouth of the hole, fastened at
the outside, with the mouth of the bag outwards,
and having a running string round it. Two or three
couples of hounds are then thrown off at some dis-
tance, and as soon as the badger hears their cry, he
makes for his home with all speed, and runs into the
sack, which closes behind him by the tightening of the
running string at its mouth. Another method is by
digging him out. This, however, is laborious and not
always successful, particularly in sandy soils, in which
the badger will easily foil the dogs which pursue him
n his subterraneous passages, by throwing the earth
back upon them, and blocking up their way, whilst he
takes advantage of their loss of time, and makes his
way to the surface." The nest of the badger is made
>f soft herbage, especially moss and grass. The female
produces three or four young ones at a birth, the cubs
being suckled for about five or six weeks, after which
76
URSID.K. MAMMALIA.
they are permitted to help themselves. If captured
vhile still young, they are readily tamed, and hecome
very playful and agreeable companions. Notwith-
standing, however, all that has been recorded in their
favour, we do not ourselves either propose or recom-
mend the rearing of a family of badgers. We heartily
rejoice that the barbarous custom of badger-baiting
lias now completely passed away ; but we still recol-
lect an exhibition of this kind some twenty years ago,
in a village iji -tire county of Suffolk, since which time
various societies have been established throughout the
kingdom for the humane purpose of suppressing cruelty
to noxious as well as inoffensive animals.
THE KINKAJOU (Cercoleptes caudivolvula). — By
some authors the kinkajou is placed among the Viver-
ridse. Although its general aspect would at first
naturally lead us to coincide with such an arrange-
ment, yet its structural characters are evidently
more intimately associated with the Ursidse, and con-
sequently we have introduced it in this place. Unlike
the badgers, its head is short, rounied, and more
resembling the apes, the muzzle being only very
slightly produced. The jaws are furnished with thirty-
six teeth, there being twelve incisors, four canines,
twelve spurious, and eight true molars. The two
anterior grinders on either side, above and below,
are conical, the remainder being tuberculated. Their
crowns are also flattened, those of the lower jaw having
an oblong form, while the upper series are a little
widened transversely. The tongue is slendet and
extensile. The body is cylindrical, a good deal curved
posteriorly, and terminates in a long prehensile tail.
According to Mr. Blyth, its capacity of employing the
tail as a fifth limb is very limited ; for he says — " One
which I had an opportunity of studying as it ran about
loose in a room, possessed the prehensile power of
the tail in an extremely moderate degree, merely
resting slightly on this organ, which it stiffened
throughout its length, and never coiled in the manner
of the Sapajous." Frederick Cuvier's figure represents
i he tail several times coiled upon itself. The feet are
tive-toed and plantigrade. The fur is thick and
woolly, and of a golden -yellow brownish colour. The
kinkajou is an inhabitant of the tropical paits of
America, and of the principal West India islands. It
is strictly arboreal and nocturnal in its habits, cau-
tiously moving to and fro, and feeding on fruits, honey,
milk, insects, eggs, small birds, and quadrupeds. Its
disposition appears to be peculiarly mild and gentle.
THF BROWN COATIMONDI (Xasiia narica}— Plate
11, fig. 38. — The genus Nasua includes two or more
species of coati, of which this is probably the best
known form. It is distinguished by the presence of
white patches over the eye and muzzle. In the red
coati, on the other hand, the snout is quite brown, the
fur, generally, being of a rufo-fulvous hue. Without,
however, insisting very strongly on these specific dis-
tinctions, we may observe that the coatis are charac-
terized by the possession of an elongated head, the
muzzle being extended into a movable proboscis.
The superior border is particularly narrow, while the
tip is slightly turned upwards. The ears are short,
broad, and oval. The jaws are provided with forty
teeth ; that is to say, twelve iucisives, four canines,
sixteen premolars, and eight true molars. The canines
are somewhat compressed, and have sharp points.
The molars are comparatively small, three of the lower
series being narrower than those of the upper. These
animals are eminently arboreal in their habits, and
consequently we find their plantigrade, pentadactylous
feet admirably adapted for the purposes of climbing.
The hinder feet are semi -palmate, and so freely do the
tarsal bones move upon the leg, that when descending
head-foremost they almost hang by them ; their ordi-
nary position, as maintained in walking, being nearly
reversed. The toes are connected by an extension of
the skin, and are provided with long, compressed,
incurved claws. These they employ in digging up
earthworms and various subterranean insects. They
also feed upon slugs, snails, small quadrupeds, and
more particularly upon eggs, birds, and various kinds
of fruit, and vegetables. In short, nothing seems to
come amiss, and their appetite is extremely vigorous.
Before they actually devour the flesh of animals, they
are careful to tear it in pieces and detach it. Without
entering at any great length into the structure of
the skeleton, a drawing of which is given in Plate
34, fig. 113, we may remark a general slimness
of the several osseous elements of which it is com-
posed. It may also be observed that the elongated
head slopes very much backwards, while the degree
of this animal's carnivority is shown by the aspect of
the teeth already described, and more particularly by
the sharp, prominent, occipital crest and ridge, which
afford attachment to the powerful muscles of the neck
— an arrangement enabling the animal to raise its head
rapidly with great force, so as to impart to the jaws
the necessary aid in tearing away the soft flesh from
off the bones of its victims. We may likewise notice
one other more remarkable peculiarity in the skeleton.
It is seen in the curious fact that only a single bone or
vertebral segment is found to represent what is termed
the sacrum, while in the typical bears and carnivors.
properly so called, there are always three or four
conjoined osseous elements, and in the polar bear as
many as seven. This phenomenon probably bears
some relation to the arboreal habits of the coati, and
this power of climbing requires, as we have seen, the
utmost freedom of motion in the hinder parts of the
body, while it forms an interesting contrast with the
consolidated chain of bony elements witnessed in the
slow-moving bears. The tail of the coatimondi is very
long, and is marked externally by numerous annula-
tions, depending upon the alternating dark and light-
brown hairs which extend from the root to the tip.
In other parts of the body the colours are more or less
uniform, and, from the observations of the Prince of
Neuwied, it would appear that the slight differences of
colour occurring in the fur of various individuals, are
entirely insufficient to Indicate the correctness of those
specific definitions which have hitherto been regarded
as established.
THE BINTTJRONG (Ictides albifrons) approximates
very closely to the racoons, especially in the form of
the skull. It is an inhabitant of the isles of Borneo,
Malacca, Sumatra, and the western parts of Java,
UKSID.E. -MAMMALIA. URSIIWS.
77
where it is also known as the Palm-civet or Musang.
The head is short and pointed anteriorly. The body
is clothed with long hair, which is generally of a grey
colour, the tail and sides of the muzzle being black.
The whiskers are extensively developed, forming a
very conspicuous feature. The eyes are cat-like, with
the pupil elongated from above downwards, the small
and rounded ears being covered with a tuft of pencilled
hairs. The jaws are armed with thirty- eight teeth ;
that is, twelve incisors, four canines, sixteen spurious,
and six true molars, only two of the latter occurring
in the lower jaw. The feet are entirety plantigrade
and pentadactylous. The tail is remarkably long,
stoutish throughout, more particularly at the root; it is
also prehensile. According to Sir Stamford Raffles,
the Bintnrong is slow and heavy in its movements,
sleeping for the most part during the day, and at night
wandering about in search of food. It appears to
enjoy both an animal and vegetable diet, having
however, a decided preference for the former. It
climbs trees with tolerable facility, being greatly
assisted by the strong prehensile tail.
THE PANDA (Ailurus refulgens) comes still nearer
to the racoons, and consequently to the bears proper.
It is an inhabitant of the Himalaya:1, between the
snowy mountains and Nepaul. The body is stout,
and covered with a soft thickly set fur. It is of
a rich cinnamon colour on the back, fulvous pos-
teriorly, and of a deep black hue beneath. The
tail is as long as the body, tolerably thick throughout,
especially at the root, and is annulated with dark
brown bands. The head is short, broad, rounded, and
clothed with whitish hair. The ears are small, arched,
and pointed. The eyes are placed well forward.
The jaws support thirty-six teeth ; that is, twelve
incisive, four canines, sixteen spurious, and four true
molars. The limbs are short, the soles of the planti-
grade five-toed feet being furnished with fine downy
hairs. The claws are compressed, curved, retractile,
and very sharp. Altogether, this animal is a handsome
species. Respecting its affinities with certain allied
forms, General Hardwicke states, that the peculiarities
" on which its rank as a genus depends are striking
and prominent; but its disposition in a natural series is
still obscure, as it resembles in several characters the
individuals of that subdivision of digitigrade Carnassiers,
from which it differs essentially both in its teeth and
in its plantigrade walk. Among the peculiarities of
our animal are to be noticed, the great breadth of the
rostrum and the singular structure of the teeth ; but
the most remarkable character, and that on which its
distinction principally depends, is the form of the
projecting points of the posterior grinders. This char-
acter, as far as our observation extends, is peculiar.
It does not exist, except in a small degree, in any
other genus of carnivorous quadrupeds." Comparing
it with the genera Nasua and Procyon, he adds
— "These differ essentially in the lengthened form
of the head and in the extended rostrum, which
is terminated by a flexible rhinarium. They also
differ in the number, character, and distribution of the
grinders. Nasua and Procyon have in both jaws six
grinders, of which the three anterior are false ; and of
those which follow, none of the points even in the
adult state exhibit the truncation above described."
The habits of the Panda are strictly arboreal, the
animal being particularly abundant in the neighbour-
hood of running streams and mountain torrents. It
utters a peculiar cry resembling the syllable wha, and
is consequently sometimes called by the natives the
Chitwa. Its food consists chiefly of small quadrupeds
and birds.
THE EACOON (Procyon lotor}— Pltte 11, fig. 37—
is characterized by the possession of an acute fox-like
muzzle, associated with an attitude thoroughly ursine
and plantigrade. During progression, however, the
heel is slightly elevated. The posterior part of the
head is more or less rounded. The ears are oval and
a little pointed. The eyes are large and penetrating,
having spherical pupils. The nose is soft, naked, taper-
ing, and projecting considerably beyond the mouth.
The jaws carry forty teeth ; that is, twelve incisors,
four canines, sixteen spurious, and as many as eight
true molars. The body measures about two feet in
length, exclusive of the tail ; but it stands low, the
back being scarcely a foot from the ground. The
limbs are short and narrow, when compared with the
preceding genera. The feet are pentadactylous, the
digits being clothed and armed with strong falciform
claws. Its tail is about ten inches long, and annu-
lated by alternating bands of dark, black, and whitish
hair, the latter being thick and much elongated. The
fur is for the most part of a greyish-brown colour. On
the head a brownish-black streak runs down the central
line from between the ears to the tip of the nose, and
on either side, below the eyes, there is an oblique
patch of a similar colour. Over the eyebrows, and
towards the muzzle, the hair is whitish. This is also
the case with the ears. The whiskers are well
developed. Under the belly the fur is much lighter
than on the back. The Racoon has an extensive
range over the upper parts of the North American
continent. In regard to its habits, Sir John Richard-
son thus speaks of it : — " In the wild state it sleeps by
day, comes from its retreat in the evening, and prowls
in the night in search of roots, fruits, green corn, birds,
and insects. It is said to eat merely the brain, or suck
the blood of such birds as it kills. At low water it
frequents the sea-shore to feed on crabs and oysters.
It is fond of dipping its food into water before it eats,
which occasioned Linnaeus to give to it the specific
name of lotor. It climbs trees with facility. The fur
of the Racoon is used in the manufacture of hats, and
its flesh, when it has been fed on vegetables, is
reported to be good."
THE BBOWN BEAR (Ursus arclos}.— Almost every
one is familiar with this common- species, which has a
very wide geographical distribution over the northern
half of the eastern hemisphere, extending from Spain
and the west of Europe, to the extreme eastern parts
of Asia and the islands of Japan. It is also now
generally believed that the Barren-ground bear is only
a variety of this species — an opinion in which we are
disposed to acquiesce; and if this persuasion be correct,
Ursus arctos must be considered an American as well
as European species, wliich would give it a range coex-
78
URSID.E. .MAMMALIA.
tensive with the circuit of the globe. As the name
indicates, the general colour of the fur is brown ; but
it is subject to a great variation of tint, partly depend-
ing upon age and partly also on locality — circum-
stances which have given origin to several well-marked
varieties. In the young state the texture of the hair
is woolly ; but it becomes firm and even in the
adult condition. The whitish bands seen on the neck
and sides of the head in the Siberian variety of this
bear, are, it would seem, merely the permanent indi-
cations of the pale collar which is commonly more or
less marked in young specimens of the European form.
Like all the true ursine types of structure, the common
brown bear possesses a stout bulky frame and power-
ful thick limbs (fig. 22). The forehead is slightly con-
vex, while the ears are short. Its habits are solitary.
The flesh is very good eating, especially when the
animal is young. The fur is valued everywhere, and
more particularly by the Laplanders and the Kam-
tchatkans, to whom, Mr. Ogilby remarks, "it gives the
necessaries and even the comforts of life. The skin,
we are told, forms their beds and their coverlets,
bonnets for their heads, gloves for their hands, and
collars for their dogs, while an over-all made of it,
and drawn over the soles of their shoes, prevents them
from slipping on the ice. The flesh and fat are their
dainties. Of the intestines they make masks or
covers for their faces to protect them from the glare of
the sun in the spring, and use them as a substitute for
glass by extending them over their windows. Even
Fig. 22.
The Brown Bear (Ursus arctos;.
the shoulder-blades are said to be put in requisition
for cutting grass." As a source of sport, it was in
early times the custom for English sovereigns and
nobility to assemble together to witness the baiting of
this unfortunate animal. We rejoice to know that
those barbarous customs have long since passed away,
and those who wish to indulge in a fairer and more
legitimate amusement must betake themselves to the
mountains and well-wooded districts of Europe and
Asia, where they will find ample opportunities for de-
veloping their skill and courage, and, at the same time,
confer a positive boon upon the inhabitants of many
an outlying, lonesome, hill-begirt village. Although
the behaviour of these animals is far less alarming
than that of lions, tigers, and their congeners, yet
their pursuit is by no means unattended with danger,
and it requires great courage to attack them. Among
the many interesting stories which have from time to
time appeared respecting encounters with this animal,
ve are not acquainted with any more daring or des-
perate than those which have been recorded by Mr.
Atkinson in his attractive work entitled " Oriental and
Western Siberia." While in the neighbourhood of
the celebrated Tsaravo-Nicholiovsky gold mine, two
men, one of them being a skilled hunter, succeeded in
springing a bear. " The hunter fired, and the ball
struck, but not in a vital part. In an instant the
wounded animal charged. The other man, who was
less experienced, reserved his shot until within twenty
paces. The rifle missed. At once the brute raised
himself on his hind legs, and tearing the earth beneath
him, rushed'on his first assailant, striking him down
with a blow that stripped his scalp, and turned it over
his face. Then seizing his arm, he began to gnaw
and crush it to the bone, gradually ascending to the
shoulder. The man called to his companion to load
and fire ; but the fellow, when he saw his friend so
fearfully mangled, ran away and left him to his fate.
Late in the evening he reached the gold mine and
reported what had happened ; but it was too late to
MAMMALIA.
make any effort in behalf of the mangled hunter. The
officer ordered a large party out at day-light the next
morning with the coward for a guide. He took them
through the forest to the spot where the encounter
had taken place, of which there still remained ample
evidence ; but no remains of the victim were met
with, except some torn clothing and his rifle. By the
state of the grass it was evident that the man had been
carried off into the thick forest. A most diligent pur-
suit was therefore made. Sometimes the track was
lost ; but the pursuers of the bear were too well skilled
in wood-craft to be foiled, and at length discovered
his larder. He had dragged the hunter into a dense
mass of wood and bushes, and, to render the place
still more secure, had broken off a quantity of branches
and heaped them over his body. These were quickly
stripped off, when, to their great surprise, they found
the man, though frightfully mutilated and quite insen-
sible, still living ! Two long poles were immediately
cut, to which saddle-cloths were secured in the middle.
One horse was placed in front, another at the back,
aud the ends of the pole secured to the stirrups, thus
forming a very easy conveyance. The sufferer was
placed upon the saddle-cloths, and carefully propped
up, and then began the painful march back as fast as
possible. On their arrival at the gold mine he was
taken direct to the hospital. The doctor dressed his
wounds, and administered all that medical skill and
kindness prompted. His patient survived, but long
remained unconscious of everything around him. After
more than two months had elapsed a slight improve-
ment took place, and his reason appeared to be
restored. His first question was about the bear, and
then he referred to his own defeat. He spoke of
nothing else, and was constantly asking for his rifle to
go and kill ' Michael Ivanitch ' (the bear). The
medical men thought his mind seriously affected. As
he gained strength there arose in him so great a desire
to have another combat with his powerful and ferocious
enemy, that it was considered necessary to place him
under some restraint. Summer had passed over, and
autumn had arrived; the sun had scorched the foliage,
changing it into golden and crimson hues, and as it
was now thought the poor lunatic had forgotten his
adventure, less vigilance was exercised towards him.
The opportunity was not lost ; for he secretly left the
hospital, and started off for his cottage. All the
family being absent, except some young children, he
was enabled to secure his rifle and ammunition, and
provided himself with an axe and a loaf of black bread,
which he stowed in his wallet. Thus armed and pro-
visioned, he left the village in the evening without
having been seen, except by the children, and was
soon lost to them in the forest. When it was dis-
covered that he had escaped, people were sent out in
various directions to seek him ; but they returned
without success. More than a week passed over,
during which nothing had been heard of him, when
one day he walked into the hospital, carrying the
skin of a huge bear on his shoulders, and throwing it
down exclaimed, ' I told you I would have him.'
This man was a fine old hunter. It was not a spirit
of revenge which prompted him to this daring act.
The fact was he could not brook the idea of a defeat.
Now his reputation was re-established, he wag happy.
His health was again restored ; nor was this the last
bear that fell before his deadly rifle." Not only do
the men of these regions courageously attack bears,
but women also take to hunting, one of them having
obtained an extraordinary reputation for her skill and
daring. Thoughout Siberia, Bruin is said to have no
more intrepid enemy than the damsel, Anna Petrov-
naia ! The closing scene of one of her expeditious is
thus described by Mr. Atkinson : — " As she was creep-
ing cautiously forward, out rushed the bear with a
loud growl, about twenty yards in front. Quickly she
threw forward the prongs of her rifle, dropped on one
knee, and got a good sight of the animal staring at
her, almost motionless. She now touched the trigger,
there followed a flash, a savage growl succeeded, then
a struggle for a minute or two, and her wish was
accomplished— the bear lay dead." Since this event,
we are informed that she has destroyed no less than
sixteen bears ! Here we would willingly quit the sub-
ject, but cannot do so without also recording the most
desperate encounter probably ever placed on record.
This took place not far from the district in which the
poor hunter above mentioned was so terribly mangled.
One afternoon, says Mr. Atkinson, a Cossack officer
" was quietly strolling through the forest, alone and
unarmed, botanizing by the way, when, at a distance of
about eight versts from the gold mine, he came out of
the forest into an open glade, on which stood some
single trees. Almost immediately on entering this
spot, he observed at a distance of two hundred paces
a she-bear and her two cubs playing together. The
moment she became aware of his presence, she uttered
a savage growl, drove her young ones into a tree for
shelter, and mounted guard at the foot of it to defend
them. The Cossack retreated into the wood to pro-
vide himself with a weapon, having determined to
carry oft' the cubs. The woodmen had been cutting
timber, and from the stems of several young birch
trees lying on the ground, he selected part of a
strong one, nearly four feet in length, tried its quality
against a tree in a succession of smart blows, and then
club in hand, retraced his steps. As soon as the old
bear observed his approach she began to growl furi-
ously, moving to and fro with an uneasy motion at the
foot of the tree. He slowly and steadily advanced,
when within about a hundred paces her growl became
more savage, and her actions showed that she intended
mischief. Nevertheless he quietly moved on, his keen
eye steadfastly fixed upon her. The ground was a fine
grassy turf, with no shrubs or bushes to impede his
movements or entangle his feet. When within about
fifty paces, she made a savage rush that would have
daunted most men ; but he firmly stood his ground,
waiting her nearer approach. At this monient the
cubs began to whine, and she trotted back towards
the tree in increased fury. The Cossack followed,
and when she turned round, they were face to face,
within twenty paces of each other. There was now
no retreat. The brute eyed him keenly for two or
three minutes, as if calculating his strength ; he return-
ing her gaze with as searching scrutiny. Presently
80
MAMMALIA
-UBSID.C.
she made a second rush, her eyes glaring like balls of
fire. At a few paces from her enemy she rose on her
hind legs, intending to give him a settler with her
powerful paws, or to clasp him in her savage embrace ;
but on the instant, he made a sweep with his club,
and dealt a blow that toppled her over. She was up
again in a second, and ready for action, but another
blow laid her prostrate. This added to her ferocity,
and it at once became a close encounter of the most
deadly and savage character. Many rounds were
fought, her antagonist keeping clear of her paws. At
last the blows began to tell on her courage. She
endeavoured to get behind him ; but his cudgel met
her at every turn, and was so well wielded that when-
ever within reach she received a stroke which drove her
back step by step, till both came under the tree.
Here the fight was renewed with increased fury, and
every time the cubs whined she made her attack with
redoubled violence. The battle continued to rage
furiously ; but the blows from the staff fell so fast, and
were applied with so much force, that at last she
began a retreat towards the forest, the skirts of which
she entered; but the moment her brave assailant
moved a step towards the tree, she would rush out,
taking especial care, however, not to come within his
reach. The cubs remained in the branches the sole
spectators of this extraordinary scene; nor could the
Cossack officer devise any plan by which he could get
them down. At their respective posts the combat-
ants stood, he guarding the cubs, and the mother
standing at the edge of the forest. At this time a
woodman returning to the gold mine, rode into the
glade. He was instantly hailed, and rode towards the
tree ; but when he heard the growls, and beheld the
bear, then in her most savage mood, bis natural
impulse to bolt was only checked by the fear of a
birching promised by his superior. He was ordered
to dismount, and take from his saddle the zumka (large
leathern bags), and open them ; then to climb the tree,
and bring down the cubs. The man was soon up
among the branches, secured a cub, brought it down,
and then tied it safe in the bag. The other was also
quickly placed beside it in the other bag. During
these operations the mother rushed at the Cossack,
and was several times knocked down by his weapon.
The peasant was now ordered to place the bags on his
horse, and lead the way to the gold mine, the Cossack
covering the retreat, and beating off the enemy .at
every charge. After a walk of nearly two hours, they
reached the village, the bear keeping close up with
them. As they went through the forest, she made
many charges, but each time was laid prostrate, and
finally would not approach within striking distance.
When they reached the village the Cossack officer
hoped to secure the dam ; but after following them to
the cottages, she returned to the forest, and was never
seen again. The cubs were kept, and became great
pets with the people. Even the hardy hunters of
Siberia consider this a most daring feat, wondering at
the power, and admiring the cool courage of the man
who accomplished it" Mr. Atkinson records many
other pleasing adventures and interesting facts con-
nected with the Siberian bear. Like most other
quadrupeds, this animal has a great fear of fire ; but
when pressed with hunger he will, in order to seize
any person who may be reposing by a fire in fancied
security, deliberately enter some stream, and having
saturated his fur with water, put out the fire by rolling
over it, and then secure his victim. Bears have been
known, even in the wild state, to show attachment to
young people ; and the same author mentions an
instance where two young children, two and four
years of age respectively, had wandered from a hay-
field where their parents were at work, and when the
father and mother went to look for them, lo and
behold ! one was sitting on a huge bear's back, whilst
the other was feeding the beast with wild fruit!
The children readily came away at their parents'
alarming calls, and Bruin seemed vexed to part with
his joyous little companions.
THE SYKIAN BEAE (Ursus syi-iacus). — This
appears to be a well-marked species ; the fur is of a
fulvous or light-brown colour, whilst on the upper part of
the heck there is a mane of thick rigid hairs, which
increase in length towards the shoulders, terminating
posteriorly about the centre of the back. The Syrian
bear, though often feasting upon animals, is said to be
particularly partial to certain kinds of vegetable food,
and more especially to the chick-pea, Cicer arietinns,
entire crops being laid waste by its ravages.
HORSFIELD'S BEAE ( Ursus isabellinus) is an inha-
bitant of the entire Himalayan chain of hills, and, like
the foregoing species, is of a pale fulvous colour ; it is,
however, quite a distinct form. According to Dr.
Horsfield, it resembles "the European bears in its
structure, as far at least as can be determined from the
parts which have been preserved in the specimen
(procured from Nepaul). Among these, the claws
afford the best means of comparison ; they are small,
obtuse, and straight ; while those of the Asiatic bears
(U. thibetinus, U. labiatus, and U. malayanus) are
large, strongly-curved, acute, and fitted for climbing."
THE SLOTH BEAU (Ursus labiatus} exhibits so
striking a resemblance to a sloth, that when it was first
made known to Europeans, it was actually described
as a species of Bradypus. Some confusion has arisen
respecting it, partly perhaps on account of the varied
nomenclature by which it has been indicated ; thus it
is called the Ursine sloth, the Labiated bear, the Jungle
bear, and one author denominates it the Bengal bear.
It is an awkward, unwieldy animal. The body is
clothed with thickly-set, black, shaggy hair, which
becomes much longer when the animal is old. The
head is depressed and attenuated in front, the nasal
cartilage being movable and extensile. The lips are
capable of protrusion, this being especially the case
with the lower one. Captain Thomas Williamson, in
his " Oriental Field Sports," remarks that " the Bengal
bear is distinguished by the deep black colour of his
hair, and by a crescent of white hair, like a gorget, on
his breast. The hind legs are shorter, and the paws
flatter and longer than those of the European breed ;
his pace is more shuffling, awkward, and laboured,
though quick enough to overtake a man on foot ; and
his hair is long and thinly scattered over his body. He
is remarkably active in climbing; frequently, when not
Uusiu.t;.-
-.MAMMAL1A.-
81
more than a month old, a cub will ascend to the
shoulder of his keeper with great ease, and descend
again, stern foremost, with equal adroitness." Its food
consists chiefly of fruits, honey, and white ants, of
which latter it appears to be particularly fond. When
the Bengal bear " finds a nest of any kind of ants, but
especially white ants, he is in his glory ! he tears the
whole burrow, licking up all the clusters he can get at,
and lying with his tongue out to entice the little prey
into his mouth. By this means, he no doubt often
obtains an ample meal ; for I think I may with pro-
priety assert that frequently a bushel of white ants may
be found in the same nest. The presence of bears in
the vicinity of a village is generally pretty well known
by the nature of the covers, and their having been,
perhaps time out of mind, regular visitors ; sometimes,
however, they change their haunts, on which their
neighbourhood is commonly first discovered by the ant-
hills and burrows near the sides of roads being
found in a state of destruction." Their food, however,
does not appear to be confined to insects and fruit, for
the same naturalist observes that they will attack and
devour quadrupeds, and even man himself. He gives
the following sad account of their behaviour : — " It has
often been in my way to see the operations of bears ;
and I am confident that no animals exist more cruel,
more fierce, nor more implacable than they are ! Such
as have suffered under their brutality have in all
instances within my knowledge borne the proofs of
having undergone the most dilatory torments. Some
have had the bones macerated, with little breaking of
the skin ; others have had the flesh sucked away into
long fibrous remnants, and, in one instance, the most
horrid brutality was displayed. While stationed at
Dacca, I went with a party several times to the great
house at Tergong, distant about five miles from the
town. I had on several occasions seen bears among
the wild mango topes, and did not consider them as
being so dangerous, until one day as I was returning
with a friend from hunting some hog-deer, we heard a
most lamentable outcry in the cover through which we
had to pass. Having our spears, and being provided
with guns, we alighted, not doubting but a leopard had
attacked some poor woodcutter. We met a woman
whose fears had deprived her of speech, and whose
senses were just flitting. She, however, collected her-
self sufficiently to pronounce the word bauloo, which
signifies a bear. She led us with caution to a spot
not more than fifty yards distant, where we found her
husband extended on the ground, his hands and feet,
as I before observed, sucked and chewed into a perfect
pulp, the teguments of the limb in general drawn from
under the skin, and the skull mostly laid bare, the
skin of it hanging down in long stripes, obviously
effected by their talons. What was most wonderful
was, that the unhappy man retained his senses suffi-
ciently to describe that he had been attacked by several
bears, one of which had embraced him about the head
and bit at his arms and legs, seemingly in competition
for the booty. We conveyed the wretched object to
the house, where, in a few hours, death relieved him
from a state in which no human being could afford the
smallest assistance !" The Bengal bears appear to be
VOL. I.
abundant on the eastern side of the Ganges, but of late
years their number has been very considerably reduced
by the skill of our Indian officers, who are notoriously
fond of the sport of hunting.
THE MALAYAN SUN-BEAU (Helarctos malayanus]
is also characterized by the possession of a deep jet-
black fur, the hairs of which are, however, compara-
tively shorter than obtains in the foregoing species, the
breast being marked by a white patch of a heart-
shaped colour. In the Bornean bear, which we take to
be a mere variety of this species, this patch is of a ful-
vous colour, and likewise deeply notched in front. The
Malayan bear feeds chiefly on vegetables and honey,
and is said to evince a special predilection for the young
shoots of cocoa-nut trees, to which it proves very
destructive. The length of the body is about four and
a half feet. This animal appears to be easily tamed,
if taken whilst still young. Sir Stamford Raffles'
account of one in his possession might almost induce
us to desire a similar companion. He says, it " was
brought up in the nursery with the children, and when
admitted to my table, as was frequently the case, gave
a proof of his taste by refusing to eat any fruit but
mangosteens, or to drink any wine but champagne.
The only time I ever knew him to be out of humour
was on an occasion when no champagne was forth-
coming. It was naturally of an affectionate disposition,
and it was never found necessary to chain or chastise
him. It was usual for this bear, the cat, the dog, and
a small blue mountain bird or lory of New Holland, to
mess together and eat out of the same dish. His
favourite playfellow was the dog, whose teasing and
worrying was always borne and returned with the
utmost good humour and playfulness. As he grew
up he became a very powerful animal, and in
his rambles in the garden he would lay hold of
the largest plantains, the stems of which he could
scarcely embrace, and tear them up by the roots."
Of a tame specimen of the Bornean variety, Dr. Hors-
field also gave the following interesting account: —
" The Helarctos readily distinguishes the keeper, and
evinces an attachment to him. On his approach
it employs all its efforts to obtain food, seconding
them by emitting a coarse but not unpleasant whin-
ing sound. This it continues while it consumes
its food, alternately with a low grunting noise; but
if teased at this time, it suddenly raises its voice
and emits at intervals harsh and grating sounds.
Our animal is excessively voracious, and appears to
be disposed to eat almost without cessation. When
in a good humour, it often amuses the spectators
in a different manner. Calmly seated in its apartment,
it expands the jaws and protrudes its long and slender
tongue as above described. It displays on many occa-
sions not only much gentleness of disposition, but like-
wise a considerable degree of sagacity. It appears
conscious of the kind treatment it receives from its
keeper. On seeing him, it often places itself in a
variety of attitudes to court his attention and caresses ;
extending its nose and anterior feet, or suddenly turning
round exposing the back, and waiting for several
minutes in this attitude with the head placed on the
ground. It delights in being patted and rubbed,
L
-MAMMALIA.-
and even allows strangers to do so ; but it violently
resents abuse and ill-treatment, and, having been irri-
tated, refuses to be courted while the offending person
remains in sight." This unfortunate animal died sud-
denly one summer's morning, after having gorged itself
with a too hearty meal.
THE BLACK BEAE (Ursus americanus) is a well-
known species, inhabiting the American continent from
the shores of the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the
Arctic regions to the Isthmus of Panama. The form
termed the Spectacled bear, which inhabits the wooded
slopes of the Andes and Cordilleras in Chili, is likewise
by many naturalists regarded as a mere variety of this
species. The American black bear differs only in the
non-displayinent of certain pale fulvous marks situated
on the throat and cheeks, and similar light bands round
the eyes from which the Spectacled bear has derived its
name. Other varieties of the American black bear
have also been described. This species is occasionally
as much as five feet in length, but it seldom exceeds
that measure. The fur is of a soft even texture, and
of a shining black colour. The head is comparatively
naiTow ; the muzzle elongated and pointed. The claws
are sharp, strongly curved, and in great part concealed
by the hair. Like its congeners, it is partial to well-
wooded and rocky grounds. Here it feeds principally
upon vegetable matters, but often succeeds in capturing
quadrupeds and birds, which it readily devours, as well
as fish. When winter approaches, it retires either into
the hollow of some tree, or more commonly into a kind
of den amongst fallen trees or brushwood, where it digs
up the soil in such a way as to scoop out a tolerably
secure and snug retreat. A small opening in its snow-
clad tenement allows fresh air to enter. The American
black bear is naturally timid, nevertheless it is regarded
by the natives with considerable dread, chiefly it would
appear on superstitious grounds. In proof of this, we
produce the following interesting account by Mr.
Henry, an early traveller, who was in the neighbour-
hood of Lake Michigan when the incident which he
here describes took place: — "In the course of the
month of January, I happened to observe that the
trunk of a very large pine tree was much torn by the
claws of a bear, made both in going up and down. On
further examination, I saw that there was a large
opening in the upper part, near which the smaller
branches were broken. From these marks, and from
the additional circumstance that there were no tracks
in the snow, there was reason to believe that a bear
lay concealed in the tree. On returning to the lodge,
I communicated my discovery, and it was agreed that
all the family should go together in the morning to
assist in cutting down the tree, the girth of which was
was not less than three fathoms. The women at first
opposed the undertaking, because our axes, being only
of a pound and a half in weight, were not well-adapted
to so heavy a labour ; but the hope of finding a large
bear, and obtaining from its fat a great quantity of oil,
an article at the time much wanted, at length prevailed.
Accordingly in the morning we surrounded the tree,
both men and women, as many at a time as could con-
veniently work at it ; and there we toiled like beavers
till the sun went down. This day's work carried us
about half-way through the trunk, and the next morn-
ing we renewed the attack, continuing it till about two
o'clock in the afternoon, when the tree fell to the
ground. For a few minutes everything remained quiet,
and I feared that all our expectations would be disap-
pointed ; but as I advanced to the opening there came
out, to the great satisfaction of all our party, a bear of
extraordinary size, which I shot. The bear being dead,
all my assistants approached, and all, but particularly
my old mother (as I was wont to call her), took the
head in their hands, stroking and kissing it several
times, begging a thousand pardons for taking away her
life, calling her their relation and grandmother, and
requesting her not to lay the fault upon them, since it
was truly an Englishman that had put her to death.
This ceremony was not of long duration, and if it was I
that killed their grandmother they were not themselves
behind-hand in whatremained to be done. The skin being
taken off, we found the fat in several places six inches
deep. This being divided into two parts, loaded two
persons ; the flesh parts were as much as four persons
could carry. In all, the carcass must have exceeded
five hundredweight. As soon as we reached the lodge
the bear's head was adorned with all the trinkets in
the possession of the family, such as silver arm-bands
and wrist-bands, and belts of wampum, and then laid
upon a scaffold set up for its reception within the lodge.
Near the nose was placed a large quantity of tobacco.
The next morning no sooner appeared than prepara-
tions were made for a feast to the manes. The lodge
was cleaned and swept, and the head of the bear lifted
up, and a new Stroud blanket which had never been
used before laid under it. The pipes were now lit, and
Wawatam blew tobacco smoke into the nostrils of the
bear, telling me to do the same, and thus appease the
anger of the bear on account of my having killed her.
I endeavoured to persuade my benefactor and friendly
adviser that she no longer had any life, and assured
him that I was under no apprehension from her displea-
sure ; but the first proposition obtained no credit, and
the second gave but little satisfaction. At length, the
feast being ready, Wawatam made a speech resembling
in many respects his address to the manes of his rela-
tions and departed companions, but having this pecu-
liarity that he here deplored the necessity under which
men laboured thus to destroy their friends. He repre-
sented, however, that the misfortune was unavoidable,
since without doing so they could by no means subsist.
The speech ended, we all ate heartily of the bear's
flesh ; and even the head itself, after remaining three
days on the scaffold, was put into the kettle." Inde-
pendent of these statements, we have plenty of evidence
that the flesh of the American black bear is excellent
eating ; and recently Mr. Oliphant. who has enjoyed
considerable experience of different kinds of food both
in the eastern and western quarters of the northern
hemisphere, declares for himself and his companions
that it is a " royal feast " In the winter time the
female produces from one to five cubs, and in order
to secure her progeny from the attack of other animals,
such as wolves and the like, she makes her lodging, as
we have seen, high up among the branches of thickly-
wooded trees.
-MAMMALIA. UKSID.E.
83
THE GRISLY BEAR ( Ursus ferox) is also an Ameri-
can species. Its disposition is exceedingly fierce, and
it is endowed with prodigious strength. Its muscular
power may be estimated by the circumstance of a
specimen of this animal having been seen to carry
the carcass of an American buffalo, weighing about
one thousand pounds, to a considerable distance. The
travellers Messrs. Lewis and Clark measured a speci-
men which had attained a length of nine feet, and
some persons pretend to have met with individuals
several feet longer. The head is broad and flattish
on the crown, and nearly even from the occiput to the
nose, except in old specimens ; the ears are short and
conical ; the muzzle being wide, and of a pale colour.
The fur is long and of a deep-brown tint ; commercially
speaking, it is of inferior quality. Its limbs are
powerful, the feet being armed with very long, com-
pressed, white, strongly -curved claws ; the inferior
border of the latter is particularly narrow. Its rudi-
mentary tail is entirely concealed by the hair. With
regard to its habits, the grisly bear is more carnivorous
than the preceding species, although it does not refuse
to subsist on a vegetable diet if animal food be not
forthcoming. Sir John Richardson has given us the
following interesting narrative, which he states to be
derived from authentic sources: — "A party of voyagers
who had been employed all day in tracking a canoe up
the Sasketchewan, had seated themselves in the twilight
by a fire, and were busy in preparing their supper,
when a large grisly bear sprung over their canoe that
was tilted behind them, and seizing one of the party by
the shoulder, carried him off. The rest fled in terror,
with the exception of a Metif named Bourasso,
who, grasping his gun, followed the bear as it was
retreating leisurely with its prey. He called to his
unfortunate comrade that he was afraid of hitting him
if he fired at the bear, but the latter entreated him to
tire immediately, without hesitation, as the bear was
squeezing him to death. On this he took a deliberate
aim, and discharged his piece into the body of the
bear, which instantly dropped its prey to pursue
Bourasso. He escaped with difficulty, and the bear
ultimately retreated to a thicket, where it was supposed
to have died ; but the curiosity of the party not being
a match for their fears, the fact of its decease was not
ascertained. The man who was rescued had his arm
fractured, and was otherwise severely bitten by the
bear, but finally recovered. I have seen Bourasso, and
can add that the account which he gives is fully
credited by the traders resident in that part of the
country, who are best qualified to judge of its truth from
the knowledge of the parties. I have been told that
there is a man now living in the neighbourhood of
Edmonston House who was attacked by a grisly bear,
which sprung out of a thicket, and with one stroke of
its paw completely scalped him, laying bare the skull,
and bringing the skin of the forehead down over the
eyes. Assistance coming up, the bear made off with-
out doing him further injury, but, the scalp not being
replaced, the poor man has lost his sight, although he
thinks that his eyes are uninjured. Mr. Drummond,
in his excursions over the Eocky Mountains, had fre-
quent opportunities of observing the manners of grisly
bears, and it often happened that in turning the point
of a rock or sharp angle of a valley he came suddenly
upon one or more of them. On such occasions they
reared on their hind legs and made a loud noise like a
person breathing quick, but much harsher. He kept
his ground without attempting to molest them, and
they on their part, after attentively regarding him for
some time, generally wheeled round and galloped off;
though, from their known disposition, there is little
doubt he would have been torn in pieces had he lost
his presence of mind and attempted to fly. When he
discovered them from a distance, he generally fright-
ened them away by beating on a large tin box in which
he carried his specimens of plants. He never saw
more than four together, and two of these he supposes
to have been cubs ; he more often met them singly or
in pairs. He was only once attacked, and then by a
female, for the purpose of allowing her cubs time to
escape. His gun on this occasion missed fire, but he
kept her at bay with the stock of it, until some gentle-
men of the Hudson's Bay Company, with whom he
was travelling at the time, came up and drove her off.
In the latter end of June, 1826, he observed a male
caressing a female, and soon afterwards they both
came towards him, but whether accidentally, or for the
purpose of attacking him, he was uncertain. He
ascended a tree, and as the female drew near, fired at
and mortally wounded her. She uttered a few loud
screams, which threw the male into a furious rage, and
he reared up against the trunk of the tree in which Mr.
Drummond was seated, but never attempted to ascend
it. The female; in the meanwhile retiring to a short
distance, lay down, and as the male was proceeding to
join her, Mr. Drummond shot him also. From the
size of their teeth and claws, he judged them to be
about forty years old. The cubs of the grisly bear can
climb trees, but when the animal is fully grown it is
unable to do so, as the Indians report, from the form
of its claws. Two instances are related by Lewis and
Clarke, and I have heard of several others, where a
hunter having sought shelter in a tree from the pursuit
of a grisly bear, has been held a close prisoner for
many hours, by the infuriated animal keeping watch
below." The flesh of the grisly bear is of very inferior
quality ; so much so, indeed, that the native Indians
reject it, unless other food cannot be procured.
Although these animals invariably hybernate during
the winter months, the old males sometimes steal forth
from their snug abodes to seek for food. The grisly bear
has . a pretty wide geographical distribution on the
North American continent, extending from a latitude
of upwards of sixty degrees north, to Mexico in the
south. It is most abundant on the eastern slopes of
the Rocky Mountains.
THE POLAE BEAK (Thalarctos maritimus), Plate
12, fig. 39. — This is the most carnivorous of all the
bears, probably however, more by necessity than by
choice. It is essentially a marine animal, destined to
wander to and fro on blocks of ice, in dreary soli-
tudes and wastes, seldom visited, save by the Esqui-
maux and a few of the more enterprising spirits of
human kind. Here the polar bear makes havoc
among seals, whales, walruses, and other denizens of
URSID.E.
MAMMALIA.
the polar seas. Dead or alive, nothing comes amiss,
while his skill enables him to secure not only fish,
but even birds. The general appearance of the polar
bear is too well known to require a lengthened
description ; yet, it is necessary to notice a few of
the principal characters. The body is more cylin-
drical than that of the land varieties of bear ; the head
is likewise rather more elongated ; the ears are short.
The muzzle is somewhat curved, the mouth being
comparatively small, while the neck is long and thick
The fur, generally speaking, is white, long, loose,
woolly in texture, and has a silvery lustre ; on the legs
and under the surface of the belly the hairs are much
more lengthened. The claws are short, only slightly
curved, and nearly concealed by the fur. The size
attained by the polar bear is very considerable. Cap-
tain Lyons met with a specimen measuring rather more
than eight and a half feet in length, and weighing six-
teen hundred pounds avoirdupois. The same gentleman
obtained from an intelligent Esquimaux the following
account of the manner in which this animal hyber-
nates : — " At the commencement of winter the preg-
nant bears are very fat and always solitary. When a
heavy fall of snow sets in, the animal seeks some hollow
place in which she can lie down, and remains quiet
while the snow covers her. Sometimes she will wait
until a quantity of snow has fallen, and then digs her-
self a cave ; at all events, it seems necessary that she
should be covered by, and lie amongst the snow. She
now goes to sleep, and does not wake until the spring
sun is pretty high, when she brings forth two' cubs.
The cave by this time has become much larger, by the
effect of the animal's warmth and breath, so that the
cubs have room enough to move, and they acquire
considerable strength by continually sucking. The
dam at length becomes so thin and weak, that it is
with great difficulty that she extricates herself, when
the sun is powerful enough to throw a strong glare
through the snow which roofs the den." We have
already alluded to this animal's cunning and activity.
Here is the method it adopts to catch a seal, for the
account of which we are also indebted to the " Private
Journal " of Captain Lyon : — " The bear, on seeing his
intended prey, gets quietly into the water, and swims
to leeward of him, from whence, by frequent short
dives, he silently makes his approaches, and so arranges
his distance that, at the last dive, he comes to the spot
where the seal is lying. If the poor animal attempts to
escape by rolling into the water, be falls into the bear's
clutches ; if, on the contrary ,.he lies still, his destroyer
makes a powerful spring, kills him on the ice, and
devours him at leisure." Captain Sir Edward Belcher,
in his interesting work entitled "The Last of the'
Arctic Voyages," also gives an amusing description of
the performances of a female polar bear, whose antics
seemed to have for their object the capture of a seal
by another shrewd expedient. On the first day of June,
1853, he writes:—" We pushed on for Tongue Point,
and there pitched. More bears ! I was busy on the
Point with the instrument, watching for an object,
when I noticed a lady and her cub, amusing them-
selves, as I imagined, at a game of romps, but the old
lady was evidently the more excited. Possibly no such
opportunity has before been afforded to any naturalist
of witnessing quietly the humours or habits of these
animals. At first the motions of the mother appeared
to me as ridiculously absurd, or as if she was teaching
her cub to perform a summerset, or something nearly
approaching it; but the cub evinced no interest, no
participation in the sport, indeed moved off and lay
down, apparently to sleep. The antics, too, of the
mother were too distant from the cub to prove instruc-
tive. I will endeavour to convey my impression of
the exhibition, as viewed through the telescope at a
distance of a quarter of a mile, as well as the object on
which she appeared intent. It must first be borne in
mind, that a bear of such dimensions as that before me
would weigh about six and a half or seven hundred-
weight. The object apparently in view was to break a
hole in the ice. In order to effect this the claws were
first put in requisition, and as nimbly and gracefully as
a dog did the huge creature tear up and scatter snow
and ice to the winds ; having removed as she imagined
sufficient, she then appeared to estimate her distance,
calculate on her leap, and in the effort came down
perpendicularly on her fore-paws over the spot which
she had scratched. Something, she imagined, had
been effected. She continued to repeat this scratching
and amusing mode of pounding until at length she
appeared satisfied, when she assumed an attitude of
' dead point,1 with fore-paw raised, and remained for
some time immovable. The question occurred to me,
' Is this a mode, by concussion and making a hole, of
seducing a seal within gripe?' for I have repeatedly
noticed that when we cut for tide-hole, fire-hole, &c..
that these inquisitive animals will show themselves.
This, however, I leave for others to verify." After
this, an unsuccessful attempt was made to get within
shot, but both mother and cub made their escape. Sir
E. Belcher does not state whether he minutely exam-
ined the spot thus signalized, to ascertain if any
injury had been done to the ice ; nevertheless, bis
observations have very great interest, and the correct-
ness of his conjecture is placed almost beyond a doubt.
The female bear, as we have just seen, is very careful
over her cubs ; these, if taken while still very young,
may be successfully tamed. The following incident,
however, shows the necessity of caution : — An English
officer, while stationed at one of the more remote and
lonely fortresses of Canada, amused himself by taming
a young polar bear. He succeeded in teaching the
little cub to fetch and carry, and its behaviour was so
unexceptionable that the animal was allowed to share
his master's meals, and to follow at his heels when out
for a walk. On returning to this country, the ursine
pet accompanied the officer on board ship, and soon
acquired the unreserved confidence of the passengers
and crew, and by his facetious antics afforded them
much pleasure and diversion. In a very short time, as
is frequently the habit with domesticated animals, he
showed a particular liking for children of the female
sex, and singled one out as an especial favourite ; the
little girl, who was a daughter of one of the lady pas-
sengers, reciprocated the bear's attentions, and the
loving pair daily romped about the deck with ecstatic
delight. This fun. however, was after a time destined
-MAMMALIA. M LSTELID.E.
86
to be suddenly changed into sorrow, for on one occa-
sion during their gambols, the animal, without giving
any previous indication of his purpose, suddenly seized
the young lady by the waist, and before the astonished
crew and half-distracted parent could do aught to
arrest his progress he was half way up the rigging;
neither did he rest till he had gained the maintop !
Doubtless, many of our readers have heard of an elope-
ment down, but, perhaps, never up a ladder of ropes !
But the matter is too serious for a joke ! What is to
be done? The mother cries! — the child screams!—
and the bear recommences its antics ! A moment's
delay may render all chance of escape hopeless !
Alarm and consternation fill every breast ! Shall the
sailors ascend the rigging, and by united force tear
the frail captive from its arms? If the bear should
at any moment relinquish its hold, the poor child
must be dashed in pieces ! Bravo ! — a bright idea
has struck the captain ! See with what alacrity his
orders are obeyed ! Mattrasses and pillows are placed
around the mast, in case the child should fall, while
numerous lumps of sugar are piled together on the
deck ! Hurrah ! the saccharine dainty cannot be
resisted ! Down comes Bruin, carefully bringing the
captive with him ! Once more, hurrah ! Mother and
bear are satisfied! The child is released— the sugar
devoured ! It is almost needless to add, that during the
rest of the voyage, the animal was entirely deprived of
his sadly-abused liberty. In regard to the capture and
destruction of full-grown polar bears in the wild state,
early writers have always described such attempts as
extremely dangerous; these accounts have probably
been exaggerated, but there can be no doubt that in
recent times the danger has been materially lessened
by the introduction of longer-ranged and more destruc-
tive fire-arms. The polar bear seldom quits the regions
of eternal ice and snow ; nevertheless he is sometimes
observed drifting out to sea on floating icebergs ; by
this means he makes excursions to very considerable
distances, and has been observed by Captain Scoresby
upwards of two hundred miles from the shore. As
many as a dozen have come over from West Greenland
and landed on the coast of Iceland during a single
winter season. Captain Parry, when passing through
Barrow's Strait, encountered a polar bear swimming
vigorously in the open sea, although at the time the
animal was fully forty miles from any coast, and there
were no traces of floating ice in any direction. Speci-
mens of this animal have always constituted an attrac-
tive feature in our menageries, and, notwithstanding
the unsuitable character of this climate, they seem to
live pretty comfortably. A few years since one of the
very fine specimens kept in the Zoological Gardens at
Edinburgh gave birth to a solitary cub, but it very soon
perished.
FAMILY II.— MUSTELHLE.
Not only are the weasels, properly so called, placed
under this head, but also numerous genera, whose rela-
tions are so closely allied to the foregoing family that
they are grouped by some naturalists with the Ursidoe,
and by others with the present family. On this point
we purposely adhere to the Cuvierian arrangement, as
far as circumstances permit. The Mustelidse, as we
have retained the genus, are either semi-plantigrade or
to a greater or less extent digitigrade — that is to say,
they are supported on the tips of their toes during pro-
gression. The feet are five-toed or pentadactylous,
the claws being fixed or non-retractile. They have
elongated, slim, and cylindrical bodies ; it is on account
of this long vermiform or worm-like character that the
majority of them are called vermin, though to the
popular mind that term rather expresses the idea of
certain noxious qualities, altogether independent of its
etymological signification. The limbs of Mustelidse
are short. The head is rounded and narrowed ante-
riorly, out that part of the skull containing the brain is
considerably extended ; so that the space between the
sockets and the posterior margin of the cranium, is
much greater than that which obtains in the higher
digitigrade Carnivora. The jaws support the usual
complement of twelve incisors and four canines, whilst
there are generally four or five molars on either side
belonging to the upper series, and five or six similarly
disposed in each division of the lower group. Four of
these teeth are tuberculated — that is, one to each of
the four divisions of the grinding series above indicated.
The condyles or articulating extremities of the rami
of the lower jaw are broad transversely, and com-
pletely lodged in the corresponding socket called the
glenoid cavity. The Mustelidse, like the bears, have
no blind or csecal appendage to the intestine. They
do not pass the winter in a state of bybernation.
Their destructive and sanguinary propensities are well
known ; and members of the family are found in all
quarters of the globe. Musteline fossil remains occur
in the bone-caves and osseous breccias of the tertiary
period.
THE JAVANESE TELEDTJ (Mydaus meliceps). —
Purposely commencing our weasels with this aberrant
type, more particularly on account of its close relations
to certain ursine and insectivorous genera, we remark,
in the first place, that the muzzle is prolonged in the
form of a proboscis. The grinding teeth are eighteen
in number, there being twelve spurious and six true
ones. The laniary, cutting, or carnassial tooth — that
is, the fourth or last premolar tooth, reckoning from
before backwards — supports an accessory central cusp.
The head is hog-like ; the ears being rudimentary, and
surrounded by a tuft of long fur. The fur consists o;f
delicate hairs, which are more or less blackish-brown
throughout, except on the central line of the back, on
the top of the head, and at the end of the tail, which
latter is only half an inch in length, not taking into
consideration the long hairs projecting beyond the
skin. The body measures about fifteen inches. The
limbs are short, thick, and semi-plantigrade, the com-
pressed and rather straight claws being united at the
base by a sheathing membrane. The teledu emits a
most horrible odour, as the author of this article can
abundantly confirm, from having had a specimen placed
in his hands for dissection and preservation. The
intolerable stench arises from the secretion of a pecu-
liar matter by two oval glands situated at the posterior
part of the body, and opening into the intestine near
8G
MfSTELIDJ
-MAMMALIA. MUSTELID.K.
the vent. The animal has the power of ejecting this
secretion to a distance of about two feet. " The fetid
matter itself is of a viscid nature ; its effects depend on
its great volatility, and they spread through a great
extent ; the entire neighbourhood of a village is infected
by the odour of an irritated teledu, and in the imme-
diate vicinity of the discharge it is so violent as in
some persons to produce syncope." Dr. Horsfield gives
the following admirable account of its habits and sin-
gular geographical distribution: — "The teledu is
confined exclusively to those mountains which have
an elevation of more than seven thousand feet above
the level of the ocean ; on these it occurs with the
same regularity as many plants. The long-extended
surface of Java, abounding with conical points which
exceed this elevation, afford many places favourable
for its resort. On ascending these mountains, the
traveller scarcely fails to meet with our animal, which,
from its peculiarities, is universally known to the inha-
bitants of these elevated tracts ; while to those of the
plains, it is as strange as an animal from a foreign
country. A traveller would inquire in vain for the
teledu at Batavia, Seraarang, or Surabaya. In my
visits to the mountainous districts, I uniformly met
with it; and, as far as the information of the natives
can be relied on, it is found on all the mountains.
Most of these mountains and ridges furnish
tracts of considerable extent fitted for the cultivation
of wheat and other European grains. . . . These
grounds and plantations are laid out in the deep vege-
table mould, where the teledu holds its range as the
most ancient inhabitant of the soil. In its rambles in
search of food, this animal frequently enters the plan-
tations, and destroys the roots of young plants ; in this
manner it causes extensive injury, and on the Tengger
Hills particularly, "where these plantations are more
extensive than in other elevated tracts, its visits are
much dreaded by the inhabitants. It burrows in the
earth with its nose in the same manner as hogs, and in
traversing the hills its nocturnal toils are observed in
the morning in small ridges of mould recently turned
up. The mydaus forms its dwelling at a slight depth
beneath the surface, in the black mould, with consider-
able ingenuity. Having selected a spot, defended
above by the roots of a large tree, it constructs a cell
or chamber ot a globular form, having a diameter of
several feet, the sides of which it makes perfectly
smooth and regular; this it provides with a subter-
raneous conduit or avenue about six feet in length, the
external entrance to which it conceals with twigs and
dry leaves. During the day it remains concealed, like
a badger in its hole ; at night it proceeds in search of
its food, which consists of insects and their larvae, and
of worms of every kind. It is particularly fond of the
lumbrici, or earthworms, which abound in the fertile
moulds. These animals, agreeably to the information
of the natives, live in pairs, and the female produces
two or three young at a birth. The motions of the
mydaus are slow, and it is easily taken by the natives,
who by no means fear it. During my abode on the
mountain Prahu, I engaged them to procure me indi-
viduals for preparation ; and, as they received a desir-
able reward, they brought them to me daily in greater
numbers than I could employ. Whenever the natives
surprise them suddenly, they prepare them for food ;
the flesh is then scarcely impregnated with the offensive
odour, and is described as very delicate. The animals
are generally in excellent condition, as their food
abounds in the fertile moulds. . . The mydaus is
not ferocious in its manners; and taken young, like
the badger, it might be easily tamed. An individual
which 1 kept, some time in confinement afforded me an
opportunity of observing its disposition ; it soon became
gentle and reconciled to its situation, and did not at
any time emit the offensive fluid. I carried it with me
from Mountain Prahu to Blederan, a village on the
declivity of that mountain where the temperature was
more moderate. While a drawing was made, the ani-
mal was tied to a small stake ; it moved about quietly,
burrowing the ground with its snout and feet, as if in
search of food, without taking notice of the bystanders,
or making violent efforts to disengage itself. On earth-
worms being brought, it ate voraciously ; holding one
extremity of a worm with its claws, its teeth were
employed in tearing the other. Having consumed
about ten or twelve, it became drowsy, and making a
small groove in the earth, in which it placed its snout,
it composed itself deliberately, and was soon sound
THE NYENTEK (Helictis moscliatus) is a rarer
animal than the teledu, and more circumscribed in its
geographical area of distribution. It is about sixteen
inches in length, not including the tail, which measures
six inches more ; this organ is bushy, terminating in
long thick hairs. The head is small, gradually narrow-
ing into an obtusely-pointed muzzle. The jaws are
furnished with twenty-two molars, the tuberculated
pair above being small and widened transversely. The
nostrils are notched at the side. The moustaches are
few in number, long, and bristly. The ears are com-
paratively large; the eyes being rather prominent. The
limbs are thin, terminating in five-toed plantigrade feet.
The claws are shorter than those of the teledu, and
are more strongly curved. This animal, says Dr.
Horsfield, who described it as a species of Gulo, " is
somewhat smaller than the English pole-cat. The
form of its body, in comparison with other gluttons-, is
rather slender; it is thickly covered with fur, consisting
of long hairs closely arranged, silky at the base, of a
brown colour and somewhat glossy, with a slight tint
of reddish-brown ; in certain lights it appears diversi-
fied, greyish, and tawny. This fur covers the greatest
part of the body and head, and the whole of the tail
and extremities ; the colour of these parts is conse-
quently brown, with occasional shades of rufous and
tawny; the sides of the head, the neck, the throat,
breast, and a broad spot on the top of the head, which
passes, gradually decreasing in breadth, to the middle
of the back, are white, with an obscure tint of Isabella
yellow of different degrees of intensity. This colour
also exists, less distinct, in a longitudinal band along
the lowest part of the abdomen." Little or nothing is
known of this animal's habits, which are thought by
Dr. Horsfield to be similar to those of the ratel.
THE SKUNK (Mephitis americana), Plate 10, fig.
33.— Various species of skunk have been described,
MCSTELIDJ:. MAMMALIA. MUSTELID.E.
87
but most of them appear referable to this species. The
true skunks are confined to the American coutinent.
Accepting Sir John Richardson's description, the skunk
very closely resembles the wolverene. The body is
stoutish, and stands low ; the eyes being small, and
the ears short and rounded. " A narrow white mesial
line runs from the tip of the nose to the occiput, where
it dilates into a broad white mark. It is again narrowed,
and continues so until it passes the shoulders, when it
forks, the branches running along the sides, and becom-
ing much broader as they recede from each other.
They approach posteriorly and unite on the rump,
becoming at the same time narrower. In some few
specimens the white stripes do not unite behind, but
disappear on the flanks. The black dorsal space
included by the stripes is egg-shaped, the narrow end
of which is towards the shoulders. The sides of the
head and all the under parts are black. The hair on
the body is long. The tail is covered with very long
haire, and has generally two broad longitudinal white
stripes above on a black ground. Sometimes the black
and white colours of the tail are regularly mixed. Its
under surface is black. The claws on the fore-feet are
very strong and long, being fitted for digging, and very
unlike those of the martens." The jaws are provided
with eighteen molar teeth, the upper laniary grinder
being remarkably large. Respecting the habits of the
skunk, which has obtained such notoriety on account
of the nauseating smell emitted from the glands previ-
ously alluded to, the same distinguished naturalist
writes : — " It exists in the rocky and woody parts of
the country, but is still more frequent in the clumps of
wood which sketch the sandy plains of Seskatchewan.
I have not been able to ascertain the southern range
of this variety of skunk [from Hudson's Bay] ; and,
judging from Kahn's description, there appears to be a
different one in Canada. The skunk passes its winter
in a hole, seldom stirring abroad, and then only for a
short distance. It preys on mice, and in summer has
been observed to feed much on frogs. It has a slow
gait, and can be overtaken without difficulty, for it
makes but a poor attempt to escape, putting its trust
apparently in its power of discomfiting its pursuers by
the discharge of a noisome fluid. This fluid, which is
of a deep yellow colour, and is contained in a small
bag placed at the root of the tail, emits one of the most
powerful stenches in nature, and so durable that the
spot where a skunk has been killed will retain the
taint for many days. Mr. Graham says that he knew
several Indians who lost their eyesight in consequence
of inflammation produced by this fluid having been
thrown into them by the animal, which has the power
of ejecting it to a distance of upwards of four feet. I
have known a dead skunk thrown over the stockades
of a trading port, which produced instant nausea in
several women, in a house with closed doors upwards
of a hundred yards distant. The odour had some
resemblance to that of garlic, although much more
disagreeable. One may, however, soon become fami-
liarized with it; for, notwithstanding the disgust it
produces at first, I have managed to skin a couple of
recent specimens by recurring to the task at intervals.
When care is taken not to soil the carcase with any of
the strong smelling fluid, the meat is considered by the
natives to be excellent food." These observations
agree for the most part with those of Catesby, who
says : — " When one of them is attacked by a dog, to
appear formidable it so changes its usual form, by
bristling up its hairs and contracting its length into a
round form, that it makes a very terrible appearance.
This menacing behaviour, however insufficient to deter
its enemy, is seconded by a repulse far more prevail-
ing ; for from some secret duct it emits such fetid
effluvia that the atmosphere, for a large space around,
shall be so infected with it that men and other animals
are impatient till they are quit of it. The stench is
insupportable to some dogs, and necessitates them to
let their game escape ; others, by thrusting their noses
into the earth, renew their attacks till they have killed
it ; but rarely care to have more to do with such
noisome game, which for four or five hours distracts
them. The Indians, notwithstanding, esteem their
flesh a dainty, of which I have eaten and found it well
tasted. I have known them brought up young, made
domestic, and prove tame and very active, without
exercising that faculty which fear and self-preservation
perhaps only prompt them to." Like its congeners,
the skunk does not entirely confine itself to an animal
diet, vegetable matters, especially fruit, being sought in
the absence of small quadrupeds, frogs, and insects.
The female produces from six to ten young at a birth.
In the Catalogue of Mammalia preserved in the British
Museum, this species is called by Dr. Gray Mephitis
varians.
THE GBISON (Galictis vittata). — The members of
the genus Galictis originally established by Mr. Bell,
are characterized by the possession of eighteen molar
teeth, of which ten are spurious, four of them belonging
to the upper series and six to the lower. The body is
much elongated, terminating in sub-plantigrade penta-
dactylous feet, their palms and soles being naked. The
tail is of moderate length. In the species under con-
sideration " the colours are very remarkable, and the
markings distinct and decided (fig. 23). The whole of
the upper part of the head, the neck, the back, the flank,
and the tail, are yellowish-light or brownish-grey, pro-
duced by the mixture of a dirty yellowish-white with
brownish-black for about two-thirds of their length ;
the tip, dirty or yellowish-white. The muzzle, the
cheeks, the throat, the under part of the neck, the
belly, the anterior legs, and the hinder feet, are black,
with a brownish tinge lighter towards the back part,
and on the belly interspersed with a few whitish hairs.
The grey of the upper, and the black of the under
parts, are separated by a rather broad fascia (or band),
extending on each side from the centre of the forehead
above the eye, backwards as far as the shoulder,
including the ears ; this fascia is of a buff or yellowish-
white colour." Respecting its habits, Mr. Bell also
records the following interesting particulars. In his
" History of British Quadrupeds," he says :— " A tame
grison (Galictis vittata) which I possessed for several
years, was very fond of frogs, but these were not the
only reptiles which were obnoxious to its voracity. On
one occasion, in the winter, I had placed it in its cage,
in a room with a fire, where I had also two young
88
MUSTELID.E MAMMALIA. MUSTELINE.
alligators, which in general were stupidly tame. On
go»ug into the room in the morning, I found the grison
at large, and one of the alligators dead, with a hole
eaten under the fore-leg, where the great nerves and
bloodve&sels were torn through ; and the other alligator
began snapping furiously at every one who attempted
to approach it." The same eminent naturalist else-
where remarks that this grison " was as tame and
affectionate as a dog ; and she followed me," he adds,
" wherever I went about the house, was extremely
frolicsome and playful, and was delighted at being
caressed. She would throw herself on her back, and
seize the hand that fondled her with all four of her
paws and her mouth at the same moment, pressing it
with her teeth, but never sufficiently hard to cause the
slightest degree of pain. She was extremely fond of
23.
The Grison (Galictis vittata)
eggs, which she ate in a very singular manner. On
one being given her, she first played with it for some
time, running backwards and at the same time pushing
it under her belly with her fore-feet. At length she
would fix one of her sharp canine teeth through the
shell, and lick or suck as much of the contents as
would flow through the orifice. Then, again inserting
her tooth, a piece of the shell was broken out so as to
enable her to insert her tongue ; and, finally, the egg-
shell was broken to pieces and each fragment carefully
licked clean." The grison is an inhabitant of the
northern regions of Brazil, the specimens hitherto seen
in this country having been brought from Guiana and
Paraguay. A brief, but very accurate description of a
fine example captured by Mr..EdmonstonatDemerara,
is described by Dr. Traill in the third volume of the
Wernerian Society's Transactions. It measured nearly
three feet in length, including the tail which gave nine
inches. In the list of Mustelidse preserved in the
British Museum, this species is denominated Grissonia
vittata.
ALLAMAND'S GRISON (Galictis Allamandi), ap-
pears to be a well-marked form. Mr. Bell has given a
beautiful figure of it, accompanied with another of the
above, in the second volume of the Transactions of the
Zoological Society. According to his description,
"this species, though evidently distinct from the former,
exhibits the same general character of colour and
marking, with some remarkable differences, however,
which, though not easily expressed in a specific phrase,
are tangible and important. The whole of those parts
which in the former species are yellowisn, arc here per-
fectly white ; and those which are blackish-brown in
the former, are in this pure black. The basal portion
of the hairs on the back, therefore, is black, and the
apical quite white, forming a pure blackish-grey or
black, with white points and lines, whilst all the under
parts of the throat and part of the belly are black.
The fascia extending from the forehead to the sides
of the neck is also white. This fascia does not extend
in the specimen described so far back as in the former
species. The hairs of the whole body are very short
in comparison, and much stiffer and more closely set.
The animal is considerably larger, and the tail, as' far
as can be ascertained from a stuffed specimen, short in
proportion." As in the foregoing, its habits correspond
with those of the weasels generally.
THE ZOBILLA (Zorilla striata). — Several forms de-
scribed under the generic title of Zorilla, are probably
merely varieties of one and the same species. Perhaps
two or three of them may fairly be regarded as distinct
Their differentiation obtains chiefly in respect of coloui
and other superficial characters, which, however, are
in too many instances the only distinctions the zoolo-
gist can rely on, as he may have none other to guide
him. The zorilla, known to the colonists at the Cape
of Good Hope by the name of muishond, possesses
eighteen molar teeth, four being placed on either side
above, and five correspondingly opposed on each side
below. The prepared skeleton exhibits five vertebral
segments in the lumbar region of the spine, while there
are no less than fifteen pair of ribs. The fur is of o
-MAMMALIA. HUSTELIDJE.
black colour generally ; but there are four whitish
bands, which, commencing at the neck, pass in a back-
ward direction, gradually diverging from one another.
This character has suggested the specific name above
given. There is also a white spot on the upper part
of the head. The zorilla is not confined to the Cape
of Mozambique, but is still found in Nubia, Abyssinia,
and other parts of the African continent. Its habits
are similar to those of the skunk. It is also known
under the title of Mephitis africana.
THE SABLE (Martcs leucopus.} — The various mem-
bers of the genus Martes, differ from the true weasels
generally, by the possession of '* an additional false
molar above and below," whilst they have also a small
tubercle on the inner side of their sectoral tooth.
These two characters tend to diminish the ferocity of
their nature ; or, rather, they indicate by analogical
and correlative evidence, that such a subcarniyorous
disposition exists in accordance with their modified
dental arrangements. Their habits- and general ap-
pearance entirely correspond with these structural
peculiarities. They are pretty and attractive little
animals, having large bushy tails. The martens have
larger ears than the weasels, and their habits are more
arboreal, while the odour emitted by them is not
offensive. Much controversy has arisen as to the
specific distinctions of various kinds of marten. Thus,
by some the sable, the pine marten, and the beech
marten have been considered as mere varieties of a
single species ; that is to say, they are supposed to
have originated from the same stock, and that stock, in
all probability, being represented by a single pair.
This yiew, however, does not appear tenable, and
after lengthened investigation, the more general opinion
now received is, that they are different animals ab
origine. The sable is celebrated for its beautiful fur,
which is of a yellowish-brown colour, inclining to black.
The throat is pale yellow ; but it- varies somewhat in
different individuals. We have here placed the sable
as a distinct species, in accordance with the opinion of
some of our highest authorities.
THE PINE MAKTEN (Martes abietum)—Plaie 10,
fig. 34 — if not specifically identical, very closely re-
sembles the foregoing. The fur is of a comparatively
inferior quality ; yet it is much superior to that of the
beech or stone marten. It exists in northern Europe
and North America, being also indigenous in our own
country. According to Sir John Richardson's de-
scription, "the pine marten inhabits the woody districts
in the northern parts of America, from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, in great numbers, and has been observed
to be particularly abundant where the trees have been
killed by fire, but are still standing. It is very rare,
as Hearne has remarked, in the district lying north of
Churchill River and east of Great Slave Lake, known
' by the name of Chepewyan or Barren Lands. A
similar district on the Asiatic side of Behring's Straits,
twenty-five degrees of longitude in breadth, and in-
habited by the Tchutski, is described by Pennant as
equally unfrequented by the marten, and for the same
reason — the want of trees. The limit of its northern
range in America is, like that of the woods, about the
sixty-eighth degree of latitude, and it is said to be
VOL. I.
found as far south as New England. Pariioular races
of martens, distinguished by the fineness and dark
colour of their fur, appear to inhabit certain rocky
districts. The rocky and mountainous, but woody
districts of the Nipigon, on the north side of Lake
Superior, has long been noted for its black and valuable
marten skins. The marten preys on mice, hares, and
partridges, and in summer on small birds' eggs, &c.
A partridge's head with the feathers, is the best bait
for the log traps in which this animal is taken. It
does not reject carrion, and often destroys the hoards
of meat and fish laid up by the natives, when they
have accidentally left a crevice by which it can enter.
The marten, when its retreat is cut off, shows its teeth,
sets up its hair, arches its back, and makes a hissing
noise, like a cat. It will seize a dog by the nose, and
bite so hard, that unless the latter is accustomed to the
combat, it suffers the little animal to escape. It may
be easily tamed, and it soon acquires an attachment to
its master ; but it never becomes docile. Its flesh is
occasionally eaten, though it is not prized by the
Indians. The females are smaller than the males.
They burrow in the ground, carry their young about
six weeks, and bring forth from four to seven in a
litter about the latter end of April." The dark-
coloured furs are deemed the most valuable, and they
are in the best condition during the winter season.
Respecting the distinctions observable between this
species and the beech marten, Mr. Bell observes, that
" the most striking and obvious differences are those of
colour ; but as these appear, in some cases at least, to
be associated with certain slight diversities in size and
proportion, and as the habits of the two animals also
offer a trifling variation, there appears to be some,
though far from satisfactory ground, for considering
them as specifically distinct. The pine marten is so
called from its supposed preference for the fruits of
those trees, as the other is called by some the beech
marten, from a similar pretended preference for beech
woods. There is, however, no ground for this appro-
priation of the two species to these different localities."
The nest is made of moss, leaves, and other vegetable
matters. A full-grown individual of the male sox
measures about twenty inches, the females being rather
smaller.
THE BEECH MAKTEN (Martes foino), is also called
the common marten, and by traders it is more usually
designated the stone marten. Its fur is inferior to that
of the preceding species, and it is sometimes passed off
unfairly for the skin of the true sable. An experienced
eye, however, readily detects the fraud, noticing the
absence of lustre, softness, and other essential qualities.
The beech marten is about eighteen inches long, not
including the tail, which alone measures upwards of
nine inches. The head is rounded and broad pos-
teriorly, narrowing in front into an acute and slightly
projecting muzzle. The ears are comparatively large,
oval, and a little pointed. The body is thin, cylin-
drical, and very mobile, terminating in a thick bushy
tail. The fur is for the most part brown, being darker
in some parts than in others. It is deeper-coloured on
the back, limbs, and tail. On the throat or under
part of the neck it is white. The beech marten is a
MUSTELID.E. MAMMALIA
native of the British isles, as well as of Europe generally.
It occurs abundantly in rocky mountainous districts,
and is perhaps less strictly arboreal in its habits than
the pine marten. According to
Mr. Bell, "the female makes hei
nest generally in a hollow tree, but
not uufrequently in holes in rocks,
sometimes in ruined buildings,
or even in grananes and barns. It
is formed of straw or grass. She
has at least two litters in a year —
some assert, four — and the number
of young ones at each birth varies
from two to seven, the usual number
being four or five, The aspect and
attitudes of the marten are perhaps
more elegant than those of any
other of our native quadrupeds.
Endowed with great liveliness and
activity, its movements are at once
rapid and gracile. Its limbs are elastic, and its body
lithe and flexible, and it bounds and springs over the
ground with equal speed and grace. It is, however,
wild and untameable to a great degree, if captured
when full grown or after a very early age." The food
of the beech marten, in common with its allied forms,
consists of birds, squirrels, and other small quadrupeds.
THE PEKAN (Maries Canadiensis) of the Canadians,
is known by the title of the Fisher or fishing marten,
and it has likewise several other names. It presents a
more canine look about the face than the sable or
other martens. The head is rounded posteriorly, con-
tracting suddenly in front to terminate in a rather
sharply-pointed muzsle. The ears are comparatively
small. It is a stouter -built animal than the pine
marten. The fore-limbs are remarkably strong and
short, the claws of the feet being sharp and much
curved. As in the pine marten, the soles of the feet
are completely enveloped in closely-set hairs, the
several digits being connected together at their common
base by a short, web-like expansion of the skin. The
fur is rather coarse, and of a dark-brown colour,
lighter at the fore part of the body, but almost black
behind, aa well as on the throat, belly, and limbs.
White spots are occasionally seen between the fore and
hind legs. The. fur has a strong musky odour, and its
quality is inferior to that of the sable. Although less
sought after by the American fur-dealers, several
thousand pekans are destroyed annually for the sake
of their skins. Sir John Richardson states that it
feeds principally on mice. He adds — " It lives in the
woods, preferring damp, places in the vicinity of water,
in which respect it differs from the marten, which is
generally found in the driest spots of the pine forests.
The fisher is said to prey much on frogs in the summer
season ; but I have been informed that its favourite
food is the Canada porcupine, which it kills by biting
on the belly. It does not seek its food in the water,
although, like the pine marten, it will feed on the
hoards of frozen fish laid up by the residents." The
pekan is widely distributed over the upper half of the
North American continent. The female produces from
two to four young at a single litter.
THE POLECAT (Mustela putorius) or foumart is a
most ferocious creature (fig. 24). " Its appetite for
slaughter, which seems never to be satiated as long as
Tke Polecat (Musttla put
any living thing remains within its reach, rendering it
a most ruinous neighbour to those who rear fowls or
keep up a head of game. Not only the young birds
fall victims to it, but the parents also ; nor are even
geese or turkeys safe. We remember an instance of a
hen and a whole brood of chickens being killed by one
of these destroyers in a single night ; and upon another
occasion, seven or eight nearly full-grown turkeys.
The brain and the blood seem to be its choicest por-
tions. The bodies of the dead are carried off to its
haunts, which are generally in some copse or wood
near a farm or in the heart of a preserve, whence it
issues on its deadly errand in the evening, generally
soon after sunset, or when it grows dusk. No vermin
is placed with more satisfaction upon the keeper's
tree ; for none commits more havoc, if so much, among
the game. Beginning with the egg, it persecutes all
the game birds through every period of life, and is a
far more determined enemy than the stoat itself to the
hare and; rabbit warren. The fox, as is well known,
will do much to keep down the pheasants, and espe-
cially the rabbits and hares ; but even this wily and
powerful invader is not so mischievous as the species
of which we are treating. Where a fox will kill one,
a polecat will immolate ten, to say nothing of eggs.
No vertebrated animal seems to come amiss to its
murderous nature. Bewick relates that during a
severe storm, a foumart was traced in the snow from
the side of a rivulet to its hole at some distance from
it. As it was observed to have made frequent trips,
and as other marks were to be seen in the snow which
could not easily be accounted for, it was thought a
matter worthy of great attention. Its hole was accord-
ingly examined, and five fine eels were discovered to
be the fruit of its nocturnal excursions. The marks
in the snow were made by the motion of the eels in the
quadruped's mouth. In London's Magazine ia an
account of a polecat that was hunted to her nest,
which held five young ones in a comfortable bed of
withered grass. From a side hole the narrator picked
out forty large frogs and two toads alive, but capable
of sprawling only ; for the old polecat had stricken
them ah1 with palsy by a bite through the brain of
-MAMMALIA. M USTELID.E.
91
each." Such is Mr. Ogilby's account of its depreda-
tions ; and there are few of us who have resided in the
country that cannot testify to its accuracy. The pole-
cat is a larger and stouter-built animal than the marten.
Its body rather exceeds two feet in length, not includ-
ing the tail, which measures only six inches. The
head and neck are comparatively stout and thick.
The fur is of a dark-brown colour, approaching black.
There is, however, a considerable difference of shade,
depending upon the greater or less abundance of
short woolly hairs, having a pale brown colour. The
lips and cheeks are more or less whitish. The odour
given out by the polecat has a very disagreeable smell.
It is produced by a fatty substance secreted by a gland
situated beneath the tail. The fur, though of com-
paratively small value, is sold under the name of fitch;
hence the term fitchet weasel, another name by which
this animal is known. The female produces towards
the close of the spring, or in early summer, a litter of
five or six young. The nest is made either in a rabbit
burrow or in some similar snug retreat, among stones
and rocks covered over with long grass, tangled herb-
age, or low brushwood.
The common ferret is considered by most naturalists
to be a mere domesticated variety of the polecat. It
exhibits every shade of hue from that of a pale
yellowish-white up to a dark fulvous brown, and it is
most frequently somewhat variegated. Its habits are
similar to those of the wild animal, and they will freely
breed together. The ferret, however, can hardly be
considered a tame creature, in the strict meaning of
the term ; for, as most of us have observed, its disposi-
tion is exceedingly capricious, and in handling ferrets,
as every rat-catcher knows, a certain degree of bold-
ness and caution are necessary. The following sad
story, taken from Mr. Jesse's " Gleanings in Natural
History," illustrates its truly carnivorous and sangui'
vorous propensities. " Some few years ago, a poor
woman, holding a mangled infant in her arms, rushed
screaming with agony and fright into my friend's
house, who is a surgeon, imploring him to save the
child's life, who, she said, had been almost killed by a
ferret. The face, neck, and arms were dreadfully
lacerated, the jugular vein had been opened, as also
the temporal artery. The eyes were greatly injured,
and indeed the child, who is still living, has lost the
entire sight of one of them, and has very imperfect
vision in the other. Having stopped the still bleeding
vessels, my friend accompanied the mother to her cot-
tage, on entering which the child, in some degree
recovering from its state of apparent death, began to
cry, when the ferret was in an instant seen rushing
from behind some basins where he had taken shelter,
and with his head erect, boldly came forward and met
the infuriated parent in the middle of the room, still
holding the infant in her arms. On my friend's kick-
ing the ferret, as the first impulse of protection, the
animal endeavoured to seize his leg, and not until his
(the ferret's) back was broken by repeated kicks, did
he give over his earnest and reiterated attempts to
renew his sanguinary feast ; and indeed, whilst in the
agonies of death, the piteous screams of the child
seemed to rouse him to vain efforts to regain his prey.
The ferret was of large growth and much distended
with the infant's blood ; and though formerly of pecu-
liar shyness, yet he lost sight of fear and became bold
in the pursuit of the unfortunate infant. It appears
the poor woman had left her child (about six months
old) in a cradle, whilst she went to market, when
it is supposed the infant's cry had arrested the
attention of the ferret, who managed to make his
escape, and thus effected his purpose* There is good
reason to believe he must have passed more than half
an hour in the indulgence of his appetite, from the
circumstance of the neighbours having heard the
piercing shrieks of the child a long time without the
slightest suspicion of the mother's absence." Finally,
we have only to remark, that the method of employing
ferrets for the capture of rabbits, rats, and other vermin
is too well known to require more than a passing
allusion. In the majority of cases it is advisable to
use a muzzle ; otherwise the ferret is very apt, after
having feasted on its prey, to lay up in the burrow,
and disappoint the sportsman. This remark applies
more particularly in the case of rabbit hunting.
THE EEMINE OR STOAT (Mustela erminea) is a
much smaller species. The body is scarcely ten inches
long, exclusive of the tail; this organ is four and a
half inches in length, slightly bushy towards the tip,
the hairs of which are invariably black. In the sum-
mer the fur is rufous-brown on the back, and white
underneath from the chin to the root of the tail. In
the winter the entire fur becomes white, with the
exception of the tail ; and this change is brought about,
not by an alteration of the colour of the summer hairs,
as some have supposed, but by the development of
new and white hairs in the autumn to supply the place
of the falling coloured ones. It is this metamorphosis
of the fur which renders the ermine so valuable in
commerce. From the North of Europe and Siberia
several hundred thousand skins are exported annually
to various parts of the world — a large proportion of
them being transmitted to this country. Every one is
familiar with the pure, white, glossy texture of ermine
tippets, boas, and other robes, whose pure snow-white
ground- work is beset and adorned with a regularly-
disposed series of quincunxially -arranged tails, forming
a striking contrast by their rich jet black colour. Such
are the leading characteristics of the fur. With regard
to this animal's habits, Mr. Bell observes that they
vary " from those of the weasel, principally with rela-
tion to the difference of size. Although much more
destructive than that animal to poultry and to game,
the favourite object of its pursuit is the common rat
and the water-vole, as that of the weasel is the different
species of mice. Prevented from following the latter
little pests into their runs, which are often not much
larger than their own bodies, the stoat leaves such
small game to its little congener, and betakes itself to
prey more suited to its own bulk. It occasionally
attacks hares even half or two-thirds grown, pursuing
them with the utmost pertinacity, and hunting them
down by dint of its indefatigable perseverance. The
Rev. F. W. Hope informs me, that on one occasion,
when shooting in Shropshire, he heard at a short
distance the shrill loud scream of a hare, which he
Ml'STELlU.E.-
-MAM.MAL1A.-
concluded was just caught in a poacher's springe. On
running towards the spot from whence the sound pro-
ceded, he saw a hare limping off greatly distressed, with
something attached to the side of the throat, which a
nearer approach showed to be a stoat. The hare made
its way into the brushwood with its enemy still clinging
on. It is a curious fact, that the hare, when pursued
by the stoat, does not betake itself to its natural means
of escape — its fleetness of foot — which would in a few
seconds carry it out of all danger from its little enemy,
and which it always employs when escaping from the
chase of dogs or of the fox. On the contrary, it hops
languidly along, evidently aware of the stoat's approach,
yet as if incapable of exerting its powers to avoid the
impending destruction. Whether this arises from a
stupid indifference, or from not appreciating its danger,
or, on the other hand, from intense terror, producing
an effect similar to that miscalled fascination, which
the small bright eye of the rattlesnake excites in its
helpless victims, it is perhaps difficult to decide. The
stoat is certainly one of the boldest animals of its size.
It pursues its prey with the greatest intrepidity even
into circumstances of considerable danger, and, like the
weasel, will follow it into the water. It will also cross
the water for the purpose of besieging the haunts of
the water-vole, Arvieola amphibius, of which it destroys
great numbers. In swimming it lifts the head and
neck well out of the water, like a dog. It hunts its
prey by scent." The ermine is comparatively scarcer
than the weasel in England ; but in Scotland, as Mr.
Macgillivray remarks, " it is certainly of more frequent
occurrence than that species; and for one weasel, I
have seen at least five or six ermines. It frequents
stony places and thickets, among which it finds a secure
retreat, as its agility enables it to outstrip even a dog
in a short race, and the slimuess of its body allows it
to enter a very small aperture. Patches of furze in
particular afford it perfect security, and it sometimes
takes possession of a rabbit's burrow. With regard to
this little animal's boldness and ferocity of disposition,
we have not only the testimony of the gentlemen above
named, but that of many others, including Sir John
Richardson and Captain Lyon. The author of the
section of this work at present under consideration,
can also testify to its combativeness, having once been
imprudent enough to attempt the capture of a specimen
without any weapon. The little beast immediately
fastened itself on his armsleeve, but was fortunately
dislodged by a violent jerk before its teeth had done
more than graze the skin. On falling to the ground it
scampered off to the nearest hedgebauk, and was soon
out of sight. The ermine is usually caught by very
simple means, namely, by a trap in the form of a
heavy stone or slab, which, being delicately supported
by a thin stick baited with flesh, at the first or second
nibble suddenly falls and crushes the intruder. Senti-
mental individuals may be disposed to pity the poor
little ermines, who are thus mercilessly destroyed to
serve for the external adornment of the wealthy ; but
we beg to remind such persons that it were better,
Avithout warning, to perish like a stoat beneath the
squash of a brickbat, than to sit round a well-served
table with a Damoclesian sword suspended over one's
head. In respect of geographical distribution, the
ermine is not confined to the eastern hemisphere ;
for it is also found abundant in North America.
It is, however, not much sought after by the furriers
of the Hudson's Bay Company, on account of the large
supply imported into Britain from Russia and the north
of Europe, which renders it too cheap for a profitable
competition. In England the female is said to pro
duce only four or five young at a single birth ; but,
according to the Canadian aborigines, it produces in
America ten or twelve at a litter. The nest is made
of grass, leaves, and other vegetable matters, and is
placed in a rat-hole or other forsaken burrow.
THE WEASEL (Mustela vulgaris). — Having dwelt
at considerable length on the character and habits of
the stoat, which is so closely related to the present
species, our observations respecting the weasel will be
necessarily more restricted. It is a smaller animal,
the body being about eight and a quarter inches in
length, not including the tail, which would give us at
least another two inches. The fur is of a reddish-brown
colour on the back, head, and tail ; but underneath the
belly and throat it is quite white. The limbs are short
and hairy up to the extremities of the digits. As we
have before remarked, its habits are very similar to
those of the stoat; but, although generally regarded
as a highly noxious animal under some circumstances,
would appear to be extremely useful. Mr. Bell, with
his usual tact in defending the persecuted of animal
kind, thus advocates its cause :— " It is not meant to
be asserted that the weasel will not, when driven by
hunger, boldly attack the stock of the poultry-yard, or
occasionally make free with a young rabbit or a sleep-
ing partridge; but that its usual prey is of a much
more ignoble character, is proved by daily observation.
Mice of every description, the field and the water-vole,
rats, moles, and small birds, are its ordinary food ; and
from the report of unprejudiced observers, it would
appear that this pretty animal ought rather to be fos-
tered as a destroyer of vermin, than extirpated as a
noxious depredator. Above all. it should not be
molested in barns, ricks, or granaries, in which situa-
tions it is of great service in destroying the colonies of
mice which infest them. Those only who have wit-
nessed the multitudinous numbers in which these little
pests are found, in wheat ricks especially, and have
seen the manner in which the interior is sometimes
drilled, as it were, in every direction by their runs, can
at all appreciate the amount of their depredations ; and
surely the occasional abduction of a chicken or a duck-
ling, supposing it to be even much more frequenth
chargeable against the weasel than it really is, would
be but a trifling set-off against the benefit produced
by the destruction of those swarms of little thieves.
Like other creatures preying upon animals, the weasel
itself falls a prey to enemies of superior strength ; and
instances have also been recorded where its sharp bite
has enabled it to destroy its more powerful persecutor.
The flexibility of the body in such cases is shown to
be of essential service. Mr. Bell gives the following
story : — "As a gentleman of the name of Finder, then
residing at Bloxworth in Dorsetshire, was riding over
his grounds, he saw at a short distance from him a kite
,, I
MUSTKLID.K. MAMMALIA. MLSTELID.K.
'J3
pounce on some object on the ground, and rise with
it in his talons. In a few moments, however, the kite
began to show signs of great uneasiness, rising rapidly in
the air, or as quickly falling, and wheeling irregularly
round, whilst it was evidently endeavouring to force
some obnoxious thing from it with its feet. After a
short but sharp contest, the kite fell suddenly to the
earth, not far from where Mr. Finder was intently
watching the manoeuvre. He instantly rode up to the
spot, when a weasel ran away from the kite apparently
unhurt, leaving the bird dead, with a hole eaten through
the skin under the wing, and the large bloodvessels
of the part torn through." Respecting the geographi-
cal distribution of the weasel, it has a range almost
coextensive with that of the ermine. Even in this
country the fur of the weasel has been observed to
grow whitish on the approach of winter, while in the
higher American latitudes it usually becomes as white
as the ermine after the cold season has fairly set in.
In these cases the tail retains its normal light reddish-
brown colour. In the spring the female produces
either four or five young ones at a single birth.
THE VISON (Vison lutreola).—T:h\s species has
been described under a variety of names, such as the
vison- weasel, the mink, the minx-otter, and the jackash.
It is a very common animal throughout Canada and
the United States, as far south as Carolina. The body
is nearly a foot and a half in length, exclusive of the
tail, which would add seven or eight inches more. The
head is small, terminating anteriorly in a short, flat,
and abrupt muzzle. The ears are small and oval, the
eyes being placed well forward. The cheeks are fur-
nished with very strong, short, brown-coloured whis-
kers. The jaws are provided with thirty-four teeth,
of which there are eighteen molars, four on either side
above, and five correspondingly opposed below. The
limbs are short, the toes being connected together by a
membrane and entirely covered with hair; the claws
are almost straight, and project very slightly. The fur
is of a rich chocolate brown colour, paler on the head
and underneath the body, but approaching to black on
the back towards the tail. Near the root of this latter
organ there are to be found the usual pair of anal
glands, which give out a highly fetid secretion. Re-
specting its habits, Sir John Richardson remarks that
" the vison passes much of its time in the water, and
when pursued seeks shelter in that element in prefer-
ence to endeavouring to escape to land, on which it
travels slowly. It swims and dives well, and can
remain a considerable time under water. Its short fur
forming a smooth glossy coat, its tail exactly like that
of an otter, and the shortness of its legs, denote its
aquatic habits. It preys upon small fish, fish-spawn,
fresh-water mussels, &c., in the summer ; but in the
winter, when its watery haunts are frozen over, it will
hunt mice on land, or travel to a considerable distance
through the snow in search of a rapid or fall, where there
is still some open water." The same authority further
observes that the vison " is not very timid when in the
water, and will approach near to a canoe out of curiosity,
diving, however, instantly on perceiving the flash of a
gun, or any movement from whence it apprehends
d mger. It is easily tamed, and is capable of strong
attachment. In a domestic state it is observed to sleep
much in the day, and to be fond of warmth. One
which I saw in the possession of a Canadian woman,
passed the day in her pocket, looking out occasionally
when its attention was roused by any unusual noise.
Like a cat, a tame visoii is easily offended, and will, ou
a sudden provocation, bite those who are most kind to
it." The female produces from four to seven young at
a birth. The fur is not much valued by traders, never-
theless it appears to be of good quality, being soft, fine,
and downy; the principal defect is^ that it is very
short.
THE OTTER (Lutra mtlgaris}^ Plate 10, fig. 35.—
The genus of which this well-known animal forms a
type is partly characterized by the possession of thirty-
six teeth, and of these there are twenty molars, the
sectorial or laniary grinder of the upper series being
enormously developed, while the corresponding carnas-
sials of the lower jaw are tuberculated at the posterior
half; there are, in all, six true molars — one on either
side of the upper jaw, and two to each divisional series
below. In all the members of the genus the body is
much lengthened, and in the species under considera-
tion it is upwards of two feet long, exclusive of the
tail, which would add nearly a foot and a half more.
A full-sized otter will weigh about twenty-four pounds,
but the naturalist Pennant has recorded one captured
in the river Lea which weighed as much as forty
pounds. The head of the common otter is broad and
compact, and it terminates anteriorly in an abrupt wide
muzzle, the upper lip being particularly thick and
overlapping the lower. The ears are small, short,
rounded, and widely separated ; the eyes are remark-
ably prominent and placed far forward, about an inch
from the tip of the nose. The limbs are short, and end in
palmatedpentadactylousfeet, theseveral digitsbeing con-
nected together by a strong thick membrane, and they
are also armed at the tip with short, non-retractile, but
slightly elevated claws. The tail is flattened from
above downwards, being immensely strong and broad
at the root, in which latter situation, below, there occur
the two usual anal glands similar to those described in
other musteline genera. The fur is made up of two
qualities of hair ; the one kind is soft, fine, short, com-
pact, of a whitish colour, save at the tips, where it
is brown; the other is long, course, stiff, smooth,
and somewhat darker externally at the point. This
combination therefore, is such that, while offering
little or no resistance to the water during the
forward progress of the animal, it, at the same time,
preserves the body from sudden changes 'of tempera-
ture. In every part of the animal the muscular system
is very highly developed, and to those who, like our-
selves, affect to see much that is attractive even in the
so-called dry details of myological anatomy, we could
not point out a more beautiful display of muscles than
such as may be witnessed by a careful dissection of the
neck of the common otter. In point of fact, this crea-
ture is exquisitely organized both for rapidity of motion
through the lambent waters of a rolling stream, and for
overtaking and seizing the swiftest of its finny prey.
The spindle-shaped body, elastic to a high degree, and
bounded by harmonious curves— the -projecting eye-
94
MITSTBLID* MAMMALIA. MUSTELHXE.
balls — the smooth, close, glossy fur — the broad rudder-
forming tail — and the short, web-footed, fin-like limbs,
— all combine to show its singular adaptiveness to the
fluviatile and lacustrine haunts, where in ceaseless
activity it despoils the waters of their abounding
piscine treasures ! Noiselessly it glides through the
liquid medium, rivalling, surpassing, and overcoming
the finny tribes ; and one by one the latter fall victims
to his trenchant grasp ! In succession each captive is
hurried to the bank, forthwith torn asunder, and the
head severed in a moment's time ! All this is common
testimony which none will dispute. The common otter
is, indeed, extremely voracious, and will destroy an
incredible quantity of fish ; for, when the latter are
abundant, he has no sooner detached and devoured the
head,andit maybe a small additional portion of the body,
than oft' he starts again, as if for the mere pleasure of the
chase. Speaking of this animal's habits, Mr. Bell also
observes that " the otter avails itself of any convenient
excavation, particularly of the hollows beneath the
overhanging roots of trees which grow on the banks of
rivers, or any other secure and concealed hole near its
fishing haunt ; though in some cases it fixes its retreat
at some distance from the water, and, when driven by
a scanty supply of fish, it has been known to resort far
inland to the neighbourhood of the farmyard, and
attack lambs, sucking-pigs, and poultry — thus assuming
for a time the habits of its more terrestrial congeners.
It is asserted by some that the otter confines its haunts
to the rivers and lakes, never descending to the sea.
This, however, is a mistake. In the northern parts of
Scotland they certainly frequent the sea, and extend
their rambles to a considerable distance from the
shore ; and Mr. Couch of Polperro, states that " in the
summer, and when the weather will permit, it occupies
a retired and quiet station where the land stretches into
the ocean. It swims low in the water, and will go a
mile or more after its prey. The neighbourhood of a popu-
lous harbour is a frequent station. Fishes," continues
Mr. Couch, "seem to have an instinctive dread of the
otter; for I am credibly informed that it has been seen to
collect into a shoal a vast number of trouts in a river,
and to drive them before until the greater part have
thrown themselves on shore." The otter has likewise
its enemies. In former times the sport of otter hunting
was much sought after in this country, as indeed it
probably would also be at the present day, if those
animals were only more abundant. In certain parts of
Scotland, Wales, and Ireland, otters are still tolerably
numerous ; but if they were allowed to increase with-
out any cheek, the more delicate sport of the fly-fisher
would be seriously compromised. One of the most
interesting facts connected with this persecuted animal
is, that with care it may, when taken young, be com-
pletely domesticated, and not only become an agreeable
companion, but even lend a hand to its master, should
he be a fisherman in the ordinary sense of the term.
In Sweden, the employment of this animal in the cap-
ture of fish appears to be no uncommon circumstance ;
and an instance has been recorded of an otter which
captured eight or ten salmon in a single day. Accord-
ing to Mr. Bell, the following is a method of training
iirlprl : — " They should be procured as young
as possible, and they are at first fed with small fish and
water. Then bread and milk is to be alternated with
the fish, and the proportion of the former gradual!}'
increased till they are led to live entirely on bread and
milk. They are then taught to fetch and carry,
exactly as dogs are trained to the same trick; and
when they are brought to do this with ease and docility,
a leather fish stuffed with wool is employed for the
purpose. They are afterwards exercised with a dead
fish, and chastised if they disobey or attempt to tear it ;
and finally, they are sent into the water after living
ones. In this way, although the process is somewhat
tedious, it is believed that the otter may be certainly
domesticated, and rendered subservient to our use."
Independent, moreover, of their value as purveyors of
fish, several accounts go to prove that, in the tame
state, they become tractable, docile, and even amusing
creatures. In the early spring of the year the female
produces from three to five young at a birth. The
flesh has a coarse fishy flavour, and is not considered
good eating.
THE AMEKICAN OTTEB (Lutra americana) is a
much larger species than the above. The body is
three feet and a half in length, exclusive of the tail, for
which we must reckon other eighteen inches. The fur
is of a rich brown colour, not only on the back, but
also underneath the belly ; differing in this latter par-
ticular from the European species, which is lighter
below. According to Hearne, the fur is nearly black
in the summer, but in the winter it assumes the charac-
teristic chocolate brown, a greyish spot being placed
under the chin. This form of otter is widely distributed
throughout the North American continent. Sir John
Richardson states that it closely resembles the common
otter in its habits and food. " In the winter season it
frequents rapids and falls, to have the advantage of
open water; and when its usual haunts are frozen
over, it will travel to a great distance through the snow
in search of a rapid that has resisted the severity of
the weather. If seen and pursued by hunters on these
journeys, it will throw itself forward on its belly, and
slide through the snow for several yards, leaving a
deep furrow behind it. This movement is repeated
with so much rapidity, that even a swift runner on
snow shoes has much trouble in overtaking it. It also
doubles on its track with much cunning, and dives
under the snow to elude its pursuers. When closely
pressed, it will turn and defend itself with great obsti-
nacy. In the spring of 1826, at Great Bear Lake, the
otters frequently robbed our nets, which were set under
the ice, at a distance of a few yards from a piece of
open water. They generally carried off the heads of
the fish, and left the bodies sticking in the net." This
last-named habit strikingly accords with what we have
above remarked in regard to the common species, and
it explains the extraordinary amount of destruction
which these animals are known to create among fishes.
The female American otter produces from one to three
young at a single birth. The fur is of an excellent
texture and quality, but its value is deteriorated by the
circumstance of its being rather short; nevertheless,
several thousand skins are annually imported into this
country. In the list of Mustelidse contained in the
MUSTELID.E. MAMMALIA. MUSTELID.E.
95
British Museum, this species is denominated Lataxina
mollis.
THE BRAZILIAN OTTEE (Lutra BrazlUensis] is,
in point of mere size, very similar to the foregoing;
the female examples, however, procured by the natu-
ralist D'Azara, did not exceed four feet in length,
including the tail, which measured twelve inches in the
largest specimen. The fur has a fulvous yellow colour,
generally, approaching to a chestnut hue on the limbs
and tail. According to D'Azara, aa quoted by Mr.
Ogilby, this " species lives in troops, which sometimes,
rising to the surface of the water, lift their heads and
bark like dogs, with a hoarse voice in a menacing and
snapping manner, without, however, injuring voyagers
or swim mere. Each family seems to possess a separate
domain. It spends nearly as much time upon the \vater
as it does upon the land, where it devours the fish
which it has taken, and rears its young in holes which
it excavates in the banks. The same author was
informed by the Payaguas Indians, who sail continually
up and down the river, and are better acquainted with
this animal than others, that the female brings forth
two at a birth, covered with hair, and that many females
bring forth and rear their young at the same time and
in the same place — their usual resort throughout the
year. The motions of this otter are generally slow,
and it drags, as it were, its belly and muzzle along the
ground; when it runs, it is not at all swift," By the
Portuguese colonists of South America, the Brazilian
otter is called Loto de Rio, or River-wolf. In the Bri-
tish Museum Catalogue, it is termed the ' Lutra.'
THE JAVANESE OTTEE (Aomyx Leptonyx) is also
known by the names of the simung and the wergul. It is
a small species comparatively, the body measuring very
little more than two feet, exclusive of the tail, which is
about half that length. The character and texture of
the fur is very similar to that of our cornmon European
species, but the brown colour has a much less rich tint,
approaching more to a tawny aspect ; the lower part of
the face, throat, neck, and breast, being of a light dusky
yellow. The whiskers are strongly developed in a
double series on either side, one set of bristly hairs
arising immediately below the nose, and the other from
the posterior region of the cheek. Dr. Horsfield states
that " the Javanese otter agrees in its manners with
the common otter. It inhabits the banks of rivers, and
lives on fishes. Its disposition, when found at large, is
extremely ferocious ; If attacked, it defends itself with
courage. It is with great difficulty taken in its adult
state; but,if obtained when young, it ismildand tractable.
In this state it is occasionally seen in dwellings, but I
never observed it to continue long in confinement.
The natives distinguish two varieties of the Jnvanese
otter, to ope of which the name of wergul, to the other
that of welingsang, is applied. The former is of a
grey colour, and is said to be solitary, while the latter
lives gregariously ; but these statements require confir-
mation." The species, under consideration is found in
parts of the Indian Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, their
adjacent isles, and the Continent of Siam. Its voice
is said to bear some resemblance to that of a person
crying. The female exhibits much solicitude and
affection for her offspring.
THE SEA OTTEE (Enhydra marina), or kalan of
the Kamtschatkadales, is a very remarkable animal,
approximating closely to the pinnigrade seals in its
habits and haunts. The length of the body is rather
more than three feet, exclusive of the tail, which gives
an additional seven or eight inches in a full-grown
specimen. The head is rounded posteriorly, the out-
line, in a profile view, seen passing insensibly, as it
were, into that of the strong, thick, muscular ueck.
The ears are remarkably small, and placed on a much
lower level than the eyes. The whiskers are strongly
developed. The limbs are short, more especially the
anterior pair, and the hinder feet are comparatively
more bulky than the fore ones, being also situated very
far back. The toes are covered with hair, almost con-
cealing the claws, and the outermost digit of the pos-
terior feet is longer than any of the others. The fur
varies in colour at different seasons of the year, and
likewise according to the animal's age. Ordinarily, it
is of a deep, sooty brown, or sometimes of a rich jet-
black colour; but in young specimens it is lighter.
There are two kinds of hair as usual ; the longer are
whitish, and overlap the more numerous soft, downy
hairs, which lie partly concealed beneath. The fur
has a beautiful, glossy, velvety texture ; and, according
to Captain Cook's account, is softer and finer than that
of any other species. In early times, the skins appear
to have fetched an extraordinary price; for Pallas
states that single skins were sold at Kiachta, by the
Russian furriers, at the rate of one hundred roubles — a
sum of money equivalent to twenty pounds sterling.
Even now, the sea otter's fur is highly prized, especially
as its numbers have been so considerably reduced by the
competition of Russian, Anglo-Indian, and American
traders. This animal was formerly abundant on the
islands skirting the north-eastern shores of Asia,
Kamtschatka, the Kurile, and the Aleutian isles, but
it is now almost limited to the western coasts of North
America, extending as far south as California. The
fur is purchased principally by the inhabitants of China
and Japan. In a morphological point of view, the sea
otter may be looked upon as an intermediate form
between the fresh-water otters and the true maritime
seals ; and we also find that in its capacity for capturing
fish, it appears to combine the special facilities of
either species. It is essentially a marine animal, living
very constantly in the open sea, and only frequenting
the rocks for repose, and for the occasional purpose of
rearing its young. The Russian traveller, Von Kotze-
bue, has given the following interesting account of the
habits and mode of hunting the sea otter: — "They
are often seen on the surface of the water, many miles
from land, lying asleep on their backs, with their
young, of which two are produced at a birth, resting
upon them and sucking. The young cannot swim
until they are several months old; but the mother,
when she goes out to sea in search of food, carries
them on her back, and brings them home to her hole
in the rocks when she has duly satisfied her hunger.
If seen by the hunters during these excursions, the
female falls a sure prey to them ; for she never forsakes
her offspring however much they embarrass her swim-
ming, but, in common with the male, defends them
96
MAMMALIA. VIVERRID.E.
courageously against every attack. The lungs are so
constructed that they cannot subsist for more than a
few minutes under water, but are necessitated to
reascend to the surface for breath. These opportuni-
ties are seized by the hunters, who would seldom
succeed if the otter could remain long under water,
where it swims with great rapidity and skill. The
hunters row in the little Aleutian baidars or boats
round the coast, and for some miles out to sea, being
provided with bows, arrows, and short javelins, which
they discharge as soon as they observe an otter. The
animal is seldom struck at first ; it immediately dives,
and as it swims very rapidly, the skill of the hunter is
displayed in giving the canoe the same direction a»
that taken by the animal. As soon as the otter
reappears on the water, it is once more fired at, when
down it dives again ; and the pursuit is thus continued
until the creature becomes so weary that it is at length
easily struck. Sometimes the otters succeed in tearing
out with their teeth the arrows which have wounded
them, and often, especially if their young are with
them, boldly rush upon the canoes, and attack their
persecutors — employing for this purpose their powerful
teeth and claws. These conflicts, however, uniformly
terminate in the defeat and death of the otter. The
hunt is safer when the canoes are numerous, but, with
experienced hunters, two boats are sufficient."
FAMILY III.— VIVERKHLE.
This family embraces a large section of the Carnivora,
but the interest attaching to them being probably less
than that accorded to any other subdivision of the
Mammalia, we shall consequently devote a smaller
space to their consideration. By many naturalists the
hysenas are included in this group ; yet, as they are
clearly osculant between the civets and the cats, it is
our intention to consider them as a separate family.
The civets, properly so called, have usually forty teeth,
their dental formula displaying the ordinary number of
incisors and canines seen in the typical Carnivora, but
almost invariably presenting twenty-four molars — that
is to say, six above and below on either side ; and of
these, the anterior sixteen are spurious, while, of the
remaining eight, six only are tuberculated — a pair of
the inferior true molars being carnassial in their cha-
racter. The tongue is furnished with numerous sharp,
rough, horny papillae, which are directed backwards.
The feet are more or less digitigrade, being generally
pentadactylous, but in some cases tetradactylous — the
claws being slightly raised during progression. Seba-
ceous glandular follicles exist in the anal region, capable
of secreting a more or less disagreeable foetid matter.
The various kinds of viverrine carnivore are widely
distributed over the eastern hemisphere. A solitary
species of civet, with long harr, large ears, and a small
pointed head, is known to inhabit Mexico. The natu-
ralist Lichtenstein has described and figured it under
the combined generic and specific title of flassaris
astuta.
THE GAXET (Cryptoprocta ferox). — This creature
is about the size of our common stoat. The body is
very slender, terminating posteriorly in a long hairy
tail, having throughout an almost uniform thickness-
The head is narrow; the muzzle being short, with the
nostrils deeply notched laterally. The mouth and eyes
are comparatively small, more particularly the former.
The ears are remarkably large, conspicuous, and hairy ;
they have an oval outline, the margin being folded
upon itself posteriorly; the internal surface is also
marked by sinuosities. The whiskers are numerous
and strongly developed. The limbs are stoutish, and
of moderate length, the anterior pair being rather
shorter than the hind ones. The feet are plantigrade
and pentadactylous, the soles being naked, and the
digits furnished with compressed, retractile, incurved
claws ; those of the anterior feet being more sharply
pointed than the posterior series. The galet is a native
of the island of Madagascar. Although plantigrade in
its walk, most of the characters above recorded, as well
as thosa of the dentition, serve to indicate a close alli-
ance with the more highly carnivorous cats and dogs.
It is to Mr. Bennett that nffturalists are indebted lor
having early described this species in the first volume
of the Zoological Society's Transactions.
THE DELTTNDTJNG (Prionodon gradlis) comes so
near to the cats in certain particulars, that Dr. Hors-
field originally described it as a species of Felis in his
valuable " Zoological Kesearches in Java." It was
discovered by him in the district of Blambangan at the
eastern extremity of the island in the year 1806. The
length of the body is about fifteen and a half inches,
not including the tail, which would give us rather more
than another foot. A glance at the excellent figure
presented in the work above quoted, is sufficient to
prove its distinctiveness as a separate species — the
body being singularly elongated, vermiform, and rather
slimly built. The tail is also very long, cylindrical,
and particularly thick at the base, the outline of the
rump being prolonged, as it were, into that of the
extended caudal development. The head is tapering,
and sharply pointed in front. The nose is elongated,
naked, and furnished with Jaterally-placed nostrils.
The jaws are provided with thirty-eight teeth of which
there are twenty-two molars, five on either side above,
and six correspondingly opposed in each series below.
The eyes are placed far forward, and have a circular
pupil. The ears are rather small, short, rounded, and
somewhat irregular at the margin. Long whiskers
proceed from the upper lip, projecting backwards
beyond the head; others also rise from the angles
of the mouth, and from the interspaces between the
eyes and ears. The feet are five-toed and digiti-
grade, being clothed with hair above and below.
The digits are provided with minute, sharply-panted,
retractile claws. The delundung is an attractive and
elegant species. "On a ground of pale, yellowish-
white, which covers the throat, breast, belly, sides,
and part of the back and tail, the distinguishing
marks of a deep brown colour, inclining to black,
are arranged in the following manner: — Four trans-
verse bands, gradually increasing in breadth, cover
the back at intervals between the limbs. On the rump
are two narrow bands; two longitudinal stripes take
their origin, one between the ears, the other near the
posterior angle of the eye on each side, and pass, with
VIVERRID^E. MAMMALIA. VIVERRID^E.
97
interruptions at the transverse bands, to the thighs,
when they are continued by numerous large spots
which cover these parts. From the shoulders and
thighs, several obscure stripes pass to the feet, which
have a dusky-grey colour. Between the origin of the
longitudinal stripes of the body, and the transverse
bands of the back, two smaller stripes are placed, which
unite on the lower part of the neck from the opposite
sides." Little or nothing is known of the habits of the
Delungdung beyond such as may be legitimately
inferred from its carnivorous structure, and from the
circumstance of its being usually found in extensive
forests.
THE MEEBKAT (Cynictls Steedmanniij.—M.T. Ogilby
first accurately described this species in the Zoological
Society's Transactions. It is an inhabitant of the
district of Uytenhaye on the borders of Kaffraria.
The term meerkat is applied by the South African
colonists to signify almost any kind of small quad-
ruped having burrowing habits. The body of the
meerkat is about a foot and a half in length, exclusive
of the tail which would give another twelve inches.
The jaws are furnished with thirty-eight teeth, of
which twenty-two are molars, twelve above and ten
below ; the last two on either side of the upper series,
as well as one correspondingly opposed on each side
below, being tuberculated. The limbs are slender and
comparatively long. The feet are completely digiti-
grade, and provided with claws adapted to grubbing up
the soil. The fore-feet are five-toed ; but the hind-
feet are tetradactylous. The fur has a bright reddish
or chestnut tinge generally, being deeper coloured on
the back. The tail is bushy like that of a fox, and
shaded with dark-brown hairs, except at the tip, where
it is of a uniform dull white. The texture of the fur
is smooth, close, and fine. This animal appears to be
tolerably abundant in the locality above mentioned, as
several travellers have been careful to notice its occur-
rence. At a time when the meerkats were perhaps
totally unknown to Europeans, the African traveller,
Barrow, records the following little incident : — " An
eagle," he says, " making a stoop at one of these, close
to where we were passing, missed his prey, and both
fell a sacrifice, one to the gun, the other to the dogs."
THE EGYPTIAN ICHNEUMON (Herpestes Ichneu-
mon)—Plate 9, fig. 32. The various members of
the genus Herpestes, are, amongst other things, char-
acterized by the possession of forty teeth, of which
twenty-four belong to the molar series, the last two on
either side above, and the ultimate tooth of each corre-
sponding group below, being tuberculated. The head
is furnished with short and rounded ears, and the
circumferential osseous ring of the orbital space is in
most cases complete. The limbs are short, the feet
being pentadactylous and armed with huge, com-
pressed, incurved, and slightly retractile claws. The
oval glandular pouch is remarkably capacious. The
fur consists of long, rigid hairs, more or less annulated
with alternating shades of dark and light tints. The
Egyptian ichneumon is the best known of all the
species, and is celebrated by Herodotus, Aristotle, and
many other ancient writers. All sorts of fabulous
stories, mixed with a certain degree of truth, have
VOL. I.
been told respecting it ; but the sober science of
modern times very properly rejects such silly records
as totally unworthy of belief. By European residents
in Egypt the ichneumon is known by the name of
Pharaoh's rat ; but the native Arabs call it nenis or
nuns. The traveller Sonnini, whose observations on
this animal were made towards the close of the eigh-
teenth century, was one of the first to give an accurate
account of these creatures. Speaking of their habits
he says that " they feed upon rats, birds, and reptiles.
They ramble about the habitations of men ; they even
steal into them in order to surprise the poultry and
devour their eggs. It is this natural fondness for eggs
that prompts them frequently to scratch up the sand
with the intention of discovering those that the croco-
diles deposit there, and it is in this manner that they
prevent, in reality, the excessive propagation of these
detestable animals." The Egyptian ichneumon is
readily domesticated, and specimens of it are always
to be seen in living collections in this country. The
fur has a peculiar dark tawny-grey aspect, resulting
from the circumstance that the individual hairs are
coloured with alternating rings of chestnut-brown and
yellow. The muzzle and feet have a deep, reddish-
brown tinge. The tail is long, thick, and bushy at the
root. A full-grown ichneumon is about the size of an
ordinary cat. When much excited it is said to growl
and even bark.
THE MOONGUS (Herpestes griseus}. — This animal
is also known as the Indian ichneumon in contradis-
tinction to the above- described species ; but as there
are several other allied forms inhabiting the great
Asiatic peninsula and the adjacent islands, it is better
to retain the more distinctive appellation here given.
The moongus is celebrated for attacking venomous
serpents, and it is said to have recourse to the plant
called Hampadder-tanah or Mungo-root (Ophorhlza
mungos) as an antidote to their venom. The plant is
still employed as an antidote by the natives ; but we
do not place much faith in the above-mentioned state-
ment, which was originally recorded and concocted
by Rumphius. This animal's astonishing power of
destroying vermin, however, has been satisfactorily
demonstrated in our own country. Mr. Bennett, in his
account of a specimen kept in the tower of London,
relates that the beast actually destroyed, on one occa-
sion, no fewer than a dozen full-grown rats which were
loosed to it in a room sixteen feet square, accomplish-
ing the slaughter in a minute and a half! The
moongus may be readily tamed and taught to accom-
pany its master anywhere, both in and out of doors.
THE GARANGAN (Herpestes Javanicus) is a native
of Java, and is especially abundant in the large teak
forests of that island. Like the last-described species,
it is exceedingly destructive to serpents, which it
attacks with great fury. Rats appear to be its favour-
ite food ; but it is also terribly destructive to chickens.
In pursuing its prey it exercises much cunning and
ingenuity. It is very easily domesticated; but its
propensities for poultry deter the Javanese from show-
ing it much regard. Moreover, it is said to be of a
capricious disposition, occasionally indulging in fits of
anger and violence. The fur of the garangan or
98
VIVERRID.E MAMMALIA. VIVERRID.E.
Javanese ichneumon, as it is sometimes called, is
rather darker than that of the moongus and its allies.
THE EATLAMUCHI (Herpestes badius) inhabits the
Cape of Good Hope and neighbouring parts of southern
Africa. According to Dr. J. E. Gray, the fur is of a
" red bay, the hairs being of a uniform colour, except
a few just over the shoulder nape, which have a black
sub-apical ring." The ratlamuchi, in common with its
congeners, is very shy in the wild state, so that only
very feeble glimpses can be obtained of it while it
hurriedly escapes from one wood to another. There
is every reason to believe that it feeds upon rats, mice,
snakes, and lizards ; but the stomachs of those ex-
amples obtained by Dr. Smith, who originally described
the species, contained the remains of insects only.
In the catalogue of Mammalia preserved in the British
Museum, this species is denominated Smith's ichneu-
mon or Herpestes Smithii.
THE STJBICATE OE ZENIC (Rhyzana tctradactyla)
is also a native of southern Africa, and is rather
smaller than the Indian moongus, being about four
feet long, including the tail, which is rather more than
half the length of the body. The suncate possesses
thirty-six teeth, twenty being molars, of which the
anterior twelve are spurious. The four true grinders
of the upper series and the two ultimate ones below
are tuberculated. The orbital cavity is surrounded by
a complete osseous ring. The ears are small, the
muzzle much produced, the tongue being furnished
with horny papillae. The limbs are comparatively
long, terminating in tetradactylous feet, whose digits
are armed with strongly-developed, compressed, in-
curved claws. The tail is slender and pointed, and
the anal region is supplied with the usual pair of
glandular follicles. The fur of the zenic very closely
resembles that of the ichneumon in respect of its
annulations and peculiar tinting. The colour is a
mixture of yellow, white, brown, and black. The
inner sides of the legs are yellowish -brown, and the
hairs on the back are also darker, while the tail is
marked with blackish tufts, especially at the tip.
The habits of the suricate are similar to those of its
congeners, feeding, as it does, upon rats, mice, &c.
It is also reported to be exceedingly destructive to
cockroaches.
THE MANGUE (Crossarchus obscurus). — This ani-
mal was first described by M. Friedrick Cuvier. It is
an inhabitant of the district of Sierra Leone, on the
west coast of Africa. In respect of size and general
appearance it resembles the suricate. The bead is
more rounded posteriorly than in the ichneumons;
but the bony orbital ring is incomplete behind. The
muzzle is very much produced or proboscidiform ; and
the jaws are furnished with twenty molars, the lani-
aries or carnassials being surmounted with acute
conical tubercles. The ears are small, round, and
bilobulated. The central papilla? of the tongue are
horny. The feet are plantigrade and pentadactylous,
while the tail is flattened, of moderate length, but con-
siderably thicker than that of the suricate. In the
anal region there is a solitary glandular pouch. The
body is only sixteen inches in length, not including the
tail, which measures some eight inches. The fur pre-
sents a tolerably uniform brownish colour, except on
the sides of the head, where it is much paler. The
mangue feeds on small quadrupeds, insects, and fruits ;
and in the domesticated state it is a cleanly docile
creature.
THE POUGONNE (Paradoxurus typus). — As this
animal, in common with several of its allies, is called
the musang, we purposely retain the subjoined dis-
tinctive title. The term Paradoxure, by which it is
Fig. 27.
The Pougonne (Paradoxurus typus).
likewise well known, is also applicable to other species
of the same genus ; while to employ the name of palm-
marten given to it by the French, would involve the
same uncertainty, being open to precisely similar
objections. The Pougonne (fig. 27), is a native of
India, and is quite distinct from the genets, with which,
however, it has been frequently confounded. The
head exhibits a thoroughly canine aspect, and the
muzzle is much pointed. The jaws are supplied with
forty teeth, twenty-four of them being molars. The
pupil of the eye is slit longitudinally, the ears being
rather large and rounded. The body is stoutish, and
VIVEHRID/E. MAMMALIA. VIVERKID^E.
provided with short limbs, the feet being semi-palmate,
plantigrade, and pentadactylous. The claws are
slightly retractile. The odoriferous secreting pouch is
represented by a superficial grandular space, placed a
little below the anal opening. The tail is as long as
the body, cylindrical, slightly flattened from above
downwards, and non-prehensile ; in the example de-
scribed by F. Cuvier it was found spirally folded upon
itself, as in the figure here given. The fur of the
pougonne has a more or less brownish tint generally,
being marked on the back and sides with darker patches
of the same colour, somewhat irregularly disposed. Its
habits correspond with those of the species of this family
whose food is of a mixed character.
THE COMMON GENET (Genetta vulgaris), is an
inhabitant of the south of France, of Spain, and of the
African continent throughout its entire length and
breadth. It is generally found in the low grounds,
near the edges of rivers, or in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of springs. The Genet very much resembles
an ordinary cat, and in the domesticated condition forms
a very good substitute, catching and killing mice with
equal skill. The various members of the genus Genetta
are distinguished by their
vertically slit pupils, and by
their completely retractile
claws, in which respect they
approximate very closely to
the Felidte. The odori-
ferous anal pouches are re-
duced to a mere depression
in the skin, the amount of the
secretion being correspond-
ingly deficient; nevertheless
quite enough to produce a
very perceptible odour. The
Genets are smaller than the
true civets, and less frugivor-
ous in their habits. The fur
of the species under con-
sideration is more or lesa
greyish and spotted, with
conspicuous oval, oblong, or
rounded patches of a brown-
ish-black colour, the cheeks
and sides of the muzzle being
covered with white markings.
The tail is beautifully annulated witn upwards of twenty
alternating white and black bands. It is as long as the
body, and tapers very gently towards the tip, where
it is also clothed with long coarse hair. Its dental
arrangement is precisely similar to that of the civets,
properly so called.
THE LTTWAK (Viverra rmisanga), is a well-marked
form, although it resembles the genet in size and many
other particulars. The head is broad behind, ending
anteriorly in a sharply pointed muzzle. The jaws are
furnished with twenty molar teeth, which are com-
paratively short and broad. The body is about
twenty-two inches long, exclusive of the tail, which
would give us another foot and a half. The general
colour of the fur is that of a deep tawny-brown ; the
head, central line of the back, tail, and outer sides of
the limbs being almost black. A whitish-grey band
passes backwards from the eye, gradually increasing in
breadth until it arrives at the centre of the neck.
The pupils of the eyes are rounded. The limbs are
robust, terminating in pentadactylous feet, armed with
large, strong, semi-retractile claws. In regard to the
habits of the Luwak, Dr. Horsfield states that they are
" very similar to those of the genet. If taken while
young, it becomes patient and gentle during confine-
ment, and receives readily animal and vegetable food.
It requires little attention, and even contents itself
with the scanty remains of the meals of the natives,
with fish, eggs, rice, potatoes, &c., the structure of its
teeth being particularly adapted to a vegetable diet.
It prefers, however, delicate and pulpy fruits, but
when pressed by hunger, also attacks fowls and birds."
The Luwak, we are told, causes terrible damage to the
coffee plantations, devouring the berries with excessive
greediness. On this account some have called it the
" coffee rat." Only the arillus and external coverings of
the berry are consumed, the seed itself passing through
the animal unaffected by the digestive powers of the
animal's stomach. The Luwak is pretty widely dis-
Fig. 28.
The Easse (Viverra Rasse).
tributed, being found in Sumatra, Java, the Malayan
peninsula, and in most of the adjacent islands of the
Indian archipelago.
THE EASSE (Viverra Basse), is a remarkably hand-
some creature, and is readily distinguished from its con-
geners by its elongated form, delicate build, and elegant
colouring (fig. 28). It is also a native of Java and the
adjoining isles. The length of the body is nearly two
feet, not including the tail, which would give us another
twelve inches. The head is cuneiform, compressed
sideways, terminating anteriorly in a very attenuated
muzzle. The ears are particularly broad at the base,
closely approximating to each other on the crown of
the head. The eyes are dark-coloured. The whiskers
are few in number, but of considerable length. The
limbs are of moderate size, and terminate in digitigrade
100
VIVEKRIDJE. MAMMALIA. VIVEKRIDJE.
pentadactylous feet, armed with acute semi-retractile
claws. A solitary glandular pouch exists in the anal
region. The general aspect of the fur is tawny grey,
prettily marked with dark-brown or blackish spots, in
addition to which there are eight dark-coloured parallel
bands passing from the shoulders to the posterior
extremity of the rump, four of them being situated on
either side, and immediately below the central line of
the back. The dark spots above mentioned have also
a tendency to arrange themselves in linear series.
The tail is striped with sixteen circular alternating
bands of a black and whitish-grey colour. The Rasse
" preys on small birds and animals of every descrip-
tion. It possesses the sanguinary appetite of animals
of this family in a high degree, and the structure
of the teeth strictly corresponds with its habits. In
confinement it will devour a mixed diet, and is fed
on eggs, fish, flesh, and rice. Salt is reported by the
natives to be a poison to it." The odoriferous secretion
from the anal glands is termed dedes by the Javanese
and jibet by the Malays, and Dr. Horsfield further
informs us that it is quite a "favourite perfume among
the Javanese, and applied both to their dresses, and,
by means of various unguents and mixtures of flowers,
to their persons. Even the apartments and the furni-
ture of natives of rank are generally scented with it to
such a degree as to be offensive to Europeans, and at
their feasts and public processions the air is widely
filled with this odour."
THE TANGGALTTNG (Viverra zibefha] is a very
widely distributed species throughout the more south-
ern portions of the great Asiatic continent, extending
from Arabia on the west to the coast of Malabar
on the east, and also occupying Sumatra, Java,
Borneo, and other islands of the Indian archipelago.
The term Tanggalung is of Malayan origin ; but this
species is also called the Indian civet, and by the
native Hindoos is known by the name of the Kutauss.
It is a comparatively strong and bulky species, having
a short thick neck and somewhat, rounded head. The
ears are very much wider apart than obtains in the
Rasse, leaving an interspace of about two inches
width. The tail is cylindrical, nearly uniform in
thickness, and shorter than the body ; it is somewhat
indistinctly striped with alternating black and light-
brown rings. The fur has a light-brownish ashy-grey
colour, being marked with small black spots arranged
in a transversely undulating manner. The throat and
lower parts of the belly are whitish. Dr. Horsfield
says that this animal has a comparatively mild dis-
position ; but his remarks evidently apply to it when
in a semi-domesticated condition. Captain Thomas
Williamson's account of the wild Indian civet affords
a clearer estimate of its naturally ferocious character.
"This animal," he says, " is perhaps the most obnoxious
of all the wild tribes known in India. It is seldom, if
ever, seen on a plain, except at night, when it leaves
its haunt in quest of prey. The Kutauss is remarkably
bold, sparing nothing which it can overcome, and
frequently killing, as it were, merely for sport. Its
principal devastations are among sheep and swine, from
which it purloins the young, and commits dreadful
havoc among poultry. To the rapacity of the wolf it
joins the agility of the cat and the cunning of the fox."
The same excellent observer tells us that it " is gene-
rally found in short underwood covers, mixed more or
less with long grass, and especially where the palmyra
or cocoa tree is to be seen. Although it is sometimes
met with in various detached jungles, yet, for the most
part, its residence is confined to such as border old
tanks or jeels. The banks being formed by the
excavation, are often very high and broad ; with time
they settle and become flatter, and are generally overrun
with very strong brambles, through which even an
elephant could not make his way without extreme
difficulty. Of such covers the Kutauss is a regular
inhabitant, seldom stirring in the day, during which
time he appears to hide himself in the most opaque
recesses." The Kutauss ascends trees with facility,
and when chased by hunters makes a very powerful
resistance. The odour which it emits is similar to that
of the Rasse, and, like the jibet, is duly extolled by
the natives as a delightful perfume. It is, however,
highly offensive to Europeans, and Captain Williams
states that the hunters' dogs in Bengal become per-
fectly sick with the stench; nevertheless there is no
animal which they will so readily attack, and after
they have worried a Kutauss nothing will induce them
to pursue any other kind of game — until at least the
smell of the beast has entirely quitted their nostrils.
Kutausses only frequent the neighbourhood of such
villages as are inhabited by Mussulmans, simply be-
cause no poultry can be stolen from those populated
by Hindoos, whose religion forbids the rearing of
chickens and fowls. Unclean animals all !
THE AFBICAN CIVET (Viverra civetta)— Plate 9,
fig. 31 — is the species most commonly known, and it
is from this animal that the unctuous browu substance
termed " civet" is chiefly procured. The fatty matter
in question is obtained from the two anal glandular
pouches, so frequently alluded to in other viverrine
genera. In the fresh state its odour is extremely dis-
agreeable ; but when very copiously diluted and mixed
with other perfumes — the energy of which it appears
to have the power of augmenting — the combination is
considered pleasant. The Civet is most abundant in
North Africa ; but it is also found on the coast of
Guinea and at other parts of the continent as far south
as the Mozambique. In the domesticated condition
this animal exhibits a very capricious temper ; but
large numbers of Civets are kept for the sake of
procuring the oily perfume. We are told that the
unfortunate captives have their dignity insulted about
twice a week. Thus, the tails being raised, and the
hinder parts fixed to the bars of their cages in situ, a
sort of iron scoop is unceremoniously introduced into
the before-mentioned pouches, and the glands are
relieved of their odoriferous contents. The African civet
is larger than the Tanggalung, the body being nearly
three feet long, not including the tail, which measures
about eighteen inches. The fur has a light brownish -
grey colour, with spots and bands of a darker brown or
blackish tint. The hairs along the central line of the
back and neck are sufficiently elongated to form a
kind of mane, which can be raised or depressed at will.
The hairs of the tail are also long, and being whitish
MAMMALIA.
101
with black ends, they impart to the organ a more or
less ringed appearance. The habits of the African
civet are by preference nocturnal. It is a good
climber, and although particularly fond of birds and
small quadrupeds, it does uot reject fruits, roots, and
other vegetable matters.
FAMILY IV.—
In a zoological point of view, this family cannot be
considered as equivalent to any of the three foregoing
carnivorous groups. It is clearly
osculant between the Vivcrridse and
Felidse, resembling the cats in its
dental formula, and the civets in
nearly all other respects. In addition
to the usual six incisives and four
canines, the Hysenas have eighteen
molars, of which the anterior four-
teen, that is, eight above and six
below, are, according to the view of
Professor Owen, spurious ; whilst, of
the four remaining true molars, the
upper pair are tuberculated, those of
the lower series remaining sectorial
in their character. The Hyaenas are
further distinguished by their peculiar
gait, depending upon the paramount
lengthening of the anterior limbs as
compared with the hind legs. This
elongation is perhaps, on the whole,
more apparent than real ; nevertheless,
taken separately, the tibia and fibula of
the posterior extremity are shorter than the correspond-
ing radius and ulna of the fore-limb. The feet are
all tetradactylous. The ears are large, the eyes pro-
minent, and the tongue covered with horny papillae.
The body gradually declines from the shoulder towards
the tail, supporting a bushy mane on the neck and
central line of the back. There are fifteen or sixteen
pair of ribs. The tail is rather short, the anal glan-
dular pouches being deep and capacious. So far as
at present known, this family is exclusively confined
to the eastern hemisphere. Numerous fossil remains
of Hysenas occur in the pliocene deposits, and more
particularly in the ossiferous caverns of Great Britain
and central Europe.
THE AARD-WOLF (Proteles Lalandii)—fig. 29.—
This is a very interesting animal, inasmuch as it con-
stitutes one of those transitional or aberrant forms
which serve to demonstrate the unity of plan pervading
all organized beings. The various species which in-
habit this planet, whether animal or vegetable, are not
to be regarded as creations representing so many
totally different designs, but they are rather to be
looked upon as special modifications of one common
archetypal plan. Speaking of secondary causes, we
may say that nature developes progressively, and in
accordance with the motto, "Nihilper saltum." Such
a view is at the same time quite consistent with the
notion that each animal — the Aard-wolf, for example
— is an independent entity, a distinct species, a
sepai-ate creation, an expression of the Divine will.
Observe how closely this creature resembles several
other allied forms. In general appearance and attitude
it is like the true hysenas, and this apparent identity
is perhaps even more obvious in the dentition and in
the structure of the skeleton. In respect of its size,
the form of the head, and in the circumstance of its
excavating burrows for diurnal retreat, we notice its
fox-like qualities, while in several other particulars it
approaches the civets. The molars are small, and
vary in number from sixteen to twenty. The fore-
feet are pentadactylous, having the digit of the thumb
Fig. 29.
The Aard- Wolf (Proteles Lalandii).
slightly raised. The hind-feet have only four toes.
The tail is comparatively short. The texture of the
fur is soft and woolly, except along the central line of
the back and neck, where it is long and rigid, and
forms an erectile mane, the individual hairs being
upwards of six inches long. The body displays a
yellowish ashy-brown colour, the sides being irregu-
larly banded with eight or ten dark-brown stripes,
whilst the legs are also lined with similar transverse
markings. Like its congeners, the habits of the Aard-
wolf are nocturnal, and it feeds on various kinds of
animal and vegetable food, and from the observations
of Sparrman, appears to be very partial to ants, thus
reminding us also of the insectivorous habits of the
bears. On the approach of daylight he retires to his
self-constructed subterraneous burrow, and there lies
concealed during the day. Aard-wolves are remark-
ably timid and shy ; and, as if to increase their security,
they not only make their burrows near each other,
but many are frequently found occupying the same
hole, which, however, may have several outlets, so
that they can all escape if disturbed. They are thus
gregarious in their habits, and are also swift runners,
notwithstanding the disproportion which exists between
the anterior and posterior extremities.
THE STRIPED HYJENA (Hycena striata) — Plate 9,
fig. 30.— This is the most widely districted species,
being found in abundance in the greater part of central
Asia, Hindoostan, Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Syria, and
northern Africa. It is recognized by its brownish-
102
MAMMALIA.
grey colour, which is darker along the central line of
the back and neck, where the hairs are prolonged to
form an erectile mane, the sides of the body being also
marked by several dark-brown bands. All the hyaenas
display remarkable strength and voracity, their jaws
being eminently fitted for tearing and crushing the
hardest substances. At night they prowl about in
large numbers, devouring alike living and dead animals,
whether the latter be fresh or semiputrid. Graves are
torn open without ceremony — a circumstance which
has given rise to various superstitions and silly tales,
which ancient writers ignorantly delighted to record.
The Striped hysena is not very particular as to the char-
acter or size of his victim. Colonel Denham, when at
Kouka, informs us that a legion of this species literally
stormed a large village in that neighbourhood one
night, and, notwithstanding that the place was sur-
rounded by a barricade, consisting of branches of the
prickly tulip nearly six feet in height, they succeeded
in throwing it down and taking away two donkeys.
He adds — " We constantly heard them close to the
walls of our own town at nights, and on a gate being
left partly open, they would enter and carry off any
unfortunate animal that they could find in the streets."
It has often been stated that hya?nas cannot be tamed
— a notion which is entirely erroneous. Among the
very many proofs which have been adduced to show
that the species under consideration is quite capable
of domestication, we may refer to Mr. Bennett's account
of a Striped hyaena kept in the tower of London,
which manifested remarkable docility and attachment
to its keeper. It may also be mentioned, on the
authority of Colonel Sykes, that in central India,
where the species is numerous, they are found to be
as susceptible of domestication as ordinary dogs.
THE SPOTTED HYJENA (Hyaena crocuta). — This
is called the " Tiger-wolf" by the colonists at the Cape
of Good Hope, and it is often spoken of simply as the
Wolf, in contradistinction to the next species, which is
termed the Strand-wolf. Though most abundant in
Southern Africa, the Spotted hyaena is found as far
north and west as the coast of Guinea and Senegal,
and even Barbary, if the statements of Lesson are
correct. It is rather smaller than the last-described
species, and is further distinguished by the absence of
any well-marked mane, as well as by the circumstance
that the fur is covered with roundish black spots, instead
of stripes, which, nevertheless, exhibit a tendency to
arrange themselves in linear series. The general colour
of the fur is yellowish-brown, the hairs being compara-
tively short. The tail is bushy, and of a brownish-
black tinge. The habits of the Spotted hyaena appear
to be even more destructive than those of the striped
species. Numerous accounts have been placed on
record respecting its extraordinary rapacity, but of
these we shall refer only to the more interesting. The
traveller Steedman gives the following account of its
depredations, as communicated to him by a trustworthy
correspondent, who writes from Mamboland as follows :
— " To sh^fc clearly the preference of the wolf (i.e.,
Spotted hyaena) for human flesh, it will be necessary to
notice, that when the Mambookies build their houses,
which are in form like beehives, and tolerably large —
often eighteen or twenty feet in diameter — the floor is
raised at the higher or back part of the house, until
within three or four feet of the front, where it suddenly
terminates, leaving an area from thence to the wall, in
which every midnight the calves are tied, to protect
them from the storms or from wild beasts. Now it
would be natural to suppose, that should the wolf
(hyaena) enter, he would seize the first object for his
prey, especially as the natives always lie with the fire
at their feet; but notwithstanding this, the constant
practice of this animal has been in every instance to
pass by the calves in the area, and even by the fire,
and to take the children from under the mother's kaross;
and this in such a gentle and cautious manner, that the
poor parent has been unconscious of her loss, until the
cries of her little innocent have reached her from with-
out, when a close prisoner in the jaws of the monster."
The same writer avers, that there had come to his
knowledge no less than forty instances where these
beasts had thus committed serious havoc within the
space of only a few months. The Spotted hyaena is a
great coward, for he will usually only attack his intended
victim after he has succeeded in intimidating him, and
in making him run for his life. To bring about this
result, he utters hideous howls, and puts on every kind
of snarl and grimace which his villanous physiognomy
can conjure up. This propensity to howl, however,
seems to be rather disadvantageous than otherwise,
seeing that it serves as a warning to the occupants of
farm-yards and villages. Its design is probably to
inspire terror, and not to call together other hyaenas of
the same species, as some have supposed. Various
methods are adopted to destroy this pest, the best of
which seems to be that of a spring-gun trap, set in the
following manner: — " Two young trees are selected,
and divested of their lower branches, or, in lieu of such,
a couple of stout posts, firmly, driven into the ground,
will answer the purpose equally well. To these trees
or posts, as the case may be, the gun is firmly lashed
in a horizontal position, and with the muzzle pointing
slightly upwards. A piece of wood about six inches in
length — the lever, in short — is tied to the side of the
gun-stock, in such a manner as to move slightly for-
wards and backwards. A stout piece of string connects
the trigger with the lower part of the lever. To the
upper extremity of the latter is attached a long piece
of cord, to the outer end of which, after it has been
passed through one of the empty ramrod tubes, is tied
a lump of flesh, which is pushed over the muzzle of the
gun." By this contrivance Mr. Anderson and his friends
succeeded in destroying several hyaenas. The same
sportsman and author records in his "Lake Ngami" the
following curious incident. While stationed at Great
Namaqua-land, he says — " Almost the first animal I
saw at this place was a gigantic ' tiger-wolf,' or Spotted
hyaena, which, to my surprise, instead of seeking safety
in flight, remained stationary, grinning in the most
ghastly manner. Having approached within twenty
paces I perceived to my horror, that his fore-paws, and
the skin and flesh of his front legs, had been gnawed
away, and that he could scarcely move from the spot.
To shorten the sufferings of the poor beast, I seized my
opportunity, and knocked him on the head with a stone ;
1AMMALIA. CAN ID.E.
103
and, catching him by the tail, drove my hunting-knii'e
deep into his side. But I had to repeat the operation
more than once before I could put an end to his exist-
ence. I am at a loss how to account for his mangled
condition. It certainly could not have been from age,
for hi teeth were good. Could it be possible that from
want of food he had become too weak for further exer-
tions, and that as a last resource he had attacked his
own body ? Or was he an example of that extraordi-
nary species of cruelty said to be practised by the lion
on the hysena, when the latter has the insolence to
interfere with the monarch's prey ?" We are inclined
to believe neither of these ingenious views are correct,
but that the poor beast had gnawed its limbs on account
of some local disease. We noticed, a few years ago,
an unfortunate hyaena in the Dublin Zoological Gar-
dens, which, from some local irritation at the part, had,
by constant biting and sucking, so reduced its caudal
appendage, that scarcely any trace of the tail remained.
We suggested to Dr. Ball that it should be destroyed,
but that distinguished naturalist did not seem inclined
to adopt Mr. Andersson's judicious method of consol-
ing the afflicted ; expressing his belief that the animal
would get better !
THE WOOLLY HYJENA (Hyaena villosa). — This
species was first described by Dr. Andrew Smith in
the 15th volume of the Liunrean Society's Transac-
tions. It is called the " Strand-wolf" by the Cape
colonists, and, when young, bears a very close resem-
blance to the striped hysena, from which circumstance
some have stated that the latter is also found in South
Africa. This is not the case, unless, indeed, the per-
suasion that the Woolly hyaena is nothing more than a
well-marked variety of the species under consideration,
should gain universal acceptance. The distinguished
author of the '• Catalogue of Mammalia," preserved in
the British Museum, entertains this view. In the
meantime we may observe, that a fourth kind has been
described — the Brown hyaena (Hycena nifti) — which is
also a South African species. The fur of the Woolly
hyaena is long and coarse, but it does not form an
erectile mane along the central line of the back. The
body has a greyish-brown colour, with indistinct mark-
ings of a darker hue, transversely arranged on the sides
and hips, and other more conspicuous ones on the legs.
The tail has a deep-brown tinge, and is longer than in
the ordinary striped hyaena. The head is lined with
| dark patches beneath the eyes, on the chin, and at the
point of junction of the cheeks and neck. The ears
j are comparatively large, straight, and pointed. Its
habits are similar to those of other hyaenas, but it fre-
quently resorts to the sea-coast, where it greedily
devours carcases of whales, and the semiputrid remains
of any other animals which by chance may have been
washed ashore. It is not so common a species as the
spotted hysena.
FAMILY V.— CANID^E.
The Dogs form a small natural group, although the
individual members of the family are extremely nume-
rous, owing to the circumstance that a solitary species
has given origin to a multitude of well-marked and more
or less permanent varieties, forming a series of domesti-
cated races. Besides the ordinary complement of twelve
incisive and four canine teeth, the dogs are usually
furnished with twenty-six molars, but in some instances
as many as thirty-two have been present. Ordinarily,
there are six molars on either side above, and seven cor-
respondingly opposed below. Of these, the last pair on
either side, above and beneath, are generally tubercu-
lated ; sometimes the latter three of each series are thus
characterized. The tongue is soft, and not armed with
horny papillae. The feet are digitigrade, and furnished
with five toes in front, but the hind limbs are, in most
cases, only tetradactylous. Dogs have no anal glan-
dular pouch. The coecum is well developed, and of a
spiral form. These animals are found in all parts of the
habitable globe. Fossil remains of dogs and wolves
have been found in the bone-caverns of Liege, and also
in England, at Overton near Plymouth, and at Pavi-
land in Glamorganshire. A careful examination of
these fossils has led Professor Owen to advocate the
view, that all the varieties of dogs are specifically iden-
tical with the common Wolf.
THE MAEBLED LYCAON (Lycaon venatica}.— This
is the wild dog or Wilde Hond of the Cape colonists.
In external appearance it very closely resembles a
hyaena, and it was originally described by Burchell as
a member of that genus, under the title of Hycena picta.
It is, however, a nearer approach to the true dogs.
This is more especially seen in the character of the
dentition, and in the structure of the skeleton. Its
height at the shoulder is rather under two feet from the
ground, but it looks somewhat taller at first sight on
account of its slight, gaunt figure. The limbs are long
and narrow, all of them terminating in tetradactylous
feet. The fur has a yellowish-brown colour, and is
irregularly marbled with black and variegated spots of an
exceedingly irregular shape. The head is like that of
a hyaena ; the muzzle is pointed, and of a black colour.
The ears are remarkably large. The tail is moderately
long, bushy like that of a fox, and divided near the
middle by a black ring, above which the colour is sandy,
and white below. According to Mr. Burchell, from
whose description these characters are partly derived,
the Lycaon hunts in large organized packs, by prefer-
ence at night, but occasionally also by day. It appears
to be a bolder animal than the hyaena, very swift of
foot, attacking sheep openly, but employing more cau-
tion in the case of horses and large cattle.
THE LALANDE (Otocyon Lalandii). — This animal
is rather smaller than an ordinary fox, and is also an
inhabitant of Southern Africa. The fur is greyish. The
tail is moderately long, bushy, black at the upper part,
and also at the extremity. The body stands compara-
tively high, the limbs being lengthy and slender. The
head is furnished with remarkably large, long, and
straight ears. The teeth are forty-eight in number,
there being no less than thirty-two molars. One of the
most distinctive peculiarities of the Lalande has refer-
ence to the character of these molar teeth, fifteen of
which are tuberculated— all the true grinds*, in short,
four of them belonging to each lateral division above,
and three correspondingly opposed in each series below.
The food of the Lalande is principally frugivorous.
104
-MAMMALIA.-
THE FENNEC (Vulpes Zerda) — Plate 7, fig. 25—
is more closely allied to the foxes and true dogs, with
which, indeed, its dentition entirely coincides. It
resembles the foregoing species chiefly in respect of its
ears, which are extremely long, and in the circum-
stance of its slight build and small body. The tail is
well developed, and dark-coloured at the root and tip ;
but in other respects it partakes of the general colour and
character of the fur, which is of a whitish, fulvous, or
light isabel tint throughout, being almost white beneath
the belly. Its texture is tine and woolly. The Fennec
is an inhabitant of the sandy plains of Nubia, where it
excavates burrows. It also ascends trees with facility.
A specimen in possession of Mr. Brande, the Swedish
consul at Algiers, was particularly partial to dates and
other sweet fruits, and also to eggs. The sight of a
bird, however, was sufficient to produce violent excite-
ment. The Fennec does not nestle in trees as the tra-
veller Bruce supposed.
THE COMMON FOX ( Vulpes vulgaris) — Plate 7, fig.
26. — If the "Museum of Natural History" were exclu-
sively devoted to the consideration of those animals
which afford sport, in the ordinary acceptation of the
term, our readers would in this place probably expect
a brilliant record of daring leaps and other adventures,
which are the ordinary accompaniments of the chase
after a fox. Due regard, however, being paid to the
habits of the more rare and important quadrupeds of
foreign countries, we must necessarily limit our details
respecting such natural history and sporting data as
the records of the fox-hunter furnish ; moreover, special
works are devoted to this subject, as well as to other
matters of interest connected with it. Who is not
familiar with the common fox, with its rufous brown
fur and bushy tail — or "brush," as it is termed by
hunters — tipped with white ? The sharp muzzle, the
shrewd look, the penetrating eye with its elliptically
contracted pupil, the triangular pointed ears, the fetid
odour, and the cunning step — these, and many other
well-known features, are characters by which Reynard
may be easily distinguished. Associated with this
aspect and attitude, we may also be reminded of its
burrowing propensities, its power of eluding pursuit, its
skill as a poacher, its swiftness of flight, its sagacity in
detecting traps, its wily instinct in securing food, &c. —
peculiarities which have over and over again been
celebrated in story-books from the earliest times;
neither need any doubt be entertained of the general
correctness of those serious charges which have from
time to time been laid at its door, or, as a hunter would
say, at the entrance of its " earth." Notwithstanding
all this, Reynard has many friends among English
gentry, although it cannot be urged that this friendship
is in any degree disinterested. On the contrary, Rey-
nard is esteemed only for the sport he creates. How-
ever destructive he may prove among the occupants of
a farmyard, woe betide the tenant-farmer who ventures
to destroy him, and so possibly abridge his landlord's
pastime. Let Reynard devour hares, rabbits, pheasants,
partridgeSj^fcicks, geese, chickens, and whatever else
lie may please to lay his claws upon ; but kill him not,
lest the tread of the noble fox-hunter's steed be obli-
terated from the upturned soil ! Through this barrier
of hunting etiquette, however, a breach is sometimes
made; and not long ago the author of the present
section of this work was visiting a gentleman at Attle-
borough in Norfolk, who, when out shooting on a
nobleman's estate in the same county, deliberately —
with his host's consent and approbation — rolled over a
pair of foxes, one with the right-hand barrel, and the
other with the left! As may be supposed, such a
clever feat of arms gave considerable offence to the
fox-hunting gentry of the district, while the farmers
and lovers of partridge-shooting only offered their
congratulations. The common fox is widely distri-
buted over Europe, and is also found, according to
several authorities, in Egypt and other parts of North-
ern Africa.
THE AMERICAN BED FOX (T 'ulpcs fuhus} has
been considered by many as a mere variety of the
common species above described; there is, however,
good ground for believing this view to be erroneous.
According to Mr. Sabine's description, this animal
exhibits " a general bright ferruginous colour on the
head, back, and sides, less brilliant towards the tail ;
under the chin white; the throat and neck a dark-
grey ; and this colour is continued along the first part
of the belly in a stripe of less width than on the breast ;
the under parts, towards the tail, are very pale red ;
the fronts of the fore-legs and the feet are black, and
the fronts of the lower part of the hind-legs are also
black; the tail is very bushy, but less ferruginous than
the body, the hairs mostly terminated with black, and
more so towards the extremity than near the root,
giving the whole a dark appearance ; a few of the hairs
at the end are lighter, but it is not tipped with white."
We can testify to the accuracy of this description of
the fur, having ourselves not only carefully examined
several examples, but having also dissected a specimen.
Speaking of its habits, Sir John Richardson states that
the American Red fox is not so swift as its English
congener. It runs rapidly for a short distance, " but
its strength is exhausted in the first burst, and it is
soon overtaken by a wolf or a mounted huntsman.
Its flesh is ill-tasted, and is eaten only through neces-
sity." The female produces four young at a birth,
the cubs having a soft downy fur of a yellowish -grey
colour. The Red fox is very abundant in the well-
wooded districts of North America, many thousand
skins being annually imported into England by the
Hudson's Bay Company.
THE KIT-FOX ( Vulpes cinereo-argentatus) is also a
North American species, extending from the plains of
the Saskatchewan territory to those of Columbia. It
is a very small species, measuring about twenty-two
inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which would give
us nearly another foot. Its face and muzzle are com-
paratively short and broad. On the upper part of the
body the fur presents a peculiar colour, " produced by
an intermixture of hairs tipped with brown, black, and
white." Underneath the neck and belly it is of a dull
rufous orange colour, the hairs in this situation being
also longer. The lower parts of the face about the
mouth are whitish, and more or less tinged with
blackish-brown at the margins. The whiskers are
strongly developed and dark-coloured. The tail is
CAN-ID.K. MAMMALIA. CANID.F..
105
bushy, of a yollowisli-grey colour, gradually tapering
towards the extremity, where it is black.
THE ARCTIC FOX ( Vitlpes lagopus) is as commonly
known by the designation of Blue fox, on account of
its peculiar deep ashy, leaden, or bluish-coloured hair.
The fur varies much in appearance at different periods
of the year, and according to the place of abode ; being
very commonly of a brownish-grey colour in some dis-
tricts, and in others sooty or almost black. In the
winter the fur usually becomes pure white or whitish-
yellow ; but this is not invariably the case, as the sooty
variety is said scarcely to alter its colour in any respect ;
its texture is woolly, the individual hairs being com-
paratively long. The Arctic fox is considerably less
than our European species, the tail being well developed
and very bushy towards the tip. The ears are short
and rounded, having a cropped appearance owing to a
peculiar arrangement of the hairs ; the latter are par-
ticularly thick and long at the posterior part of the
cheeks. According to Captain Lyon, " the Arctic fox
is an extremely cleanly animal, being very careful not
to dirty those places in which he eats or sleeps. No
unpleasant smell is to be perceived, even in a male,
which is a remarkable circumstance. To come una-
wares on one of these creatures is, in my opinion
impossible; for even when in an apparently sound
sleep, they open their eyes at the slightest noise which
is made near them, although they paj no attention to
sounds when at a short distance. The general time of
rest is during the daylight, in which they appear listless
and inactive ; but the night no sooner sets in than all
their faculties are awakened; they commence their
gambols, and continue in unceasing and rapid motion
until the morning. While hunting for food they are
mute ; but when in captivity or irritated, they utter a
short growl like that of a young puppy. It is a singu-
lar fact that their bark is so modulated, as to give an
idea that the animal is at a distance, although at the
very moment he lies at your feet." The same gentle-
man observes, that when taken they at first display
great anger, but after a few hours' confinement they
gradually cool down to a state of easy quietude ;
instances also occur where they have become quite
tame. The Arctic fox displays far less cunning than
our European species, and is not so suspicious of traps.
The female produces from three to five young at a birth.
This animal is an inhabitant of the sub-polar regions of
either division of the Northern hemisphere, being found
in North America, Lapland, Iceland, Siberia, and Kamt-
schatka. We have also been informed by a Russian
gentleman from the neighbourhood of Archangel, that
the sport of hunting blue foxes is particularly excellent
in the large isles of Nova Zembla. Ordinarily, Arctic
foxes are captured by an elevated pit-fall, the pit con-
sisting of an elevated hut built up with stones, and
arched over, leaving only an aperture at the summit,
over which blades of whalebone are fixed in such a
manner as to insure the certain precipitation of the fox
into the interior, should the bait, also placed at the
upper part, successfully allure him on to the top of the
roof. In the young state, the flesh of the Arctic fox
is stated to be excellent eating. The fur is employed
as an article of commerce, the bluish or lead-coloured
VOL. L
variety being most esteemed. In the peculiar dialect
of the American Cree Indians, this animal rejoices iu
the unutterably euphonious name of Wuppeekeeshew-
makkeeshew!
THE INDIAN FOX (Vulpes Bengalerms).—Th\s is
a small and elegant species, having a brownish fur,
which is much darker along the middle line of the
back, forming a longitudinal sooty-coloured band ; the
tail is also tipped with black, and the species is further
distinguished by the presence of circular patches of
white round the eyes. According to the experienced
testimony of Captain Williamson, these foxes are
extremely numerous in India. In general their earths
are placed on rising grounds, to prevent their being
inundated. The holes are " remarkably small, and
may be opened in an hour by any common labourer.
The foxes are very cunning, at least as much so as
their brethren in Europe. I have several times known
them, when pushed hard by greyhounds, to conceal
themselves in rice fields, or among bulrushes, &c.,
with only their noses peeping out of the water. On
such occasions, unless there be some questing dog at
hand, Reynard will often escape unnoticed. Both
jackals and foxes sham death to admiration. After
having been almost pulled to pieces by dogs, and left
to all appearance lifeless, they sometimes gradually
cock their ears, then look askance at the retiring
enemy, and, when they think themselves unobserved,
steal under a bank, &c., and thus skulk along till they
find themselves safe, when, setting off at a trot or
canter, they make the best of their way to some place
of security." The Indian fox feeds principally on
small birds and quadrupeds, especially rats, mice, and
such like vermin ; he is likewise partial to fowls,
poultry, and game, but to secure them he rarely
ventures within the walls of any village or town.
THE JACKAL (Canis aureus}— Plate 8, fig. 27—
differs from the fox, in presenting a more dog- like
appearance. The fur exhibits a ruddy yellowish-grey
colour generally, being darker on the back, where it is
almost black. The throat and under parts of the belly
are much lighter. The ocular pupils are rounded, as
in dogs. The common Jackal is widely distributed
throughout eastern countries, being found in abundance
in Hindoostan, Persia, Tartary, the Caucasus, Dalmatia,
the Morea, Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa, as far
as the coast of Guinea. In respect of size it is inter-
mediate between the fox and the wolf. Its habits are
gregarious ; it hunts at night in packs, and, from its
piercing yells and destructive habits, is everywhere
regarded with horror. The united cry of a pack pro-
duces a most unearthly sound, which has been compared
to the distant rolling of thunder. Captain Williamson
records many facts which clearly prove that jackals
will combine to defend or rescue one of their number.
Among these he mentions the following incidents : —
" Mr. Kinloch, who was well known as an excellent
sportsman, and who, when at Midnapore, kept a famous
pack of hounds, having one morning chased a jackal,
which entered a thick jungle, found himself under the
necessity of calling off his dogs, in consequence of an
immense herd of jackals which had suddenly collected
on hearing the cries of their brother, which the hounds
0
106
CAXID.E. MAMMALIA CANID.C.
were worrying. They were so mimerous that not
only the dogs were defeated, but the jackals absolutely
rushed out of the cover in pursuit of them ; and when
Mr. Kiuloch and his party rode up to whip them off,
their horses were bit, and it was not without difficulty
a retreat was effected. The pack was found to have
suffered so severely, as not to be able to take the field
for many weeks." The same writer speaks of the
Jackal as an extremely troublesome customer. He
is exceedingly vigilant, and seldom fails to carry his
purpose. In spite of your efforts to scare him away,
even with the aid of fire-arms, he will perseveringly
" wait at your door, nay, will enter your house, and
avail himself of the smallest opening for enterprise;
he will rob your roost, and steal kids, lambs, pigs, and
sometimes even take a pup from its sleepy mother;
he will strip a larder, or pick the bones of a carcase —
all with equal avidity. It is curious to see them
fighting almost within reach of your stick, for proximity
to expected booty. It may readily be supposed that
when any meat or poultry is purloined by servants, the
Jackal bears the blame. An officer in our battalion in
one night lost twenty- seven fowls from the hut in
which they were kept ; on which one of his servants did
not hesitate to declare that, on hearing their uproar
during the night, he had run to see what was the
matter, and saw twenty-seven jackals, each bearing
away his bird ! " Jackals, as we have seen, will
devour any kind of offal, and it is credibly stated that
they will dig up and greedily feed upon the half-buried
corpses of a battle-field. The odour of the Jackal is
very offensive, but it appears to wear off in the
domesticated animal. The matter which gives rise to
the disagreeable smell is secreted by a gland at the
base of the tail. This dermal or skin gland was at one
time supposed to exist only in the foxes, until a distin-
guished comparative anatomist — Professor Retzius, of
Stockholm — showed that this organ occurs in wolves
and jackals also. It is not necessary to place the
slightest reliance in the old story about jackals acting
as purveyors to the lion, there being no sufficient
grounds for such a notion.
THE WOLF (Canis lupus), Plate 7, fig. 24.— Pro-
bably no wild animal is more dreaded in civilized
countries than the common Wolf, its ferocity and
strength having very often proved disastrous to the
traveller, and to the residents of outlying villages. Its
general appearance is too well known to require any
lengthened description. The body is about four feet
long, exclusive of the tail, which measures from fourteen
to eighteen inches, according to circumstances. The
straight direction and dependent position of this organ
has been considered as a character sufficiently important
to distinguish the wolf from the dog ; but when those
who argue for the specific distinctness of the two animals
are thus obliged to resort to such trifling characters,
it shows the very slender nature of the grounds on
which their arguments are based. Without regarding
the point in dispute as entirely decided, we strongly
adhere to the view of Professor Owen and others, who
regard all kinds of dogs as domesticated varieties of
the wolf. The fur of the Wolf is long, especially on
the throat a»d below the ears ; its texture rough, wiry,
and harsh. Ordinarily it is of a yellowish-grey colour,
being much lighter beneath the neck and belly. Some
varieties are dark, almost pure black. In northern
regions the fur becomes light-coloured during the winter,
and is very frequently quite white; yellow and pied
varieties have also been described. There are indeed
many wolves differing very markedly in size and colour,
and it is quite impossible to determine accurately how
many of them represent distinct species. Even if this
were the proper place to discuss the matter, our space
would not allow a full and complete discussion of the
subject. The black variety is very common in the
south of Europe, especially on the Spanish side of the
Pyrenees. They are very large, tall, and strong in that
quarter, and their habits are excessively crafty. Colonel
Hamilton Smith says, that they formerly congregated
" in the passes of the Pyrenees in large troops; and even
now the Lobo will accompany strings of mules as soon
as it becomes dusky. They are seen bounding from
bush to bush by the side of travellers, and keeping
parallel with them as they proceed, waiting an oppor-
tunity to select a victim, and often succeeding, unless
the muleteers can reach some place of safety before
dark, and have no dangerous passes to traverse."
These black wolves are likewise to be found in the
mountain slopes of Friuli and in the neighbourhood of
Cattaro. The common grey variety is very widely
distributed, occurring in various parts of Europe, Asia,
Africa, and North America. In early historic times it
roamed at large in the forests of Great Britain, as
abundantly, perhaps, as it now occurs in some districts
of France, Hungary, Russia, Norway, and Sweden.
Their rapacity is much increased during the winter
months, especially if the cold season prove unusually
severe and protracted, when the supply of food neces-
sarily becomes limited. On these occasions their depre-
dations prove most disastrous. Thus, Dr. Weisseriborn
informs us, that in one severe winter on the continent,
they became remarkably bold and violent. About the
middle of the month of January large numbers infested
the neighbourhood of Stuttgard, where they succeeded
in capturing a poor lad, twelve years of age, only a
few miles outside the city. At night they prowled
about in packs; and one batch of them, ten in number,
having forced their way into a farmyard near Agram,
they committed most serious havoc among the cattle.
Many crossed over into Prussia from the Polish fron-
tiers, and a solitary individual deliberately attacked a
horse in one of the busiest and principal streets in the
city of Kb'rrigsberg. Many other instances have been
given of their daring under the extremities of famine.
The most horrible account is that recorded by Captain
Williamson in Northern India. On this occasion their
want of food was not the result of cold, but it was
owing to the extreme drought of the year 1783. which
caused a dreadful scarcity of all kinds of food and
animals during the ensuing season. This famine was
especially felt in the fertile province of Oude. Thou-
sands of the natives, we are told, perished from starva-
tion, " while numbers fell an easy prey to the wolves,
which, being bereft of their usual means of subsistence
by the general destruction of all eatable animals, were
at first compelled, and afterwards found it convenient,
CANID.K. MAMMALIA. CANID.B
107
to attack the wretched wanderers. The little resist-
ance they experienced in their depredations on these
unfortunate creatures, emboldened them in an astonish-
ing manner, and taught them to look with contempt
and defiance towards a race, of whose powers they had
heretofore been in awe. Such numbers, however, suc-
ceeded in rinding their way to the cantonments, that
we were to all intents in a state of siege. The wolves
followed, and were to be seen in all directions commit-
ting havoc among the dying crowd." Here we have
indeed a sad picture ; for the very loss of food these
animals experienced by the general scarcity of other
creatures, was more than amply compensated to them by
the abundance of perishing men, women, and children.
For the latter, indeed, the Wolf has a r"emarkable pro-
pensity at all times. The same writer declares that
" his favourite object is a child at the breast, which,
when opportunity serves, he seizes by the throat, there-
by not only preventing it from giving the alarm by its
cries, but taking a hold such as enables him to bear
away his prize without impeding his progress." Very
few children, even if timely rescued, survive this
trenchant grip. On another occasion two wolves
gained access to a bungalow near Cawnpore, where
they seized a lad thirteen years old, precisely in the
same manner ; death having ensued, they were in the
act of ingeniously raising the body over a wall, when
the fall of a tile aroused the sleeping parents, who
hurried to the spot, from whence the brutes scampered off
leaving the victim of their cunning a ghastly spectacle.
About this time the wolves in the northern districts
became so familiarized with man, by what had happened
during the famine, that they very frequently attacked
adults and even armed persons. Ordinarily, however,
as we have before remarked, the Wolf is a great coward.
Sir John Richardson testifies to the same behaviour in
the case of the American wolf, which is probably a
mere variety of the common grey species. He states
that if these wolves were not as fearful as they are
rapacious, the American buffalo-hunters would be
unable to preserve their game. " The simple precau-
tion of tying a handkerchief to a branch, or of blowing
up a bladder, and hanging it so as to wave in the wind,
is sufficient to keep herds of wolves at a distance."
Sir John Richardson also mentions an instance where
a poor Indian woman was killed by a wolf, within sight
of her husband, who was coming to rescue her; and it
is particularly worthy of notice, that in this instance
the neck was the part of the body seized. In the
higher northern latitudes many wolves perish during
the cold season from inanition ; and in some cases,
when the winter has been unusually severe and pro-
longed, they perish by hundreds. Some voyagers tell
us that they have both seen and heard the poor animals
— for under these circumstances we feel inclined to pity
them — howling painfully as they lay stretched and
famishing on blocks of ice. To these they have resorted
in the hope of catching seals and other marine animals,
and while thus employed, the ice-fields have become
detached and have drifted away into the open sea.
The Wolf, like the fox, forms burrows or earths ; into
these they retreat during the day, and likewise occupy
them for the special purpose of rearing their young.
The number of cubs produced at a birth seems liable
to vary, there being usually four or five ; but in the
case of the American variety, Sir John Richardson
states that eight or nine are sometimes the result of a
single litter. A very effectual manner of extirpating
wolves is by smoking them out of their earths. This
plan, adopted in India, is extremely simple. All that
is necessary, is to be provided with a quantity of sticks,
straw, and lucifer matches, and a few pounds of brim-
stone. There are generally several outlets to each
earth ; but it is not necessary to make a fire before
many of these, especially if the party be well provided
with fire-arms. Usually it is not considered desirable
to give any of them the slightest chance of escape ; but,
under any circumstances, it is advisable to fire the lower
holes, so as to allow of the fumes being drawn in by a
strong current of air. The death of the savage tenant
is usually very painful, and long before he comes to the
surface, his commencing distress and agony is indicated
by a painful moaning. Sometimes they rush out ; but
being more or less stupified by the fumes, they seldom
make their escape. If they avoid the spears and clubs
of the natives, who are anxiously watching outside, the
gun, rifle, or arrow, more surely effects the purpose of
their destruction. In the foregoing remarks we have
repeatedly had occasion to point out instances of the cun-
ning and ingenuity of the Wolf; but we cannot entirely
quit our account of this animal without quoting another
interesting illustration of its craftiness. Mr. Lloyd, in
his " Scandinavian Adventures," thus writes: — "At one
time, indeed, I had serious thoughts of training a fine
female wolf in my possession as a pointer ; but I was
deterred, owing to the penchant she exhibited for the
neighbours' pigs. She was chained in a little inclo-
sure, just in front of my window, into which those
animals, when the gate happened to be left open, ordi-
narily found their way. The devices the wolf employed
to get them in her power were very amusing. When
she saw a pig in the vicinity of her kennel, she, evi-
dently with the purpose of putting him off his guard,
would throw herself on her side or back, wag her tail
most lovingly, and look innocence personified. And
this amiable demeanour would continue until the grunter
was beguiled within the length of her tether, when, in
the twinkling of an eye, the prey was clutched." Whilst
she was young she contented herself with the tail ; but
after she had realized her full powers, the unsuspect-
ing swine were snapped up bodily, and, on such occa-
sions, Mr. Lloyd found it a difficult matter to rescue
them from her jaws.
THE BED WOLF (Canis jubata). — This is a well-
marked form, inhabiting the marshy districts of South
America. The fur has a fine cinnamon-red colour,
which imparts to the species a very attractive appear-
ance. The terminal moiety of the tail is white, and
there is also a white spot under the head. The Red wolf
is further distinguished by a short black mane, commen-
cing at the occiput, and proceeding downwards along
the middle line of the back. According to D'Azara, as
quoted by Ogilby, these animals "do not commit havoc
on the herds or smaller flocks; and as they inhabit
only the extensive lowlands and marshes of Paraguay
as far as the river Plata, and near its mouth, he has no
108
. MAMMALIA.-
doubt that they feed on rats, guinea pigs, small birds,
and certain vegetables, if these fall in their way, but
chiefly on snails, toads, frogs, and other reptiles, and
on the land crabs, which are abundant in the plains
and sand-banks. They walk with very long paces,
run much, and are, D'Azara adds, great plunderers,
although they always fly from man, and even from
dogs. They are solitary in their habits, are said to
swim well, and in their wild state to utter no sound
but gouaa. which they often and loudly repeat, so as
to be heard at a great distance." The Payaguas
Indians call the Red wolf Parcepaga; it is termed
Culpeu by the natives of Chili. It is also known as
the Aguara, a name likewise applied to a distinct race
of wild dogs.
THE DOG (Canis lupusv&r.familiaris). — We do not
specifically recognize the dog as a distinct animal, and
have previously expressed our adhesion to the view that
these useful creatures are neither more nor less than
domesticated varieties of the common wolf. The natural
history of the Dog is a subject of considerable interest;
but it is one so extended that the bare enumeration of
the leading characteristics and habits of the principal
vaneties, would require an entire volume for their
description and elucidation. Those, therefore, who
wish to follow up this department of the subject,
must consult works specially devoted to dogs. Some
of the numerous canine varieties attain a very great
size, with a proportionate degree of strength; such, for
example, as the Bloodhound, the Mastiff, the Newfound-
land, and the Thibet dog (Plate 6, fig. 23) ; others are
remarkably small, as in certain varieties of Spaniel;
while a third kind are extremely attenuated both in
shape and make, as instanced by the little Italian
Greyhound. In many parts of the world, dogs have
returned, at least to a certain extent, to their original
wild condition. In this way they have formed several
quite distinct races or typical varieties, which are
found in different parts of Asia, Australia, and the two
Americas. From a general consideration of these
forms, it may be fairly stated that, both in structure
and appearance, they exhibit a much closer approxi-
mation to the common wolf than obtains in the case
of any of the varieties which have remained domesti-
cated. (For a full and able exposition of this subject,
however, we must refer our readers to Mr. Bell's work
on " British Quadrupeds," and particularly, also, to the
early part of Dr. Carpenter's admirable article entitled
" Varieties of Mankind," contained in the 4th volume
of Dr. Todd's " Cyclopedia of Anatomy and Physio-
logy.") The Australian wild dog or Dingo, fig. 30,
approaches so closely to the wolf, that it was described
by Bewick as the "New South Wales wolf." The
Indian Dhole is another interesting example of a return
to the wild state. In some respects it comes nearer
the jackal. The fur is of a bay or rufous-brown
colour; the tail being long and narrow, and not bushy
at the extremity. It has a remarkably bright eye, and
Fig. 30.
Dingo, The Wild Dog of Australia.
a keen lively countenance. Though strictly wild and
savage, it will not attack persons unless first molested.
These Dholes live almost entirely upon other animals,
especially deer, which they hunt in large packs;
authentic instances are also recorded where they have
attacked and overcome tigers. Some have doubted this,
but the evidence is complete; and, besides, there can
be nothing improbable in the circumstance of wild dogs
attacking tigers, when it is a well-known fact that com-
mon spaniels will readily do the same thing ; many a life,
indeed, has been spared by the courage of the latter.
When engaged in the chase or on the scent the Dholes
do not howl or bark, but, at times of much excitement
in the course, they utter a kind of plaintive whining
note. Among other kinds of wild dogs which are more
or less closely allied to the wolf, we may perhaps
class the Caygotte or Coyotl, whose fur has a whitish-
brown colour. This animal is an inhabitant of South
America, and feeds upon small quadrupeds, and also
upon maize and other vegetable matters.
-MAMMALIA. FELID.E.
109
FAMILY VI.— FELID-2E.
Having in our introductory observations on the Car-
nivora selected examples of the present family for the
purpose of enunciating the leading characteristics of the
order — mainly on account of its forming the most typical
subdivision of that great mammalian group — the obser-
vations which we have now to offer must necessarily
assume a supplementary character. In the remarks
above alluded to, attention was drawn to the general
massiveness of all the osseous elements entering into
the solid framework of the typical carnivorous skeleton
— this adaptation to the destructive habits of the crea-
ture being more particularly conspicuous in the structure
of the skull. In the accompanying representation of
the cranium of a tiger — fig. 31 — the remarkable short-
ening of the facial bones, associated with the powerful
rig.
Skull of the Tiger.
grasping teeth, and a surprising transverse breadth of
the skull below the orbital and temporal fossre, are
remarkably significant. The teeth are thirty in num-
ber, and of these we find only four true and ten
spurious molars, the ultimate grinder on either side of
the upper series being tuberculated. This tooth, how-
ever, is particularly small, and widened laterally ; but,
with this exception, all the molars are much compressed
from side to side, and the crowus being sharp and
pointed, the two series, during the action of the jaws,
close in upon each other like the blades of a pair of
scissors. Their function is therefore essentially cutting,
while that of the huge dagger-like canines, assisted by
the incisors, consists in tearing and lacerating — the due
performance and integrity of these actions being secured
by the strong temporal and nuchal muscles acting
upon the occiput and the lower jaw ; and farther, to
prevent any lateral motion, such as we find in those
animals which grind and triturate their food, the
condyles or articulating facets of the last-named bone
are firmly lodged in the corresponding transversely-
elongated glenoid sockets. Co-ordinating with this
prehensile and offensive armature of the jaws, we also
find the structural modifications of the feet eminently
suggestive. Those of the anterior limbs are pentadac-
tylous, while the posterior feet are tetradactylous ; but
the peculiarities which principally distinguish them
arise out of the beautiful provision made for the pre-
servation of their formidable retractile claws. The
mechanical contrivances here displayed are perfect.
Not only are the actions of flexion, extension, pronation,
and supination amply provided for by the peculiar
manner in which the bones of the fore limb or arm are
articulated together, but the muscles of this member
are so prodigiously developed, that, as is well known,
a single blow from the sledge-hammer- like paw of a
lion or tiger will fracture the skull of a man, and. deal
death to almost any animal that may happen to come
within its ponderous swing. In addition to this, we
find the claws ordinarily maintained in a state of
retraction ; this concealed position is accomplished by
the agency of three elastic ligaments or bands, which
being severally placed above and on either side of the
digit, serve to connect the ultimate phalanx to the
penultimate segment of the same toe (fig. 32). All
injury to the claw is hereby prevented — a circumstance
which, associated with the pres-
ence of resilient sole-pads of Fig. 32.
thickened submucous tissue
placed under the ball of the toe,
also serves to secure the charac-
teristically graceful and noiseless
tread of the feline animal.
Antagonistic to the elastic bind-
ing cords above mentioned, the
tendon or string of a large
muscle called the flexor profun-
dus perforans is inserted below,
into the base of the ultimate
claw-supporting phalanx. When,
therefore, it becomes necessary
to display or employ these fearful
instruments of destruction, a
violent contraction of the muscle
in question — which of course Lion's Foot dissected,
involves a drawing back of the
tendon, and a consequent thrusting forward of the claw
— is the principal agency by which this change is
effected. There are likewise other small extensor
muscles inserted at the upper part of the digit, serving
to steady the movement and regulate the degree of
protrusion, according to the will of the animal. But, we
have further to remark, that, although these constitute
the most prominent features in the several structural
changes adapted to the wants and habits of the feline
mammalia, there are others equally worthy of being
mentioned, such as the strong, horny, recurved papillae of
the tongue, formed for rasping the soft flesh from off the
bones of their slaughtered victims — the comparatively
small salivary glands, showing how little mastication is
required — the uninterrupted chain of osseous elements
extending from the larynx to the head— the flexibility
of the vertebral column — the small coecum — the short-
ness of the intestinal canal, and, more particularly, the
simple cylindrical stomach, vhich explains that the
food is more readily reduced to the condition required
for nutriment, than obtains in the herbivorous quad-
rupeds. Do not these, and other peculiarities elsewhere
noticed, satisfactorily demonstrate that the typical
carnivor is intended to occupy the field in the economy
of creation for which his powers are so befittingly
adapted? Surely one would suppose that the legitimacy
of such a self-evident conclusion could not be denied !
Are we perverting truth to say, that the lion was not
formed to eat straw like an ox ? Unfortunately, there
110
FEI.IIXT-. MAMMALIA. FELIIKE.
are some so-called educated people who would fain
persuade us that we are wrong ! It is sad to reflect
that some persons can be found who will thus resist
the evid nee of their senses, in order to gratify a
childish crotchet, or to support a pre-conceived dogma!
Those of our readers who have perused the address
issued previous to the publication of this part of the
"Museum of Natural History," will appreciate the
motive which thus leads us to offer a few reflections on
the habits of this highly interesting class of animals.
Not many years ago the writer of this article had the
misfortune to be present at a lecture given in the
northern metropolis, by a gentleman whose mind
appeared to be singularly ill-adapted for the reception
of scientific truth, but whose perverted views, neverthe-
less, enjoy a certain credence among individuals capable
of indulging extreme opinions. Thus, he undertook to
inform his audience that the several organs of a
carnivorous animal, in which we have been accustomed
to recognize teleologic evidences of beauty, harmony,
and design, have all been diverted from their proper
development by an evil agency — that the claws, teeth,
and stomach, which we have just shown to be severally
adapted to the seizure, tearing, and digesting of the
flesh of other animals, do not, indeed, exhibit evidences
of design, benevolence, and wisdom in the Creator, but
rather, evidences of another power, which has caused
the anterior extremity to become a hideous weapon of
destruction— which has caused those teeth to display
their tearing and cutting surfaces — which has caused
the stomach to assume a vicarious action ; all of these
organs severally contributing to render the creature
ferocious, cruel, and destructive — habits, which, in this
anti-zoologist's view, the animal was not intended to
have! Such is an illustration of the melancholy infer-
ences to which unscientific dogmatism inevitably leads
— a mere bigoted mimicry of mediaeval times! For
the successful cultivation of natural- history science it
is above all things necessary that our minds be imbued
with a love of truth, in whatever aspect it may present
itself. If we perceive that the integrity of organized
existences on this planet can only be maintained by the
reciprocal action of antagonistic forces, and that the
balance of this reciprocity involves and guarantees the
welfare of every living entity, needing a residence on
the habitable globe ; if, we repeat, it is clearly evident
that any departure from this divinely-appointed law
would, on the one hand, only bring about a redundancy,
or, on the other, a deterioration ; what, we ask, is to
be gained by impertinently criticising this universal
law, this wise method of divine government, fixed on
the eternal principles of justice, equity, and compensa-
tion ? In the nicely-adjusted balance of probabilities
we recognize abundant good to all living beings whose
immediate wants are thus duly provided for, and we
are content to admire and adore the power which
regulates the destiny of every species. In conclusion,
we have only to observe that the Fdldce are widely
distributed in all quarters of the world, except in
Australia, the larger species being, for the most part,
confined to tropical regions.
THE WILD CAT (Felts Cains), is more or less abun-
dant throughout the well-wooded and hilly districts of
Europe, and was at one time very plentiful in these
islands. It is still found in Wales, in the north-west
counties of England, and more commonly in Scotland,
and certain parts of Ireland. It is not quite two feet
long, exclusive of the tail, which measures about twelve
inches. The body is stouter than in the common
house cat, the tail presenting an almost uniform thick-
ness from one end to the other, except at the tip, where
it is slightly swollen. The fur has a yellowish-grey
colour generally, but beneath the throat and belly it is
nearly white ; the sides of the body, the legs, the tail,
and summit of the head being striped with brownish-
black bands, which becomes lighter as they approach
the ventral line. A longitudinal black band runs along
the middle of the back, extending from the head to the
root of the tail ; this last named organ being black at
the tip. The wild cat was formerly considered in
England a beast of the chase, but, except for mere
sport, it does not appear to have been considered of
any great value. It is reported, by those who have
seen it in its wild haunts, to be extremely ferocious, a
circumstance which has doubtless contributed to bring
about its almost total extinction. The female produces
four or five cubs at a birth, and selects either a hollow
tree, a rocky recess, or, according to Sir William
Jardine, a large bird's nest, for the protection and
rearing of the young.
THE DOMESTIC CAT (Felis domestica). — The con-
curring testimony of the majority of British naturalists
favours the notion that our common house cat is a
distinct species, or, at least, that it is not a mere
domesticated variety of the European wild cat. It is
well known that the common cat frequently betakes
itself to the woods, and after a time assumes a semi-
savage condition. This was at first considered sufficient
ground for believing it to be identical with Felis Catus;
but when, on a closer examination, its characters were
not found to have reverted to the state of those
ordinarily present in the wild species, considerable
doubt arose on the question. The colour of the fur is
frequently indistinguishable, but a very marked dis-
similarity is seen in the tail, which, instead of being
uniformly thick throughout, as obtains in the wild cat,
is, in the form under consideration, much narrower and
tapering also toward the extremity. Sir William Jardine
has made some very interesting remarks on this subject.
He says there is probably " no animal that so soon
loses its cultivation and returns apparently to a state
completely wild. A trifling neglect of proper feeding
or attention will often cause them to depend upon their
own resources, and the tasting of some wild or living
food will tempt them to seek it again, and to leave
then* civilized home. They then prowl about in the
same manner as their congeners, crouching among
cover, and carefully concealing themselves from all
publicity. They breed in the woods or thickets, and
support themselves upon birds or young animals. Few
extensive rabbit-warrens want two or three depredators
of this kind, where they commit great havoc, particu-
larly among the young in summer. They sleep and
repose in the holes, and are often taken in the snares
set for their prey." Sir W. Jardine once stumbled
upon one of these truants which had just kittened, and
FELID.K. MAMMALIA. FELID.*:.
Ill
by her side there lay two dead leverets ! In the ordi-
nary domesticated condition, the cat is certainly of a
capricious disposition, but its habits are too well known
to demand any lengthened exposition.
THE .EGYPTIAN CAT (Felis maniculata). — The
Frankfort naturalist, Ruppell, who discovered this
species during his travels in Nubia, has expressed his
opinion that our common domestic cat owes its origin
to this species. Temminck and others have supported
this persuasion, and authorities are still divided on the
subject. After weighing the arguments on either side,
all that we can say, is, that there appears more pro-
bability of our tame animals having descended from
the ^Egyptian, than from the European wild form ; but
the matter is by no means settled. In the ^Egyptian
cat the limbs are more slender, while the tail is
narrower and longer than in Felis Catus. The fur is
greyish-yellow generally; the cheek, throat, under part
of the throat, and belly being white. A dark stripe
runs along the central line of the back, and the limbs
are crossed by several faint blackish bands. The
length of the body is about twenty inches, exclusive of
the tail, which measures three-quarters of a foot.
THE PAMPAS CAT (Felis pajeros). — This species is
extensively distributed over the South American
plains, from the banks of the La Plata to the Straits of
Magellan. It is about the size of the European wild
eat, measuring twenty-six inches, exclusive of the tail,
which is about a foot from root to tip. The fur is
particularly long, the individual hairs being from three
to five inches in length ; it is of a pale yellowish -grey
colour generally, and banded at the sides by numerous
irregularly-disposed stripes of a brownish tinge. Along
the central line of the back the hairs have a brownish-
black colour, which is more or less continued on the
tail. The head is comparatively small and rounded,
the ears having a moderate development. The tail is
short, thick, and rather bushy ; but it does not exhibit
any circular markings or spots. According to D'Azara,
the natives call it Goto Pajero, or jungle cat. It is
said to feed chiefly upon guinea-pigs.
THE CHATI (Felis mitis) is somewhat larger than
our common domestic cat, measuring three feet includ-
ing the tail, for which eleven inches may be reckoned.
The fur displays a multitude of irregularly arranged
dark-brown patches on a general ground colour of pale
yellow above, and white below; on the limbs these
spots are more rounded, and there are two crescent-
shaped collar-like bands beneath the throat. The ears
are blackish externally; the pupil of the eye is rounded.
The tail is sl:ghtly ringed towards the tip. Like the
foregoing, the Chati is an inhabitant of the plains of
South America. The female preserved in the Parisian
menagerie, was extremely gentle and fond of attention.
THE CHIBIGTJAZU (Felis chibiguazu) is also a
South American animal, being rather larger than the
above, and measuring, according to D'Azara, four feet
including the tail, which is about thirteen inches long.
Some regard it as identical with the chati, others refer
it to the ocelot ; probably it is distinct. It is exceed-
ingly cunning and destructive in its habits; approaching
and entering human habitations only in the darkest
nights, and then, not content with carrying off as much
poultry as it can manage, it destroys others that have
been left behind. If taken young it becomes very
tractable and amusing, but if allowed much liberty it
soon displays its fowl-destroying propensities.
THE SEEVAL (Felis serval) is a native of southern
Africa, and is called the Tiger boschkatti by the Dutch
colonists at the Cape. By others it is called the
leopard. According to Mr. Andersson some of the
African tribes believe the real tiger to exist in that
country, but it is evident that they refer to the serval.
This animal is remarkably savage. " One night," says
Mr. Andersson, " I was suddenly awoke by a furious
barking of our dogs, accompanied by cries of distress.
Suspecting that some beast of prey had seized upon
one of them, I leaped, undressed, out of my bed, and,
gun in hand, hurried to the spot whence the cries pro-
ceeded. The night was pitchy dark, however, and I
could distinguish nothing; yet, in the hope of frighten-
ing the intruder away, I shouted at the top of my
voice. In a few moments a torch was lighted, and we
then discovered the tracks of a leopard, and also large
patches of blood. On counting the dogs, I found that
' Summer,' the best and fleetest of our kennel, was
missing. As it was in vain that I called and searched
for him, I concluded that the tiger had carried him
away ; and, as nothing further could be done that
night, I again retired to rest, but the fate of the poor
animal continued to haunt me, and drove sleep away.
I had seated myself on the front chest of the waggon,
when suddenly the melancholy cries were repeated ;
and, on reaching the spot, I discovered ' Summer '
stretched at full length in the middle of a bush.
Though the poor creature had several deep wounds
about his throat and chest, he at once recognized me,
and, wagging his tail, looked wistfully in my face.
The sight sickened me as I carried him into the house,
where, in time, however, he recovered." It is also
satisfactory to learn that the savage animal was found
on the day succeeding the encounter. On being dis-
covered the beast took refuge in a tree, and was not
dispatched before it had received sixteen wounds, some
of the arrows employed for this purpose having been
poisoned. In Dr. Gray's arrangement of the Felidse
contained in the British Museum, this species is
denominated Leoparclus serval.
THE NEPATJLESE CAT (Felis N<paulensis). — In the
list of feline mammalia preserved in our National
Museum, this species is called the waved cat or Felis
inconspicuus, and it is believed by Dr. Gray to be
identical with the Bengal cat. Dr. Horsfield considers
these forms to be distinct. The body is scarcely two
feet long, exclusive of the tail, for which another ten or
eleven inches must be allowed. The general colour of
the fur is that of a tawny-grey, the surface being
marked with spots and linear patches of a deep-black
colour, somewhat irregularly disposed. The throat and
under part of the belly are whitish ; the spots on the
tail being uniform, rounded, and arranged so as to
resemble transverse bands.
THE KTTWTJK (Felis Javanensis) is also a small
species, principally distinguished by its comparatively
short tail and rather long legs ; it is also only provided
with three molars on either side of each jaw. The body
112
MAMMALIA. FKLID/F:.
is twenty-three inches in length, not including the tail,
which measures between eight and nine inches. The
fur has a greyish-brown colour generally, the under
part of the throat, neck, and belly being nearly white ;
it is long, and of a softish texture. Four dark brownish-
black bands pass from the crown of the head to the
root of the tail, while the sides of the body are marked
by sparsely-scattered oblong patches of a similar
colour; having a tendency to assume a linear arrange-
ment. Similar spots occur on the limbs and tail.
The eyes are placed well forward, and have a circular
pupil. The ears are small and rounded. According
to Dr. Horsfield the " Kuwuk is found in large forests in
every part of Java. It forms a retreat in hollow trees,
where it remains during the day; at night it ranges about
in quest of food, and often visits the villages at the
skirts of the forests, committing depredations among the
hen-roosts. The natives ascribe to it an uncommon
Flff.
sagacity, asserting that in order to approach the fowln
unsuspected, and to surprise them, it imitates theii
voice. It feeds chiefly on fowls, birds, and small quad-
rupeds; but, in case of necessity, it also devours carrion."
It is, we are further informed, a very fierce and untame-
able animal. In the British Museum list of preserved
specimens, it is designated Leojiardus Javanensis.
THE BTJLTJ (Felis Sumatrana).— Asfsir as regards
size, the comparative shortness of the tail, the length of
the limbs, and in the disposition of its spotted markings,
this species very closely resembles the foregoing.
According to Horsfield, the general ground colour of
the fur "is ferruginous, inclining to yellowish-grey, more
intense on the back, the crown of the head, and the
upper part of the tail ; paler on the sides, and passing
into whitish-grey on the cheeks, breast, abdomen, and
the interior of the thighs and legs." The Bulu (fig. 33)
is an inhabitant of Sumatra, Java, and the contiguous
33.
The Bulu (Fel
islands. In the list of specimens preserved in our Na-
tional Museum, it is also associated with the leopards.
THE OCELOT (Felis pardalis) inhabits the forests of
tropical America, and is an attractive-looking species.
The body is about three feet in length, exclusive of the
tail, which measures from twelve to fourteen inches.
The general colour of the fur is fulvous-grey, the inferior
parts of the throat, neck, and belly being nearly white.
The entire surface is beautifully streaked with irregu-
larly shaped patches of a black colour ; these spots
having a marked tendency to form longitudinal bands,
especially at the upper part of the body. The ears are
small and rounded, the limbs comparatively short.
Respecting its habits, the Ocelot is a good climber, and
is said to sham a state of death in order to capture
monkeys, whose curiosity leads them to approach and
inspect the simulating carcass. It is capable of being
tamed, but, like others of the cat tribe, its disposition is
capricious. Mr. Blyth mentions an instance where
" a gentleman had succeeded in taming an ocelot,
which for three years, enjoyed the range of his house
i Suruatraua).
and garden as freely as a domestic cat, appearing
thoroughly reclaimed. One evening, however, at the
fireside, when a child of three 3'ears old was playing
with it, as it had often done before, the animal being
irritated, seized the infant by the throat, and killed it
before assistance could be rendered." In the British
Museum's list, this animal is classed with the leopards.
THE CHAUS (Felis Chans) is a kind of Lynx. It
has a wide geographical distribution, inhabiting Egypt,
Persia, the borders of the Caspian, and also many
parts of central and northern India. It is chieflj
found in low marshy grounds and jungles, where it
preys upon small quadrupeds and birds, and also,
according to Riippell, on fishes. The fur is compara-
tively long, loose, soft, and of a yellowish-grey colour.
The tail is short, thick, and indistinctly marked by four
or five alternating black and greyish-white bands.
These occur towards the extremity, which terminates
somewhat abruptly. In common with other allied
forms, the ears are much pointed, being tufted at the
summit by a pencil of fiue black hairs, half an inch in
FELID.E. MAMMALIA. FELID.E.
113
length. The Chaus is not very easily tamed. The
Booted lynx — Felis caligata of Olivier — appears to be
identical with it. In the catalogue of specimens pre-
served in the British Museum it is designated Chaus
Lybictis.
THE EUROPEAN LYNX (Felis Lynx).— There are
several forms of Lynx, regarded by some as so many
distinct species, which are only varieties of this type.
Among these may be mentioned the Felis virgata of
Nilsson; the F. cervaria of Temminck, being an Asiatic
form ; and perhaps also the F. pardina of Oken, found
in Spain and southern Europe. The European lynx
is about three feet long, not including the short tail,
which measures six inches. The fur is long, rough,
and of a rufous-grey colour above, the under parts of
the throat and belly being more or less white. The
sides are indistinctly marked with oblong spots, and the
free end of the tail is tipped with black. The ears are
hairy, and pencilled at the upper part ; the limbs stout,
and comparatively short. During the winter season
the general colour of the fur is much lighter than in
summer, while it is also considerably longer. The
European lynx is a good climber, feeding principally
on small mammalia and birds.
THE CANADA LYNX (Fells Canademis) was formerly
supposed to be only a variety of the above, but it is
now generally believed to be distinct. In respect of size,
colouring, and other characters of the fur, it very closely
resembles the European species. The body is rather
more than three feet in length, exclusive of the tail, which
measures only four and a half inches. For an accurate
account of this animal's habits we are indebted to Sir
John Richardson, who remarks that " it is a timid
creature, incapable of attacking any of the larger qua-
drupeds ; but well armed for the capture of the American
hare, on which it chiefly preys. Its large paws, slender
loins, and long but thick hind legs, with large buttocks,
scarcely relieved by a short thick tail, give it an
awkward, clumsy appearance. It makes a poor fight
when it is surprised by a hunter in a tree; for though
it spits like a cat, and sets its hair up, it is easily
destroyed by a blow on the back with a slender stick,
and it never attacks a man. Its gait is by bounds,
straightforward, with the back a little arched, and
lighting on all the feet at once. It swims well, and
will cross the arm of a lake two miles wide ; but it is
not swift on land. It breeds once a year, and has two
young at a time." We are further informed that the
natives eat its flesh, and that from seven to nine thou-
sand skins are annually exported by the Hudson's Bay
Company. In Dr. Gray's catalogue this species is
designated Lyncus Canadensis.
THE CARACAL (Felis Caracal} is also a kind of
lynx, having a wide geographical range, and extending
not only over Africa, but, according to Mr. Bennett and
others, over southern Asia, as far eastward as the
Ganges. The body is about thirty-four inches in
length, excluding the tail, which measures other nine
inches. The fur exhibits a uniform rufous-brown colour
generally, growing paler from above downwards, and
becoming white immediately underneath the throat,
neck, and belly. On each half of the face are placed
two pure white spots, one being situated above and to
VOL. L
the inside of the eye, the other occurring beneath the
outer angle of this organ. The ears are comparatively
long, " tapering gradually to a fine tip, surmounted by
a pencil of long black hairs," which are dark externally,
and whitish within. Like other species of lynx, the
Caracal is a good climber, and feeds chiefly on small
mammalia and birds. It is said also to feed on the
carcasses of larger quadrupeds, which have been for-
saken by lions. The Caracal is proportionably strong,
savage, and only tamed with difficulty. According to
Mr. Andersson, the fur is much esteemed by the natives
of southern Africa for making carosses, &c., while the
Dutch settlers employ it as a local application in rheu-
matism. In Dr. Gray's list this species is termed
Caracal melanotis.
THE OUNCE (Felis Undo). — Since the naturalist
Buffon gave an accurate description of this animal,
some authorities have disputed its claims to be regarded
as a separate species. It is, however, quite distinct,
and in the language of Dr. Gray, "easily known by
the thickness of its fur, the paleness of its colour, the
irregular form of the spots, and especially by the great
length and thickness of the tail." In the form of this
last-named organ, we observe a wide departure from
the peculiarly short stumpy condition of the tail in the
lynxes ; justifying perhaps, when taken into considera-
tion with other minor characters, their generic separa-
tion— a view which several naturalists have practically
adopted. The Ounce is about the size of the common
leopard, and has similar habits. It is a native of the
mountainous districts of central Asia. In the list of
feline mammals presented in our national collection, it
is denominated Leopardus Undo,.
THE LEOPARD (Felis Leopardus). — Most naturalists
have arrived at the conclusion, that the Leopard and
Panther are one and the same animal ; we say arrived,
but it would be more just to state, that they have finally
acknowledged the opinion of Linnseus on this point to
be correct, after having over and over again disputed
his authority. The Leopard is truly a beautiful species
(fig. 34). The ground colour of the fur has a pale
yellow tint, the surface being marked at tolerably regular
intervals by dark patches made up of numerous small
round spots, blended together in the form of annulations
surrounding a central clear space, the general tint within
being deeper than the ground colour without. The
Leopard is widely distributed in Africa, Asia, and the
Indian Archipelago. Its habits are essentially cat-like,
and, being an expert climber, the Indian natives call
it the Tree-tiger or Lackree bang. Unlike the tiger, it
is said that nothing will induce it to take to the water.
Leopards are remarkably deceitful, shy, and ravenous,
the utmost caution being necessary in any attempt to
domesticate them. Their treacherous disposition has
been illustrated in various ways, especially by Captain
Williamson, who, amongst other things, relates the
following incident : — "The adjutant of our regiment,
wishing to send a leopard as a present to a friend in
England, procured a very fine cub, which had scarcely
opened its eyes, and took every pains to rear it in such
a manner as might obviate all apprehension. For
some months the animal appeared as innocent as a
kitten, was playful, and seemed to be peculiarly tract-
P
114
FELID.E. MAMMALIA. FELIDJE.
able. I will not say how far its disposition might
have continued unexceptionable under any other cir-
cumstances, but, unhappily, several of the privates of the
artillery having access to the place where the leopard
was kept, and of course now and then imprudently
worrying him, the leopard became snappish and petu-
lant. One day a soldier provoked him rather too far,
when the leopard, now grown to the size of a stout
Fig. 34.
The Leopard (Felis Leopardus).
pointer, suddenly reared, and fixing his claw in the
nape of the man's neck, tore his shoulder in such a
manner as to occasion the soldier's death in the course
of a few hours. The leopard from that time became
so ferocious as to render it absolutely necessary to shoot
him — a measure which gave universal satisfaction."
THE CHEETAH (Felis jubata). — This is a species
of very great importance in a zoological point of
view, inasmuch as it has been represented as form-
ing an aberrant transitional type between the dogs
and cats; and but for the marked disparity in
size, its general appearance, and the noble lion-like
attitude which it assumes, we might perhaps have
more reasonably considered it at the beginning of
the feline series. Much has been written concerning
its true zoological position, especially by Mr. Bennett,
who is quite eloquent upon the subject; yet Pro-
fessor Owen's detailed researches into the anatomy
of this animal, clearly demonstrate that the so-called
canine characters are more apparent than real. The
body is much elongated, and stands high on the legs,
which are correspondingly slim (fig. 35). The fur
has a pale fulvous colour generally, being almost white
beneath the neck and belly; and except in these
situations, the entire surface is marked with numerous
uniform and closely-set spots of a deep-black colour.
The tail is long, and somewhat bushy at the tip, the
central line beneath it, and the extremity, being white ;
but at the upper part and sides throughout the remainder
of its extent, it is more or less annulated, the spots
having a tendency to form incomplete transverse rings,
which become more and more conspicuous as they
approach the free extremity. The mane is very slightly
developed ; the ears are short and rounded ; the pupil
of the eye is circular; the tip of the nose being black.
The feet are provided with retractile claws, as in other
Felidae ; but, according to Professor Owen, their action
is somewhat restricted on account of the length of the
unequal phalanges and their elastic ligaments. Some
authors have erroneously stated that the claws are non-
retractile. The Cheetah enjoys a wide geographical
range over the open grounds of Africa and southern
Asia. It is a singularly graceful and elegant species,
and is very commonly known by the name of the Hunt-
ing leopard. In Persia it is called the Youze, and Mr.
Ogilby tells us that " in the East, where these beautiful
animals are employed in the chase, they are carried to
the field in low cars, whereon they are chained. Each
leopard is hooded. When the hunters come within
view of a herd of antelopes, the leopard is unchained,
his hood is removed, and the game is pointed out to
him ; for he is directed in the pursuit by his sight.
Then he steals along cautiously and crouchingly, taking
advantage of every means of masking his attack, till
he has approached the herd unseen within killing dis-
tance, when be suddenly launches himself upon his
quarry with five or six vigorous and rapid bounds,
strangles it instantaneously, and drinks its blood. The
huntsman now approaches the leopard, caresses him,
wins him from his prey by placing the blood which
he collects hi a wooden ladle under the nose of the
animal, or by throwing to him pieces of meat; and
whilst he is thus kept quiet hoods him, leads him back
to his car, and there chains him. If the leopard fails,
in consequence of the herd having taken timely alarm,
he attempts no pursuit, but returns to his car with a
-MAMMALL* FEUD.E.
115
dejected and mortified air." The Cheetah seems,
therefore, quite capable of domestication. It exhibits
a frankness of look, and an openness of manner, totally
different from the sneaking distrustfulness of ordinary
cats. Any one who has carefully watched the behav-
iour of the two beautiful specimens at present contained
in the Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park,
cannot but have been struck with their playful freedom,
gentle manners, and elegant attitudes; their habits
entirely according with the favourable account given
Fig. 35.
The Cheetah or Hunting Leopard (Felis jubata).
by Mr. Bennett of a similar pair formerly preserved in
the Tower menagerie. In Dr. Gray's list this species
is designated Gueparda jubata.
THE JAGUAR (Felis Onca) is a broad-chested,
powerfully-built animal, inhabiting Central and South
America (fig. 36). By some it is called the "great
panther " or leopard. The body occasionally measures
nearly five feet, exclusive of the tail. The fur is beauti-
fully spotted, with annulations resembling those of the
common leopard, their general appearance being, in the
language of Mr. Bennett, at first sight " the same in
both ; but the open roses of the leopard are scarcely
more than half the size of those of the jaguar, and they
all inclose a space of one uniform colour, in which,
unless in some rare and accidental instances, no central
spots exist ; while in the latter animal most of those
which are arranged along the upper surface, near the
middle line of the back, are distinguished by one or
two small black spots inclosed within their circuit. The
middle line itself is occupied in the leopard by open
roses, intermixed with a few black spots of small size
and roundish form ; that of the jaguar, on the contrary,
is marked by one or two regular longitudinal lines of
broad, elongated, deep black patches, sometimes extend-
ing several inches in length, and occasionally forming
an almost continuous band from between the shoulders
to the tail. The black rings towards the tip of the
latter are also more completely circular than in the
leopard." Respecting the habits of the Jaguar, its
ferocious and destructive character is well known;
devouring, as it does, with equal avidity, all kinds of
cattle, horses, and other quadrupeds, monkeys, birds,
fishes, and even reptiles, having, it is said, a true
aldermanic relish for savoury turtle. Notwithstanding
its fierceness, it is a cowardly animal, instances having
been recorded where a loud shout has been sufficient to
scare it away. The Spanish naturalist, D'Azara, gives
an apt illustration of its great strength : — "A jaguar
had struck down a horse, and D'Azara gave instruc-
tions that the latter should be drawn within musket
shot of a tree wherein he intended to pass the night, in
expectation that the jaguar would return for his prey.
While D'Azara was gone to prepare himself, the jaguar
returned from the opposite side of a broad and deep
river, seized the horse in its mouth, drew it to the
water some sixty paces, swam across the river with it,
and drew it into a wood hard by." Both in form and
colouring the Jaguar is prone to considerable variation,
one of the kinds being of a deep brownish-black hue
generally, so that the dark spots are scarcely rendered
visible.
THE BIMATJ-DYAN (Felis macroscelis) or Gigantic
Tiger-cat of Sumatra, is a magnificent animal, and one
of the handsomest of all the feline mammalia. The
body is about three and a half feet long, exclusive of
the tail, which would give us some three feet more
The fur has a brownish-grey colour, and is marked
with marbled, interrupted, and angular patches of a
deep velvet-black colour. In the 1st volume of the
Zoological Journal, Sir Stamford Raffles gives the
116
-MAMMALIA. FKLID*.
following account of the habits of two half-tamed
examples : — " Both specimens, while in a state of con-
finement, were remarkable for their good temper and
playfulness; no domestic kitten could be more so;
they were always courting intercourse with persons
passing by, and in the expression of their countenance,
which was always open and smiling, showed the
greatest delight when noticed, throwing themselves on
their backs, and delighting in being tickled and rubbed.
On board the ship there was a small music dog, who
used to play round the cage with the animal, and it
was amusing to observe the playfulness and tenderness
with which the latter came in contact with his inferior-
sized companion. When fed with a fowl that died,
he seized the prey, and after sucking the blood and
tearing it a little, he amused himself for hours in
throwing it about, and jumping after it in the manner
that a cat plays with a mouse before it is quite dead.
He never seemed to look on man or children as prey,
but as companions ; and the natives assert that when
wild, they live principally on poultry, birds, and the
smaller kinds of deer. They are not found in numbers,
and may be considered rather rare animals, even in
the southern part of Sumatra. Both specimens were
procured from the interior of Bencoolen, on the banks
of the fiver of that name. They are generally found
Pig 36.
The Jaguar (Felis Onca).
in the vicinity of villages, and are not dreaded by the
natives, except as far as they may destroy the poultry.
The natives assert that they sleep and often lay wait
for their prey on trees; and from this circumstance
they derive the name of Dahan, which signifies the
fork formed by the branch of a tree, across which they
are said to rest and occasionally stretch themselves."
The Rimau-dyan is identical with, and also known by
the name of, the Clouded tiger. A fine living example
exists in the Zoological Society's collection, Regent's
Park.
THE TIGEE (FeRs Tigris)— Plate 8, fig 29— is
readily distinguished from all other feline mammalia by
its large bulk, associated with the characteristic trans-
verse bands which occupy all parts of the body. The
stripes form rings on the tail, the tip being always black,
On the inside of the limbs and under part of the belly
the fur is white. In some examples there is more
splitting of the bands than in others, forming what are
termed the double stripes. In all the tigers we have
seen, this tendency was more or less marked. In the
specimen called " Jungla," now exhibiting in this
country, and formerly the property of the king of Oude,
this variation is remarkably developed; but in other
respects the much vaunted "fighting tiger" is not to be
compared with the examples preserved in the Zoological
Society's Gardens, Regent's Park. The Tiger is not
furushed with a mane, and he stands less erect than
the lion ; his entire shape and make being more slender
and graceful than that of his noble-looking congener.
In regard to its geographical distribution, it is almost
entirely confined to the great Indian peninsula and its
adjacent islands, although it is also found in central
and eastern Asia — in the latter region as far as Chinese
Tartary. Early writers have celebrated in strong
terras the ierocious and amazingly destructive habits
of this animal ; while its enormous strength, prodigious
speed, and tremendous leaping powers, have over and
-MAMMALIA.
117
over again been only too faithfully illustrated by
the disastrous records of its ravages, which have ever
and anon appeared on the page of history. Cruel,
insidious, bloodthirsty, and malevolent — such is the
character it bears; but there are some who would
fain modify the force of this charge, and defend the
character, if not protect the life, of this fearful scourge
of man and beast. The tiger is certainly a very
cowardly animal, although the naturalist Pennant
has been sadly taken to task for having recorded and
believed the fact, that one of these beasts had been
frightened by the mere unfolding of an umbrella.
Whilst a party of ladies and gentlemen were seated
uiider the shade of some trees on the banks of a river
in Bengal, they observed a tiger preparing to spring ;
" one of the ladies, with amazing presence of mind,
laid hold of an umbrella, and furled it full in the
animal's face, which instantly retired, and gave the
company an opportunity of removing from so terrible
a neighbour." Such is Pennant's account, and although
rather badly expressed, there can be no just reason for
doubting its truthfulness. Confirmatory of this story,
we have recently, through the columns of the Times,
been made acquainted with the circumstance and
results of a frightful attack, where a light umbrella
proved, for the time at least, a most valuable instru-
ment of defence. An English person, whose letter
dates from Penang, February 10, 1859, writes: — "My
escape from the tiger was truly miraculous, but that of
Padre Cuellon was still more so, as the following
details of the attack upon that worthy priest will
clearly prove. The padre was on his way to church,
and was immersed in the study of his sermon, when a
tiger, to his utter surprise, suddenly rushed out of the
jungle or tall grass ; but as the beast had not measured
its distance to a nicety, the padre, walking very quickly,
was more frightened than hurt. The tiger, however,
brushed so close to him, that his trowsers were torn,
the snap of the beast being almost within a hair's-
breadth of his leg. The brute, not contented with a
single spring, made another charge upon the poor
padre, and as he had nothing wherewith to defend
himself but his large paper umbrella, he suddenly
opened it out in the animal's face, which had the effect
of cowing .it for a time. The tiger, however, evi-
dently gamer or more pertinacious in his attacks than
is wont with his tribe, charged the padre at least a
dozen times, which occupied nearly twenty minutes.
In the meantime the padre gradually edged towards a
tree in an open space of ground, and as there was a
large white ant's nest between him and the tiger, round
which the latter had to make, this enabled the padre
to climb the tree and get out of his way. The tiger,
on getting round the nest, was at first puzzled at not
seeing his intended victim ; but in a few minutes he
had his nose to the ground, and so scented the where-
abouts of the padre. The tiger quietly sat down under
the tree, and gave a wistful look upwards, but it was
of no avail. The natives at length hearing the cries of
the worthy padre, hastened to the spot, and rendered
the assistance required. The tiger fled the instant it
heard their shouts. The poor priest burst into tears,
and sang the ' Te Deum,' in token of gratitude for his
delivery. Padre Cuellon, however, did not rally long;
the fright had too serious an effect upon his system, and
in about ten days he sank to rise no more." We might
furnish many other proofs of the cowardly conduct of
the tiger. Captain Thomas Williamson — no mean
authority, and no mere closet naturalist— deliberately
gives it as his opinion, that the tiger is more of a coward
than any other beast of prey ; "its treacherous nature
induces it, almost without exception, to conceal itself
until its prey may arrive within reach of its spring — be
its victim either bulky or diminutive. Size seems to
occasion no deviation in the tiger's system of attack,
which is founded on the art of surprising. We find,
accordingly, that such as happen to keep the opposite
side of a road by which they are somewhat beyond the
first spring, often escape injury ; the tiger being unwill-
ing to be seen .before he is felt. Hence it is rarely that
a tiger pursues ; but, if the situation permit, his cunning
will not fail to effect his purpose ; he will steal along
the road's side among the bushes parallel with the
traveller's course, until one of the many chances which
present themselves, of finding him within reach,
induces to the attack. Often where the country is
rather too open to allow his proceeding in this manner,
the tiger will take a sweep among underwood or
through ravines, in order to meet the traveller again,
at a spot whence he may take his spring. Tigers are
extremely partial to such sites as command a road,
selecting one rather less frequented, in preference to
one that is much in use. In the former they are cer-
tain of finding as much as will answer their daily
wants." On one occasion, observes the same author,
" I was travelling past in my palankeen, through
the Ramghur district, which is mountainous and little
cultivated, being for the most part in a state of nature
and everywhere abounding in jungles, when a bangy-
wollah, who conveyed two baskets of linen and
refreshments, and who preceded the palankeen about
an hundred and fifty yards, set down his load and
seated himself on the side of the road to rest awhile.
About two yards behind him was a small bush, not much
larger than a good-sized currant tree, round .which a
small quantity of jungle grass was growing to the
height of about three feet. There was not another
twig to be seen for at least half a mile on that side of
the road. No sooner had the poor fellow seated him-
self, than a tiger sprang from behind, or rather from
within the bush, and, after giving the fatal blow with
his paw, seized the man by the shoulder, and dragged
him off with the utmost ease at a round pace, into a
thick cover which had as formerly skirted the road, but
which had by order of government been cut away to
the distance of about a hundred yards, for the safety of
travellers." Some such deceitful plan is, in point of
fact, the ordinary method adopted by the tiger for
overcoming its prey. The melancholy death of Sir
Hector Munro's son took place in a similar manner.
Several writers have recorded the incident, which,
according to Mr. Wood, took place under the following
circumstances :— " This unfortunate gentleman, accom-
panied by three of his friends, went on shore, December
22, 1792, on Sawgar Island, to shoot deer. They
continued their sport till the afternoon, when they
118
FELID.E. MAMMALIA.-
retired to the edge of a jungle to refresh themselves,
where they had not remained long before one of the
party, who was leaving the rest to shoot a deer, heard
a dreadful roar, and saw a large tiger spring on poor
Munro, and rush with him into the jungle with the
greatest ease, dragging him through everything that
obstructed his course, as if all were made to yield
to his amazing strength. All that his companions
could do to rescue their friend from this shocking
situation, was to fire at the tiger; and it is evident
that their shots took effect, since in a few minutes
after, Mr. Munro staggered up to them and fell.
Every medical assistance that the ship afforded was
procured for him immediately, but in vain ; he expired
in the course of twenty-four hours, in the greatest
agonies. His head was torn, his skull fractured, and
his neck and shoulders covered with wounds made by
the claws of the savage beast. It is worthy of obser-
vation, that neither the large fire that was blazing
close to them, nor the noise and laughter which, it
seems, they were making at the time, could divert this
determined animal from his purpose." This, however,
is no proof of the tiger's bravery, since it fell upon
them unawares, and their noise was that of unsuspicious
mirth, and not of the kind to scare away such a cowardly
enemy, but rather to attract him. Tiger-hunting in
India is considered the noblest and most dangerous of
sports ; and from the mass of interesting details which
have appeared in various works devoted to the subject,
it is difficult to decide which are the most meritorious
records of the chase. Captain Mundy tells us of a
hunting party who sprung a tiger, when the following
scene ensued : — This beast " took to the open country,
which would have more become a fox than a tiger,
who is expected by his pursuers to fight, and not to
run; and as he was flushed on the flank of the line,
only one bullet was fired at him ere he cleared the
thick grass. He was unhurt, and we pursued him at
full speed. Twice he threw us out by stopping short
in small strips of jungle, and then heading back after
we had passed; and he had given us a very fast trot
of about two miles, when Colonel Arnold, who led the
field, at last reached him by a capital shot, his elephant
being in full career. As soon as he felt himself
wounded, the tiger crept into a close thicket of trees
and bushes, and crouched. The two leading sports-
men overran the spot where he lay, and as I came up
I saw him through an aperture rising to attempt a
charge. My mdhaut had just before, in the heat of
the chase, dropped his ankors, or goad, which I had
refused to allow him to recover; and the elephant being
notoriously savage, and further irritated by the goading
he had undergone, became consequently unmanage-
able ; he appeared to see the tiger as soon as myself,
and I had only time to fire one shot, when he suddenly
rushed with the greatest fury into the thicket, and fall-
ing upon his knees, nailed the tiger with his tusks to
the ground. Such was the violence of the shock, that
my servant, who sat behind, was thrown out, and one
of my guns went overboard. The struggles of my
elephant to crush his still resisting foe, who had fixed
one paw on his eye, were so energetic, that I was
obliged to hold on with all my strength to keep myself
in the houdah. The second barrel, too, of the gun,
which I still retained in my hand, went off in the
scuffle, the ball passing close to the mahout's ear,
whose situation, poor fellow, was anything but enviable.
As soon as my elephant was prevailed upon to leave
the killing part of the business to the sportsmen, they
gave the roughly-used tiger the coup-de-grace."
Sometimes, when the elephant rushes upon the tiger
in the manner just mentioned, it is absolutely impos-
sible for the riders to keep their seats. The author of
the "Oriental Field Sports " gives an amusing illustra-
tion of an accident of this kind which happened to
Captain John Rotton : — " He was one of a very nume-
rous party assembled for the purpose of tiger- hunting,
and was mounted on a very fine male elephant, that,
far from being timid, was very remarkable for a
courage scarcely to be kept within the bounds of
prudence. This singularly fine animal having, after
much beating a thick grass, hit upon the tiger's situa-
tion, uttered his roar of vengeance, which roused the
lurking animal, occasioning him to rise so as to be
seen distinctly. No sooner did the tiger show himself,
than Captain Rotton, with great readiness, bending his
body a little to the left, took aim at him as he stood
up, crosswise, almost close to the elephant's head. The
elephant no sooner espied his enemy, than he knelt
down, as is common on such occasions, with the view
to strike the tiger through with his tusks. At the
same time the tiger, sensible of the device, as suddenly
threw himself on his back, thereby evading the intended
mischief, and ready to claw the elephant's face with
all four feet, which were thus turned upwards. Now,
whether Captain Rotton had not been in the habit of
joining in such rapid evolutions, or that the elephant
forgot to warn him to hold fast, we know not ; but, so
it happened, that the delicate situation in which he
was placed, while taking his aim, added to the quick-
ness of the elephant's change of height forward, com-
bined to project him, without' the least obstruction,
from his seat, landing him plump on the tiger's belly !
This was a species of warfare to which all parties were
apparently strangers. The elephant, however fearless
in other respects, was remarkably alarmed at the strange
round mass— the captain being remarkably fat — which
had shot like a sack over his shoulder ; while the tiger,
judging it to be very ungentlemanly-like usage, lost no
time in regaining his legs, trotting off at a round pace,
and abandoning the field to the victorious captain ! "
With regard to other modes of destroying tigers, it may
be observed generally that these animals are not very
easily secured by traps. According to Williamson,
they adopt a very ingenious method in Persia. " This
device consists of a large semi-spherical cage, made of
strong bamboos or other efficient materials, woven
together, but leaving intervals throughout of about
three or four inches broad. Under this cover, which
is fastened to the ground by means of pickets, in some
places where tigers abound, a man, provided with two
or three short strong spears, takes post at night. Being
accompanied by a dog, which gives the alarm, or by a
goat, which by its agitation answers the same purpose,
the adventurer wraps himself up in his quilt, and very
composedly goes to sleep, in full confidence of his
-MAMMALIA.-
119
safety. When a tiger comes, and, perhaps after smell-
ing all around, begins to rear against the cage, the man
stabs him with one of the spears through the interstices
of the wicker-work, and rarely fails of destroying the
tiger, which is ordinarily found dead at no great dis-
tance in the morning." Another plan, stated by the
same authority to be employed in Oude, is too amusing
to pass unnoticed: — " The track of a tiger being ascer-
tained, which, though not invariably the same, may
yet be known sufficiently for the purpose, the peasants
collect a quantity of the leaves of the prauss, which are
like those of the sycamore, and are common in most
underwoods, as they form the larger portion of most
jungles in the north of India. These leaves are
smeared with a species of bird-lime, made by bruising
the berries of an indigenous tree ; they are then strewed
with the gluten uppermost, near to that opaque spot
to which, it is understood, the tiger usually resorts
during the noon-tide heats. If by chance the animal
should tread on one of the smeared leaves, his fate may
be considered as decided. He commences by shaking
his paw, with the view to remove the adhesive incum-
brance ; but finding no relief from that expedient, he
rubs the nuisance against his face with the same
intention, by which means his eyes, ears, &c., become
agglutinated, and occasion such uneasiness as causes
him to roll, perhaps among many more of the smeared
leaves, till at length he becomes completely enveloped,
and is deprived of sight. In this situation he may be
compared to a man who has been tarred and feathered.
The anxiety produced by this strange and novel predi-
cament soon discovers itself in dreadful bowlings, which
serve to call the watchful peasants, who, in this state,
find no difficulty in shooting the mottled object of
detestation." A more common method of destroying
tigers is that of shooting them from a moychaun or
platform. This temporary elevation is erected only
when a tiger has carried off some animal, and the
haunt of his concealment, has been duly ascertained by
finding the half-mangled carcase. The platform is then
rapidly constructed of bamboo or other poles, and raised
about twenty feet from the ground. On the tiger's
return, the native shecarrie, or sportsman, seldom fails
to kill or mortally wound the beast, for which, on his
return home, he is amply rewarded by money, gifts,
and congratulations. In conclusion, we may remark
that the tiger is capable of being tamed, but its dispo-
sition is irascible and uncertain. The female usually
produces from two to four cubs at a birth.
THE PUMA (Felis concofor), Cougar, or American
lion, as it is erroneously called, is easily recognized by
its nearly uniform fawn-coloured fur, which in the
young state, however, is faintly marked at the sides
with spots of a rather deep tinge of the same hue.
The inner sides of the legs, as well as the under parts
of the throat and belly, are lighter, inclining to white ;
but the posterior aspect of the ears, especially at the
base, the sides of the muzzle, and the tip of the tail,
are black. The body is about four feet six inches, not
including the tail, which measures some six and twenty
inches. With regard to its habits, early writers have
represented the Puma to be an extremely savage
species. This is indeed quite true, in so far as it
relates to its depredations among cattle ; but it has
seldom been known to attack any human being. Mr.
Lawson, in his " History of Carolina," states that his
prey consists of " swine's flesh, deer, or anything he
can take. No creature is so nice and clean as this in
his food. When he has got his prey, he fills his belly
with the slaughter, and carefully lays up the remainder,
covering it very neatly with leaves, which, if anything
touches, he never eats any more of it." The Puma is
an excellent climber ; but, as a rule, it appears to pre-
fer the low, swampy, and more open grounds, where
it may commit terrible havoc among herds of cattle
pasturing in these situations. It has been known to
destroy as many as fifty sheep in a single night. The
Puma formerly occupied an extensive geographical
range, extending from Canada to Patagonia ; but the
progress of civilization has made terrible inroads upon
its haunts, it being now confined to limited areas chiefly
in the prairies of the north and the marshy lowlands of
the south. In the Pampas it is hunted and taken with
the lasso, while in Canada and the States it falls to
the more surely destructive rifle. When taken young
the Puma is easily tamed, and in the domesticated
state, exhibits all the playfulness of a kitten ; while on
being caressed it utters the characteristic purring
sound. In the British Museum's list of Felidae it is
associated with the leopards.
TRAILL'S PUMA (Felis uniwlor), or Spotless cat,
appears to be quite distinct, being little more than half
the size of the true Puma. The body measures thirty-
two inches, exclusive of the tail, which would give us
another twenty inches. " The general hue of this
species is a beautiful glossy reddish-brown. The
colour of the whole upper part of the body, including
the head and tail, has a considerable resemblance to
that of a dark bay horse. The tint becomes gradually
paler on the sides and under part of the neck, and
passes by imperceptible shades into an ochry brown on
the belly. When closely examined, the darker colour
of the back is partly owing to an intermixture of
blackish-brown hairs with the rest of the fur. The
hair over the body is rather short, like that usually
seen on a smooth Spanish pointer." Dr. Traill further
observes, by way of comparison, that " the head of the
Spotless cat is much more pointed, its nose more
elevated, and its limbs are much more slender in pro-
portion to its size, than in the puma. The strength of
the jaws and size of the teeth are likewise proportion-
ally less. In the puma the backs of the ears are black ;
in our animal they are of the same colour as the
adjacent parts. The tail of the puma is claviform, or
appears thickened towards the tip, which is black ; but
the tail of the Spotless cat is nearly of one thickness
throughout, and it wants the conspicuous black tip."
All that our authority has recorded of its habits may
be summed up in a few words, namely, that it occupies
the interior of large forests, preying upon monkeys,
quadrupeds, and birds.
THE LION (Felis Leo) — Plate 8, fig. 28— occupies a
much wider geographical range than the tiger, especially
if we regard the Gambian and maneless forms as mere
varieties of a single species. The latter kind are found
in the Indian territory of Guzerat, and in the adjacent
120
MAMMALIA. FELID.E.
peninsula of Cutch. In all probability there is but
one true species of lion, and this in general is charac-
terized by the possession of a uniformly tawny or
yellowish-ruddy fur, the tail presenting a bushy tuft of
long black hairs at the tip. The male is also furnished
with a large flowing mane, which covers the back part
of the head, as well as the entire neck, extending
over the shoulders to a greater or less extent The
young are frequently marked with roundish spots and
dark stripes along the back. Curiously banded hybrids
have also been occasionally produced by associating
the lion with the tigress. In our introductory obser-
vations on the Garni vora, we have already dwelt on
the structure of the skeleton of this most highly
developed type of the order, and in our remarks on the
Felidse proper, we have been careful to illustrate the
distinguishing characteristics common to the lion and
its allies ; but there still remains an apparently trifling
matter which has given rise to much controversy, and
cannot therefore be passed unnoticed. We allude to
the occasional presence of a corneous thorn-like prickle
developed at the extremity of the lion's tail. For a
long period we remained sceptical as to the genuine
character of this peculiar dermal process, conceiving it
to be a merely accidental thickening or induration of
the caudal integument, and serving no particular pur-
pose in the economy of this animal's habits. The
question has, however, been fairly set at rest by
Messrs. Bennett and Woods ; the former gentleman
having, at a meeting of the Zoological Society of
London in 1832, exhibited one of these claw-like
appendages which had been previously removed from
the tail of a lion then living in the society's menagerie,
Regent' Park. This claw is about the third of an inch
long, solid throughout the greater part of its extent,
sharp at the apex, and slightly hollowed out at the
base. Its function has been supposed to be connected
with a lashing of the tail for the purpose of stimulating
anger ; but in our view it is more probably concerned
in the action of scratching out or combing hair where
portions of the fur have been accidentally matted
together. Be that as it may, its existence is a remark-
able fact ; and what perhaps is still more strange, is,
that its presence has recently received confirmation
from a source of authority far more ancient than the
oft-quoted statements of Didymus of Alexandria, who
flourished forty years prior to the Christian era. The
Assyrian sculptures plainly aver that the lion-hunting
people of that early period, some seven hundred years
before Christ, were well acquainted with this horny
development, seeing that their artists have faithfully
depicted it on the imperishable monuments of their
ancient might ! Strange, we repeat, that the elucida-
tion of a long-disputed point in natural history and
science, should at length receive assistance and con-
firmation from the disinterred memorials of a by-past
race — of a people who bred and reared lions expressly
for the chase and other kinds of sports ! " Let the
spectator," says M. Bonomi, in his attractive volume
entitled, " Nineveh and its Palaces," " now examine
these interesting sculptures, and consider for himself
the 'Various attitudes of the dead and dying lions,
what a familiarity with the result of the various wounds
each separate example displays ! How this lioness,
wounded in the spinal cord, drags her paralyzed hinder
quarters after her ! How that lion, wounded in the
eye, puts up his paw with agony to the spot ! How
another, pierced with four arrows, is staggering in the
last convulsion ! How yet another, wounded in the
brain, has fallen over on his back ! How this one,
wounded in the lungs, stops to pour out the life-stream !
And lastly, how certain it is that the king and his
court, and the inhabitants of Nineveh in general, must
have been familiar with such exhibitions to have
required so many cruel details at the hand of the
artist ! " These and other records also testify that in
early times lions were extremely numerous in the
eastern parts of Asia ; and we also learn from Hero-
dotus that they formerly existed in Europe, the
baggage camels of Xerxes' army being, we are told,
attacked in their march from Acanthus towards that
part of Turkey now called Salonica. But in modern
times it is to Africa that the lion-hunter directs his
steps. Accordingly we have of late years, especially,
received important additions to our knowledge of the
instincts and habits of the lion ; and it is now pretty
well understood that the noble qualities ascribed to
this beast by Buffon and his copyists, have existed only
in their imaginations, since, on the contrary, it has
been continually shown, that the lion, like the tiger, is
ever ready to take advantage of a comparatively weak
and unguarded prey, and by the execution of a mo-
mentary dash, to bring it to the ground. A full-
grown lion weighs from thirty-five to nearly forty
stone ; consequently few animals can resist the fearful
crash of such a weight falling upon them unawares.
Except when pressed for food, the lion is certainly a
rather lazy and indolent beast ; but this unwillingness
to commit havoc for the mere pleasure of the sport,
does not entitle it to receive the character of being
brave, noble, or magnanimous — qualities which it
assuredly does not possess. If we turn our attention
to the testimony of eminent and distinguished travellers,
what do we find ? Sparrman mentions the case of a
farmer, named Jacob Kok, who, " when walking over
his lands with his loaded gun, unexpectedly met a
lion. Being an excellent shot, he thought himself
pretty certain, from the position in which he was, of
killing it, and, therefore, fired his piece. Unfortunately
he did not recollect that the charge had been in it for
some time, and consequently was damp; so that his
piece hung fire, and the ball, falling short, entered the
ground close to the lion. In consequence of this he
was seized with a panic, and took directly to his heels ;
but, being soon out of breath, and closely pursued by
the lion, he jumped on a little heap of stones, and there
made a stand, presenting the but-end of his gun to his
adversary, fully resolved to defend his life as well as
he could to the utmost. This deportment had such
an effect on his pursuer, that he also made a stand,
and lay down at a distance of a few paces from the
heap of stones, seemingly quite unconcerned. Jacob,
in the meantime, did not stir from the spot ; besides,
he had in his flight unfortunately dropped his powder-
horn. At length, after waiting a good half hour, the
lion rose up, and at first went very slowly, and step by
-MAMMALIA.-
121
step only, as if he had a mind to steal oft'; but as soon
as he got to a greater distance, he began to bound
away at a great rate." Here, at all events, our lion
did not exhibit much courage or bravery; and, as
another instance of cowardice on the part of this so-
called noble animal, we quote the statements of Captain
Harris, who remarks that, early one rainy morning,
when he and his companions were peeping out of their
canvas-covered waggon, in order to ascertain if there
was any prospect of its clearing up, they " perceived
three lions squatted within a hundred yards, in the
open plain, attentively watching the oxen. Our rifles,"
he adds, " were hastily seized, but the dampness of
the atmosphere prevented their explosion. One after
another, too, the Hottentots sprang out of the pack
waggon, and snapped their guns at the unwelcome
intruders as they *rotted sulkily away, and took up
their position on a stony eminence at no great distance.
Fresh caps and priming were applied, and a broadside
was followed by the instantaneous demise of the largest,
whose cranium was perforated by two bullets at the
same instant. Swinging their tails over their backs,
the survivors took warning by the fate of their com-
panion, and dashed into the thicket with a roar. In
another half hour the voice of Leo was again heard at
the foot of the mountains, about a quarter of a mile
from the camp ; and from the waggon-top we could
perceive a savage monster rampant, with his tail hoisted
and whirling in a circle, charging furiously along the
base of the range, and in desperate wrath making
towards John April, who was tending the sheep. Every
one instinctively grasped his weapon and rushed to
the rescue, calling loudly to warn the expected victim
of his danger. Without taking the smallest notice of
him, however, the infuriated monster dashed past,
roaring and lashing his sides, until concealed in the
mist." So much for the lion's courage. Another false
appellation by which he is known, is that of the dignified
title of " monarch of the forest ; " but, as Mr. Burchell
remarks, this name is riot very applicable, seeing that
he is seldom seen except amongst low thickets and
brushwood, or in the open plains. Captain Harris,
who employs the misnomer without comment, is very
careful to tell us, that the fine specimens seen in our
menageries are, as it were, " but the shadow of that
animal which clears the desert with his rolling eye."
No doubt our semi-domesticated examples lose some-
thing of that lustre of the eye,, and breadth of limb,
which characterize the wild and unfettered beast;
nevertheless, our conceptions of a lion's strength are
perhaps as accurately realized by an examination and
dissection of such examples as are brought over, or even
bred in this country, as by the description and poetical
language above adopted. In the sad stoiy given by
Mr. Gordon Gumming, of the seizure and death of a
Hottentot named Hendrick, the lion's attack was of
the roost cowardly character. " It appeared that when
the unfortunate Hendrick rose to drive in the ox, the
lion had watched him to his fireside; and he had
scarcely lain down when the brute sprang upon him
and Ruyter (for both lay under one blanket) with his
appalling murderous roar, and, roaring as he lay,
grappled him with his fearful claws, and kept biting
VOL. I.
him on the breast and shoulder, all the while feeling
for his neck; having got hold of which, he at once
dragged him away backwards round the bush into the
dense shade. As the lion lay on the unfortunate man,
he faintly cried — 'Help me, help me, 0 God! men,
help me !' after which the fearful beast got hold of his
neck, and then all was still, except that his comrades
heard the bones of his neck cracking between the teeth
of the lion." With regard to the death-dealing strength
of the lion's paw, Mr. Burchell relates the following
incident : — While he and his friends were out hunting,
they sprung a lion and lioness. The latter soon dis-
appeared, but the former made a slight advance, as if
to show fight. " At this instant the dogs boldly flew
in between us and the lion, and, surrounding him, kept
him at bay by their violent and resolute barking. The
courage of those faithful animals was most admirable.
They advanced up to the side of the huge beast, and
stood making the greatest clamour in his face, without
the least appearance of fear. The lion, conscious of
his strength, remained unmoved at their noisy attempts,
and kept his head turned towards us. At one moment
the dogs, perceiving his eye thus engaged, had advanced
close to his feet, and seemed as if they would actually
seize hold of him ; but they paid dearly for their
imprudence : for, without discomposing the majestic
and steady attitude in which he stood fixed, he merely
moved his paw, and at the next instant 1 beheld two
lying dead, IB doing this he made so little exertion,
that it was scarcely perceptible by what means they
had been killed. Of the time which we gained by the
interference of the dogs, not a moment was lost. We
fired upon him ; one of the balls went through his side,
just between the short ribs, and tbe blood began to
flow; but the animal still remained standing in the
same position. We had now no doubt that he would
spring upon us. Every gun was iiastantly reloaded;
but happily we were mistaken, and were not sorry to
see him move quietly away, though I had hoped in a
few minutes to have been enabled to take hold of his
paw without danger."
As to the destructive habits of the lion, Mr. Anders-
son tells us of one powerful beast slain by Messrs.
.Galton and Bam, which only a short time previous had
killed upwards of fifty oxen, eows, and horses ! In its
stomach, when shot, was a small dog bitten into five
pieces, the little animal having incautiously approached
the lion during the hunt.. Many other interesting
details regarding the habits of the lion are given by this
most successful hunter. On one occasion Mr. Anders-
sou had a marvellously lucky escape. When eating
his dinner, a number of native damaxas and mamaques
came to tell him that an ongeama, as they call it, had
destroyed one of their goats, and that they hoped he
would help them to kill it. He consented. The lion
had taken refuge in a dense tamauisk brake, and Mr.
Andersson says:. — "•! ha.d proceeded for some time,
when suddenly, and w-Ltihin a few paces of where I
stood, I heard a low,, angry growl, which caused the
dogs, with hair erect in. the manner of hogs' bristle,
aad with their tails between their legs, to slink behind
my heels. Immediately afterwards a tremendous shout
of " ongeama L ongeama !." v*as raised by the natives
122
MAMMALIA. FELID.K.
on the bank above, followed by a discharge of fire-arms.
Presently, however, all was still again ; for the lion, as
I subsequently learnt, after showing himself on the
outskirts of the brake, had retreated into it. Once
more I attempted to dislodge the beast; but finding
the enemy awaiting him in the more open country,
lie was very loath to leave his stronghold. Again,
however, I succeeded in driving him to the edge
of the brake, where, as in the first instance, he was
received with a volley ; but a broomstick would have
been equally efficacious as a gun in the hands of
these people, for out of a great number of shots that
were fired, not one seemed to have taken effect. Worn
out at length with my exertions, and disgusted beyond
measure at the way in which the natives bungled the
affair, I left the tamarisk brake, and, rejoining them on
the bank above, offered to change place with them ;
but my proposal, as I expected, was forthwith declined.
As the day, however, was now fast drawing to a close,
I determined to make one other effort to destroy the
lion, and, should that prove unsuccessful, to give up
the chase. Accordingly, accompanied by a single
native, I again entered the brake in question, which I
examined for some time without seeing anything ; but
on arriving at that part of the cover we had first
searched, and when in a spot comparatively free from
bushes, up suddenly sprung the beast within a few
paces of me. It was a black-maned lion, and one
of the largest I ever remember to have encountered in
Africa. But his movements were so rapid, so silent
and smooth withal, that it was not until he had par-
tially entered the thick cover— at which time he might
have been about thirty paces distant — that I could fire.
On receiving the ball he wheeled short about, and, with-
a terrific roar, bounded towards me. When within a
few paces, he couched as if about to spring, having his
head imbedded, so to say, between his fore-paws.
Drawing a large hunting-knife and slipping it over the
wrist of my right hand, I dropped on one knee, and,
thus prepared, awaited his onset. It was an awful
moment of suspense, and my situation was critical in
the extreme. Still my presence of mind never for a
moment forsook me — indeed, I felt that nothing but
the most perfect coolness and absolute self-command
would be of any avail. I would now have become the
assailant ; but as — owing to the intervening bushes, and
clouds of dust raised by the lion's lashing his tail
against the ground — I was unable to see his head,
while to aim at any other part would have been mad-
ness, I refrained from firing. "Whilst intently watching
his every motion, he suddenly bounded towards me ;
but — whether it was owing to his not perceiving me,
partially concealed as I was in the long grass, or to my
instinctively throwing my body on one side, or to his
miscalculating the distance — in making his last spring,
he went clear over me, and alighted on the ground
three or four paces beyond. Instantly, and without
rising, I wheeled round on my knee, and discharged
my second barrel, and, as his broadside was then
towards me, lodged a ball in his shoulder, which it
completely smashed. On receiving my second fire, he
made another and more determined rush at me ; but,
owing to his disabled state, I happily avoided him. It
was, however, only by a hair's breadth, for he passed
me within arm's length. He afterwards scrambled into
the thick cover, beyond where, as night was then
approaching, I did not deem it prudent to pursue him."
Next morning they found the spot where the poor
brute had passed the night in sleepless agony ; but it
was not until the expiration of several days that his
carcase was found, then in a state of decomposition ;
and thus ends the story. Many other narrow escapes
are recorded by Mr. Audersson, some of which are
even more astonishing. In most instances it would
appear that these escapes depend upon the cowardice
of the lion, which also does not seem to be able to
recognize the proper moment when an intended victim
is entirely within its power. Thus, for example, what
can be more extraordinary than the following incident,
given by the same gentleman ? — An old waggon-driver,
Piet by name, "riding along one morning in a very
weak state, having just recovered from a severe fever,
a lion suddenly rushed on him. The ox became
frightened, and threw the old man. One of his feet
was caught in the stirrup; but, fortunately, the 'weld'
shoe slipped off. ' I know,' said the old veteran hunter,
' I was thrown, and that I got on my legs again, but in
what manner is quite a mystery to me to this day. I
called, as loud as my feeble voice permitted, to my
people to bring a gun, the lion always getting nearer
and nearer, until he stood within arm's length. I once
or twice tried to pull out my pistol or my sword-knife,
which, as you know, I usually carry about with me,
but in my anxiety I missed them. My jacket was
lying just in front of me on the ground, but the brute
had one of his paws on it. I felt desperate, however,
and, pulling it forcibly away, struck the lion on the
head, when he grinned and growled terribly, and I
expected every moment he would tear me to pieces.
At this juncture my damara, who fortunately had
heard my cries of distress, came running up with my
gun. Taking the piece from the man, I fired at the
lion, who had retreated a few paces, where he sat
quietly looking at me. I dont know whether I hit him,
for what with the sudden fright and my weak constitu-
tion, I felt very unsteady. Be that as it may, it had
at all events the effect of scaring him away, for at the
report of the gun he instantly betook himself to
cover.' " In such cases as the above, one cannot but
recognize a providentially-implanted fearfulness in the
the lion, which frequently gives to the human victim
an opportunity of escape ; and perhaps, therefore, those
instances of deliverance, where the animal has already
partially succeeded in overcoming his intended prey,
ought to be considered the more remarkable. — such,
for example, as that of the escape of Dr. Livingstone,
which is described by the distinguished missionary
himself as follows : — '' Being about thirty yards off, I
took a good aim at his body through the bush, and
fired both barrels into it. The men then called out,
' He is shot, he is shot ! ' Others cried, ' He has been
shot by another man too ; let us go to him ! ' I did
not see any one else shoot at him, but I saw the lion's
tail erected in anger behind the bush, and, turning to
the people, said, ' Stop a little till I load again.' When
in the act of ramming down the bullets I heard a shout.
1-23
Starting, and looking half round, I saw the lion just in
the act of springing upon me. I was upon a little
height ; he caught my shoulder as he sprang, and we
both came to the ground below together. Growling
horribly close to my ear, he shook me as a terrier dog
does a rat. The shock produced a stupor similar to
that which seems to be felt by a mouse after the first
.shake of the cat. It caused a sort of dreaminess, in
which there was no sense of pain nor feeling of terror,
though quite conscious of all that was happening. It
was like what patients partially under the influence of
chloroform describe, who see all the operation, but feel
not the knife. This singular condition was not the
result of any mental process. The shake annihilated
fear, and allowed no sense of horror in looking round
at the beast. This peculiar state is probably produced
in all animals killed by the Carnivora ; and if so, is a
merciful provision by our benevolent Creator for lessen-
ing the pain of death. Turning round to relieve myself
of the weight, as he had one paw on the back of my
head, I saw his eyes directed to Mebalwe, who was
trying to shoot him at a distance of ten or fifteen yards.
His gun, a flint one, missed fire in both barrels ; the
lion immediately left me, and, attacking Mebalwe, bit
his thigh. Another man, whose life I had saved before,
after he had been tossed by a buffalo, attempted to spear
the lion while he was biting Mebalwe. He left Mebalwe
and caught this man by the shoulder; but at that
moment the bullets he had received took effect, and he
fell down dead. The whole was the work of a few
moments, and must have been his paroxysm of dying
rage. In order to take out the charm from him, the
Bakatla on the following day made a huge bonfire over
the carcase, which was declared to be that of the largest
lion they had ever seen. Besides crunching the bone
into splinters, he left eleven teeth wounds in the upper
part of my arm."
In attacks on the more powerful quadrupeds, the
lion seldom approaches them singly. Thus, Messrs.
Oswell and Vardon witnessed three male lions pulling
down a buffalo, and they were enabled to shoot two of
the plunderers on the spot. Again, Mr. Andersson saw
no less than five lions, two of which were in the act of
similarly destroying "a splendid giraffe, the other three
watching close at hand," ready to take part in the
deadly strife. The last-named sportsman also mentions
two instances where the lion had been guilty of canni-
balism. In one case a male had devoured a lioness,
having apparently quarrelled over an insufficient meal,
consisting of a spring-bok, on which they had evidently
been feasting together ! In the other case, after Mr.
Andersson and his friends had severely wounded a
male, a whole troop of lions immediately rushed upon
their disabled brother and tore him to pieces. In all
these incidents the true cowardly character of the species
is very conspicuous, and it cannot therefore be affirmed,
we repeat, that the lion is either brave or magnanimous.
In regard to the power of the lion's roar, Dr. Living-
stone's observations are too important to pass un-
noticed— "The same feeling," says this eminent
traveller, " which has induced the modern painter to
caricature the lion, has led the sentimentalist to con-
sider the lion's roar the most terrific of all earthly
sounds. We hear of the ' majestic roar of the king of
beasts.' It is indeed well calculated to inspire fear if
you hear it in combination with the tremendously loud
thunder of that country, on a night so pitchy dark that
every flash of the intensely vivid lightning leaves you
with the impression of stone-blindness, while the rain
pours down so fast that your fire goes out, leaving you
without the protection of even a tree, or the chance of
your gun going off. But when you are in a comfort-
able house or waggon the case is very different, and
you hear the roar of the lion without any awe or alarm.
The silly ostrich makes a noise as loud, yet he never
was feared by man. To talk of the majestic roar of
the lion is mere majestic twaddle. On my mentioning
this fact some years ago, the assertion was doubted, so
I have been careful ever since to inquire the opinions
of Europeans, who have heard both, if they could
detect any difference between the roar of a lion and
that of an ostrich; the invariable answer was, that they
could not when the animal was at any distance. The
natives assert that they can detect a variation between
the commencement of the noise of each. There is, it
must be admitted, a considerable difference between
the singing noise of a lion when full, and his deep, gruff
voice when hungry. In general the lion's voice seems
to come deeper from the chest than that of the ostrich;
but to this day I can distinguish between them with
certainty only by knowing that the ostrich roars by
day and the lion by night." The lion, as we have
seen, is rather timid than courageous ; the testimony of
Burchell, Harris, Gumming, Andersson, Livingstone,
and many others, clearly showing that it entertains
great fear of man. Whilst this mighty beast is actually
enjoying a hearty meal, by merely walking up, Captain
Harris causes it to march off forthwith. Many similar
incidents are also recorded by these distinguished
travellers ; Dr. Livingstone going so far as to assure us,
that there is " more danger of being run over when
walking in the streets of London than of being devoured
by lions in Africa, unless engaged in hunting the ani-
mal." Lions are still very abundant in the interior of
that country, but, with an extending civilization, and a
more constant supply of fire-arms to the natives, it may
be fairly predicted that the regions of the south will ere
long become as completely emptied of this huge beast
of prey, as have been the-once infested districts of
Greece and Asia Minor.
j
124
PHOCID.E. MAMMALIA. PHOCID.TJ.
ORDER VI.— PINNIPEDIA.
THIS order of amphibious mammals, though, for con-
venience, here treated as a distinct group, cannot be
regarded as zoologically equivalent to any of the fore-
going ordinal divisions, inasmuch as it only represents
a peculiar section of the Carnivora, properly so called.
In accordance, therefore, with the system indicated at
the commencement of this work, the Pinnipeds or Seals
are here considered separately. The most marked and
obvious peculiarity in their organization, consists in
the conversion of the Kmbs into paddles or swim-
ming feet — the modifications of structure by which this
change is brought about being best understood by
an examination of the skeleton (Plate 34, fig. 114).
Bearing in mind what we have already pointed
out respecting the osteology of the typical carnivor, it
will be noticed that the several skeletal elements of
the seal are more or less attenuated, compressed, and
shortened, according to circumstances. Thus, instead
of the broad massive skull, we have a rather elongated
cranium, associated with a movable spine, which is
even more flexible than that of ordinary cats. The
bones of the pelvis are particularly slender, and but
feebly developed, while the shoulder-blades are, on the
other hand, remarkably broad. There are no clavicles.
The homologous arm and thigh bones, that is, the
humeri and femora, are much shortened. The bones
of the fore-arm are considerably flattened ; and, in the
conformation of the hand, the adaptation of the limb
for natatory purposes is eminently significant. It will
be observed that the phalanges are drawn out, as it
were ; and; diverging from one another, like the spokes
of a wheel, they form mutually-resisting supports for
the interdigital webs. The hind paddles, with their
membranous expansions, are similarly constructed,
stretching out posteriorly in a horizontal direction.
Ah1 the feet are pentadactylous, the toes of the anterior
extremity becoming, one after another, shorter from the
thumb outwards. The outer and innermost toes of
the hind feet are the most «xtecsively developed. The
forward movements of the body upon land are pro-
duced by a rapid succession of short shuffling or
wriggling leaps, entirely due to the contraction of the
muscles of the trunk, and altogether independent of
the limbs, the latter only being employed in clambering
up the sides of projecting rocks. Generally speaking,
the bones are light and spongy in texture; and this
circumstance — when taken in connection with the boat-
like form of the body, which terminates posteriorly in
a short and conical tail, the oar-like limbs, the smooth
adpressed fur, together with the flexible spine and
powerful muscles — satisfactorily demonstrates how
much care has been taken to render these creatures
swift, easy, and vigorous swimmers.
FAMILY I.— PHOCIDJE.
The true Seals have been divided into four sub-
families or minor groups, but their differentiating
characters are scarcely sufficient to warrant such an
arrangement. The teeth are usually thirty- four in num-
ber, of which there may be reckoned six or only four
incisors above, and four or two below, together with
four canines, and twenty or twenty-two molars; all
having the crowns armed with trenchant conical points.
The tongue is smooth and bifid at the tip ; the stomach
is simple, the intestinal canal being comparatively long.
In connection with the liver, the posterior vena cava
has a sacculated expansion, the use of which is to pre-
vent the necessity of rapid respiration, thereby pro-
longing the animal's power of remaining under water.
The venous blood is thus retarded in its course back
to the lungs, until the animal rises for a fresh supply of
air. During the action of diving, the nostrils are closed
by a muscular sphincter. Under ordinary circum-
stances seals can remain submerged from fifteen to
twenty minutes; and it is stated that, during sleep,
they will remain in this condition for as much as an
hour, without coming to the surface to breathe. The
shining, glossy, adpressed hairs are protected from an
injurious action of the water, by an oily secretion which
exudes from the skin. Their margins are sinuous, but
the long, stout, horny whiskers are uniformly smooth.
Seals are for the most part marine, but a few of them
pass up the mouths of rivers to fresh-water streams,
and even lakes. While at rest, they are usually seen
reposing on the ledges of rocks, and basking in the
sun ; and on being alarmed, they suddenly plunge into
the water for security. These animals, as is well
known, subsist principally on various kinds of fish ; but
they will also devour crabs, molluscs, and other oceanic
products. Fossil remains of seals occur in the miocene
and pliocene deposits.
THE COMMON SEAL (Phoca vitulimi}— Plate 12,
fig. 40 — is an inhabitant of the northern seas generally,
and was formerly very abundant all along the western
coasts of the British islands, as well as those of France ;
now, however, it is comparatively scarce, except on the
shores of Scotland, and its adjacent northern and
western isles. The body of the seal is between four
aud five feet long, having an ashy or yellowish-grey
ground colour, which is indistinctly spotted with light
brownish-black patches ; it exhibits a cylindro-conical
form, gradually diminishing in bulk from the region of
the chest towards the short broad muz/le in front, and
towards the rudimentary tail behind. The eyes are
rather large, and protected by a few stiff hairs, forming
small eyebrows; the ears being fully-developed, and
scarcely visible. One of the most interesting peculiari-
ties by which this species is distinguished, consists in
the oblique disposition of tho molar teeth, producing a
slight overlapping of the ends ; this remarkable charac-
ter having been first pointed out by Professor Nilsson.
The brain is largely developed — a fact which in some
measure explains that high degree of intellectual
manifestation, which the seal is capable of displaying.
Though very timid in the wild state, and very difficult
to approach with a gun, it is, nevertheless, extremely
docile in a semi-domesticated condition. From the
IAMMALIA.-
-Piioci
125
earliest times it has been tamed and taught to perform
a number of tricks, and to utter certain responsive
sounds, when spoken to by its master. A seal thus
instructed has been exhibiting in London, under the
title of the " talking and performing fish ;" its so-called
wonderful performances, however, as might be expected,
do not equal the absurdities of a puffing and exagger-
ating advertisement. Mr. Low, in his " Fauna Orca-
densis," observes, that in the wild state, " seals seem
to have a great deal of curiosity ; if people are passing
in boats, they often come quite close up to the boat,
and stare at them, following for a long time together ;
if people are speaking loud, they seem to wonder what
may be the matter. The church of Hoy, in Orkney,
is .situated in a small sandy bay, much frequented by
these creatures ; and I observed, when the bell rang
fur divine service, all the seals within hearing swam
directly to the shore, and kept looking about them, as
if surprised rather than frightened, and in this man-
ner continued to wonder as long as the bell rung."
Their powers of hearing are remarkably acute, as we
have recently verified by speaking softly to the active
little seal at present living in the Zoological Society's
Gardens, Regent's Park ; even while the auimal is
under water, the very faintest whisper of its name —
" Jenny " — does not fail to elicit immediate attention
and expectancy. In high northern latitudes the seal
is of the greatest economic value. To the Greenlanders
it affords an almost exclusive means of subsistence —
supplying, as it does, food for the inner man, clothing
for the outer man, and light for their ill-furnished
dwellings. The seal is also an important article of
commerce. A full-grown specimen of this species, if
taken in spring, will yield from four to five gallons of
oil, while some of the larger kinds will supply con-
siderably more than double that quantity. If extracted
while fresh, the oil is beautifully clear and transparent,
inodorous, and of a rather pleasant taste. The skin is
either prepared with the fur, or tanned to make
leather; in either case it is in great demand for making
shoes, caps, and other articles of clothing.
THE HARP SEAL (Phoca Grcenlandica) is, as its
specific name implies, found very abundant on the ice-
bound shores of Greenland, being also an inhabitant of
Iceland, and the northern coasts generally, from New-
foundland along the borders of the Frozen Ocean, as
far as the sea of Kamtschatka It is also occasionally
transported southward to the western shores of our
own sea-girt islands. The fur presents a greyish-white
colour, the back being marked by a blackish horseshoe-
shaped band, arching backwards from the region of the
shoulder to within a few inches of the root of its stumpy
tail. This baud is broad at the sides, while its outline
is very irregular ; the anterior half of the head exhibits
the same deep brownish-black colour, imparting to the
physiognomy a very peculiar look. The molar teeth
do not overlap each other, but they leave slight inter-
spaces between their several ends. In regard to the
habits of this species, Fabricius states that they leave
the coasts of Greenland twice a-year, namely, in March
and July, revisiting their haunts in May and Septem-
ber. Their food consists of molluscs and fish, especially
salmon. Being stupid and incautious, they fall an easy
prey to the seal-hunters ; their fur is much valued, and
is less woolly than that of the common species. The
female produces one, or rarely two, cubs at a birth ; the
skins being either white or cream-coloured. These
seals have a tendency to congregate and herd togethei
on floating masses of ice at a considerable distance
from the shore, under the leadership of one of thei/
number.
THE MARBLED SEAL (Phoca annulata) inhabits
the coasts of France, and was supposed by Frederick
Cuvier to be only a variety of the common species.
Professor Nilsson of Copenhagen, however, has deter-
mined otherwise. At one time it was believed that
this species had been taken on our own coasts, but the
impression appears to have been erroneous ; it is cer-
tainly not improbable that it should find its way thus
far northward. The body is about as large as that of
Phoca vilulina, but it is at once distinguished from it,
by the peculiar marbled colour of the fur. A very
lively specimen of the Marbled seal, formerly kept in
the Jardin des Plantes, afforded the Parisian and other
visitors much amusement. Two little dogs were housed
with it, and the trio lived on excellent terms ; the seal
allowing them to take fish out of its mouth while eat-
ing, and submitting to many other indignities.
THE GEEAT SEAL (Phoca barbate) is occasionally
found on the northern shores of Scotland ; and, accord-
ing to Mr. Selby, it is an inhabitant of the Farn and
Staple islands, off the coast of Northumberland. The
body of a full-grown species measures as much as ten,
twelve, or even fourteen feet in length, and weighs
upwards of forty-five stone. The head is comparatively
long, and much arched in front ; the eyes are large, the
auditory opening being also capacious. The fore-feet
have the central toe longest, the outermost on either
side being comparatively short. In the adult animal
the fur presents a deep brownish-black colour, but in
the young state it is of light-greenish hue. The female
is provided with four teats, and Mr. Selby states that
it " calves in the month of November upon several of
the outer rocks, where the young are suckled every
tide for the space of fourteen or fifteen days, when the
long woolly fur which at first clothed them is cast, and
a new covering of close short hair supersedes it ; they
are then conducted by the dam to the water, from
whence they only emerge at intervals."
THE GEEY SEAL (Halichcerus gryphus] is also an
inhabitant of the British coasts, being especially abun-
dant on the Irish shoies. Professor Nilsson — an
excellent authority — states that those living in the
Baltic have solitary habits ; but, in the neighbourhood
of Cork and Waterford, Dr. Ball found them gregarious
in small numbers. The Grey seal is also a native of
the northern coasts of Europe, and is called the Utselur
by the Icelanders. Zoologically speaking, it is a species
of very great interest, because its structural characters,
in some particulars at least, approach very closely
those of the walrus; Dr. Gray, indeed, considers it
entitled to be regarded as a member of the family
which that peculiar form represents. Be that as it
may, the canines are present in the lower jaw, while
those of the upper are not prolonged into tusks —
features which sufficiently distinguish the Phocid;e
126
PHOCID.E MAMMALIA. PHOCID,E.
from the Trichecidae. According to Reinhardt,
upper jaw is frequently furnished with a sixth molar
on either side, which would make the total number of
grinders to be twenty-two. The superior series are
simple, displaying only a single pointed crown, but
those of the lower jaw are slightly tuberculated. The
head is remarkably flat, terminating anteriorly in a broad,
truncated muzzle. One of the most striking peculiari-
ties of this species — and one in which it very closely
resembles the walrus — consists in the disproportionate
size of the brain, as compared with that of the common
seal ; while the bones of the face are, on the other
hand, more cogently developed. The late Dr. Ball of
Dublin, in a communication to Professor Bell — after
alluding to the fruitless attempts made by his father to
rear and tame specimens — has very forcibly remarked
that this seal " appears scarcely susceptible of domes-
tication, and the development of the skull seems to
indicate as much ; for the size of the brain of a speci-
men nearly eight feet long, did not exceed that of one
of Phoca variegata (i.e., P. vitulina), of less than four
feet."
THE SEA-LEOPABD (Leptonyx Weddellify. — TA.
Frederick Cuvier formerly associated the various
the species of Leptonyx, under the generic title of Steno-
rhynchus. They are characterized by the possession
of twenty-two teeth, of which eight are incisors,
besides the usual number of canines, and twenty
molars — each of the latter being provided with three
sharp, conical, prong-like tubercles. All of these are
slightly compressed, and point more or less upwards
and backwards; the central cusp being the longest,
and separated from the lateral pair by a deep notch on
either side. The hindermost molars are furnished with
double fangs. The skull is narrow, elongated, and
rather depressed at the centre of the vertex. The
claws of the feet are comparatively small, especially
those of the hind pair. This species inhabits the shores
of the southern hemisphere.
THE CRESTED SEAL (Stemmatopus cristatus), or
Hoodcap, differs from the ordinary seals, inasmuch as
it possesses a remarkable organ, situated at the anterior
part of the head. This structure consists of a mem-
branous and muscular pouch, which is divided internally
into two compartments by the prolongation of the
cartilaginous septum of the nose (fig. 37). By closing
its nostrils, the animal has the power of inflating this
sac, which then stretches back over the cranium, and
5^<
The Crested Seal (Stemmatopus erUtadis).
in the distended condition rises six or seven inches
above the vertex. The molar teeth are irregularly
tuberculated. The Hoodcap lives chiefly on large
floating fields of ice off the coasts of Greenland and the
north-eastern shores of America, being seldom seen on
land, except in the months of April, May, and June.
It is a large species, measuring seven or eight feet in
length ; and great numbers are annually destroyed by
the seal-hunters.
THE SEA-BEAE (ArctocepJtalus ursinus) — Plate 13,
fig. 41 — is a native of the north-western shores of
America, as well as the coasts of Kamtschatka and the
Kurile islands. It is a large, bulky species, upwards
of seven feet long. The fur is thick, of a woolly tex-
ture, of a greyish-brown tint in the adult, but quite
black in the young animal. The ears are compara-
tively well-developed, being an inch and a half in
length, and clothed with hair. There are ten incisor
teeth, six above and four below, the four central ones
of the upper series having flat and transversely-grooved
crowns ; the molars are twenty-two in number. The
first toe of the fore-foot is the longest, the remainder
gradually shortening in succession, outwards. The
interdigital membranes of the hind feet are prolonged
considerably beyond the toes in the form of bands. The
Sea-bears are polygamous in their habits, a single male
jealously guarding upwards of fifty or sixty females.
The males are very fierce, as are also the dams when
their young are hunted ; if wounded, they utter a loud
whining cry. The fur is highly valued.
-MAMMALIA. PHOCHXE.
127
THE SEA-LION (Otariajubata). — Much discrepancy
of opinion has all along existed in regard to the distinc-
tions of these aberrant forms of seals, and even now
much confusion remains respecting them. Several
species have been included under the above title by
different voyagers. The true Sea-lion is a huge animal,
the males measuring from ten to fifteen feet in length
(fig. 38). The fur has a yellowish-brown colour, the
The Sea-Lion (Otaria jubata).
neck of the male being provided with a well-developed
mane. The ears are only half an inch in length, or
rather more, the muzzle being armed with numerous
stout long whiskers. This species is also polygamous,
a single male tending from twenty to thirty females.
They are very fierce and powerful animals, waging
destructive wars upon the sea-bears. The Sea-lion is
principally found off the coasts of Terra-del-Fuego and
the Falkland Islands.
THE SEA-ELEPHANT (Morunga prdbosddea) is a
gigantic and extraordinary-looking animal. In Profes-
sor Nilsson's arrangement it is described as a species
of Cystophora, a genus which is equivalent to the
Macrorhinus of F. Cuvier. The title here employed
The Sea- Elephant (Mornnga proboscidea).
is that given in the list of Phocidse contained in the
British Museum. The body of an adult Sea-elephant
attains the enormous length of four-and-twenty feet,
some specimens, it is said, considerably exceeding this
measurement ; the young at the time of birth being
about the size of a full-grown Phoca vitulina! The
most singular feature in this species, however, consists
in the presence of a strongly-developed proboscidiform
muzzle in the male, capable of being extended to a dis-
distance of twelve inches beyond the mouth, and conse
128
TKICHECID.E. MAMMALIA. TRICHECIDA.
quently imparting a very peculiar, if not hideous aspect
(fig. 39). In the female there is no trace of this singular
apparatus. The canine teeth are large, thick, rather
sharply pointed, and curved upwards ; the molars being
furnished with simple, conical, and irregularly con-
stricted conical crowns. The Elephant-seal enjoys a
wide geographical distribution in the southern hemi-
sphere, being found on the coasts of Australia, Kergue-
land's Land, the Falklands, and other islands both of
the South Pacific and Atlantic oceans. It is greatly
valued on account of the large quantity of oil which it
yields; and, although powerful, it is a comparatively
harmless animal, and easily destroyed. Its skin is very
thick, and, from its durability when prepared, is much
employed in making carriage harness. The habits of
the Sea-elephant are somewhat peculiar, inasmuch as
it frequents the mouths of rivers, resorting betimes to
fresh-water swamps and inland lakes. The male is said
to utter when attacked a strange, hoarse, gurgling, wild
sound ; the voice of the female having some resemblance
to the bellowing of an ox. A sailor once lost his life
from the violence of an enraged female, in whose pre-
sence he had the cruel folly to skin her young one.
The dam generally produces two cubs at a birth, the
growth of which is so astonishingly rapid, that in eight
days they have doubled their natal dimensions. The
period of gestation is believed to be between nine and
ten months.
FAMILY II.— TPJCHECIDjE.
Externally, the members of this family, as originally
established, have a general resemblance to the ordinary
seals ; but in the form and arrangement of the teeth
there are differences of the most marked kind. The
cranium is also very unlike that of the typical Phocida? ;
Fig. 40.
Skull and section of the lower jaw of the Walrus.
but in certain of the aberrant genera, this variation is
less conspicuous. We have shown this to be the case,
especially, in the genus Halichcerus, which is even
associated with the present family in the systematic
classification of Dr. J. E. Gray. On carefully examin-
ing the skull of a walrus (fig. 40), the first thing that
strikes one is the massive character of all the bones,
more particularly those of the anterior part of the face.
All the facial modifications here witnessed have refer-
ence to the enormously developed tusks ; and, conse-
quently, it is in the superior maxillary bone that the
more striking morphological changes have taken place.
The extension upwards and downwards, as well as the
great breadth of this osseous mass, has become neces-
sary, in order to insure the reception and fixation of the
base of this rootless and huge canine tooth — the socket,
of course, being extremely capacious. This curious
osteological change of form has also had the effect of
producing an unusually broad muzzle, tilting up, as
it were, the aperture of the nostrils. Scarcely less
remarkable is the correlative effect produced by these
huge canines on the shape of the lower jaw ; but here,
instead of increasing the width, we find the anterior
part of the bone much narrowed and compressed, so as
to pass securely forward, between and beyond the not
very widely separated tusks — an arrangement which
has likewise involved corresponding peculiarities in the
dental formula of the adult animal. According to the
investigations of Macgillivra}^ Rapp, Wiegman, and
others, there are either ten or twelve incisors, four
canines, and eighteen or twenty molars in the young
animal ; out of these, two grinders, the lower pair of
canines, and all the incisors are deciduous, their sockets
at length becoming entirely obliterated. We have thus
left behind in the full-grown animal only sixteen per-
manent molars, besides the two tusks developed from
the upper jaw ; the former are depressed, obliquely
truncated, and flat on the crowns; while the tusks,
which are directed downwards with a slight curving
inwards, measure from fifteen to twenty or twenty-five
inches in length, weighing between eight and ten pounds
each ; they are also proportionately thick. The cranial
cavity is small when compared with that of the typical
Phocidae.
THE WA1ETJS (Trichechiis Rosmarus), or MORSE —
Plate 13, fig. 42— is the only representative of the
present family, if we are content to adhere to the
arrangement above given. It is a large, bulky animal,
the body usually measuring from ten to fifteen feet in
length, and, in the case of the males, as much some-
times as twenty feet. The fur is of a deep brownish-
black colour, becoming lighter as age advances. The
head is comparatively small, terminating anteriorly in
an abrupt snout, which is tumid at the sides and
clothed with long and very stout whiskers. The lips
arc; particularly thick, while the nostrils are rounded
and placed high up on the summit of the muzzle. The
auditory apertures are placed well back, but there is nc
trace of an external auricle; the eyes are comparatively
small. The limbs are short, terminating in broad
pentadactylous paddles or flippers, having strong
interdigital webs. Sir Everard Home's notion that
they possessed the power of producing a vacuum to
aid the action of climbing, is entirely erroneous. The
Walrus is an inhabitant of the shores of the Arctic
ocean, being especially abundant on the coasts of
Spitzbcrgen, Nova Zembla, and Behring's Straits.
These animals congregate together in herds, varying is
RODENTIA. MAMMALIA. RODENTIA.
129
number from fifty to one hundred or more ; neverthe-
less their habits are strictly monogamous. Before
going to sleep on the floating ice-fields they take the
precaution of appointing sentinels, who, when any
danger threatens, forthwith rouse the entire troop, by
uttering loud bellowing cries, and instantly all are seen
tumbling over into the sea, where they are tolerably
secure. If any are wounded the remainder display
much sympathy, the mothers defending and carrying
off their young with the greatest ardour. On several
occasions they have been known to attack a boat's
crew, as happened, for example, to two officers who
went walrus-hunting by themselves, near Waggat's
Straits, in the year 1773. They had succeeded in
wounding a solitary one, which immediately dived
under water, and after a short time returned with
several others, attacked the officers, wrested from
them an oar, and very nearly succeeded in capsizing
the boat; fortunately another boat came to their assist-
ance, and the infuriated animals were driven off. At
all times the capture of the Walrus is attended with
considerable difficulty, for, although not naturally a
shy animal, it has learned to dread its human adver-
sary, and therefore takes to the water on the slightest
alarm ; moreover, the skin is sufficiently hard to resist
the harpoon, unless it has been driven home with great
force. The tusks are much prized; their ivory being,
bulk for bulk, far more valuable than that of the
elephant; the texture of the dentine is denser, and the
colour of a purer white. The Walrus is omnivorous,
and in its stomach there have been found remains of
young seals, fish, shrimps, and other Crustacea; also
various kinds of molluscs and sea-weeds, especially of
the common kind — Fucus digitatus.
Those who desire further information respecting the
habits and mode of capturing the Walrus, we beg
especially to refer to the thirteenth and thirtieth
chapters of the first volume of Dr. Kane's " Arctic
Explorations," where they will find most interesting
details, for which we have here no space.
ORDER VII.— RODENTIA.
THE Rodents constitute a well-defined natural group,
comprehending a great multitude of comparatively small
species, all of which are characterized by the possession
of peculiar incisor teeth. These organs are usually
four in number, two occupying the upper, and two the
lower jaw ; they are also placed prominently forward
below the muzzle, and are separated from the molar
teeth by a considerable interspace (fig. 41). Their
office is essentially that of gnawing ; hence the Rodents
are sometimes called gnawers, or rongeurs by the
French. The form of each incisor tooth resembles a
chisel, the anterior and superior edge being remarkably
sharp and trenchant; the tooth is likewise so con-
structed that its tissue, and therefore function also,
is in no way damaged by continuous use ; on the
contrary, every time it is put in action, the weapon
chisels down the hard substances required for food or
other purposes, while, at the same time, it sharpens
Fig. 41.
Skull of the Rabbit.
itself, and is thus always fit for use. This interesting
result depends, for its integrity, on the following struc-
tural arrangement : The anterior and convex surface of
the organ is coated with a thin layer of hard enamel,
the central mass consisting of the somewhat less dense,
but still tolerably strong ivory ; and from this disposi-
tion of the two structures, it will readily be perceived
that, during attrition, the ivory must wear away more
VOL. I.
quickly than the enamel, which is consequently left
standing prominently forward in the form of a chisel-
like process. The molar teeth are few in number,
Molar Teeth of the Beaver.
seldom exceeding four on each side of either jaw ; they
are flat, arid have the enamel arranged in the form of
transverse plates, which, during the backward and for-
ward movements of the jaw, act antagonistically with
the corresponding ridges of the opposed teeth (fig. 42).
In order to insure and facilitate this antero-posterior
movement, and the converse action, the condyle of the
lower jaw is articulated to the skull by a longitudinally-
formed socket, which admits of scarcely any lateral
motion. There are no canine teeth in the Rodentia ;
and from the several dental peculiarities here men-
tioned, it may readily be perceived that the food of these
animals must be chiefly of a frugivorous nature, and that
it will comprise substances of the hardest character,
such as roots, the bark of trees, and even wood itself.
Some of the species, however, are omnivorous, feeding
on other animals, as well as on various vegetable mat-
ters; and in these we find the molar teeth more or less
tuberculated. The alimentary canal is of great length,
the coecum being often remarkably large, in some cases
exceeding the stomach in size, and filling up the larger
portion of the abdominal cavity. A curious exception
is seen in the dormouse, where the coecum is entirely
wanting. The form of the stomach in Rodents is sim-
130
SCIL-HID.E. MAMMALIA. S< IUKID.
pie. These animals are very prolific, and enjoy a wide
geographical distribution, being especially abundant in
North America. They are not found in Australia.
Fossil remains occur in the tertiary formation.
FAMILY I.— SCIURID^E.
The Squirrels have simple tuberculated molar teeth,
provided with distinct fangs. These molars are usually
eighteen in number, but in some instances there are
only fourteen. The incisor teeth are smooth, the lower
being much compressed. The feet are generally pen-
tadactylous ; exceptions, however, occur in the fore-
feet of certain species, where the thumb is merely
represented by a warty tubercle. The limbs are either
free, or partially invested by alaform membranous
expansions of the skin, which materially increase the
leaping power of these animals. The tail is well
developed, and more or less tufted with long hairs.
The species are numerous — so much so, that we can
devote only a very short space to their individual con-
sideration.
THE COMMON SQUIRREL (Sciurus vulgarls) is a
singularly graceful and attractive little animal (fig. 43).
Who has not seen it leaping from branch to branch,
and clambering up the sides of many a lofty tree ? In
our woodland districts it is everywhere abundant, and
its pretty movements may be most advantageously
watched in early spring, when the female, with extreme
activity, is pretendingly seeking to evade the pursuit of
her attentive lovers, several of which may be giving
her chase at one and the same time. " Dwelling prin-
cipally," observes Mr. Bell, "upon trees, and rarely
descending to the ground, it leaps from bough to bough
with astonishing agility. It lives upon nuts, acorns,
beech-mast, the bark of young trees, leaf-buds, and
tender shoots. In eating nuts, it gnaws with consider-
able rapidity through the hard shell, and then carefully
removes every particle of the dry brown skin from each
morsel of the kernel before it is eaten. It sits upon
its haunches, holding its food in the fore-paws, which
serve the office of hands. In taking leaps, when once
thrown off by an effort of its long and powerful hinder
legs, it is in a measure sustained by the horizontal
spreading of its limbs and bushy tail ; which latter organ
is also extremely useful in covering and protecting the
back, over which it is often turned, and in enveloping
the whole lateral and dorsal parts of the body when
coiled up during sleep or in its hibernation. It lays up
stores of food for its winter provision, which is not
usually deposited in a single place of safety, but distri-
buted in several different holes of trees, hi the irnme-
Pig.43
The bquirrel (Sciurus vulgaris).
diate neighbourhood of its own retreat. It remains
during the greater part of the winter in a state of almost
complete torpidity, coming abroad, however, on the
occurrence of a fine day, feeding on a part of its trea-
sured hoards, and then retiring again to its slumbers."
The general appearance of the squirrel is well known ;
the length of the body being about fifteen inches,
including the tail, which measures six and a half or
seven inches. The head is broad, flattened above and
at the sides. The eyes are comparatively large, dark-
coloured, and prominent. The ears are well developed,
and beautifully pencilled at the tip with long delicate
hairs. The fur has a rich brownish-red colour gene-
rally, being white under the throat and belly. During
SCIURIDJE. MAMMALIA. SCIURID.E.
131
the winter the fur becomes somewhat lighter, or of a
greyish tint. The female produces four or five young
at a birth, and rears them in a carefully constructed
nest. This is formed of vegetable fibres, moss, leaves,
&c., and is usually lodged between the fork of two
or more branches, so as to be concealed from view ;
in some instances the nest is made in the hollow of
a tree.
THE HUDSON'S BAY SQUIRREL (Sciurus Hudso-
nius) is found in the white spruce forests of Canada,
and the northern parts of the United States. In the
latter country it goes by the name of the Chickaree, on
account of the peculiar loud noise which it makes when
disturbed in its favourite haunts. It lives upon the
seeds and young buds of the spruce, and makes burrows
beneath the roots of this tree, where, during the sum-
mer, it lays in a large store of fir-cones as provision for
the winter ; but it remains active throughout the cold
season. The flesh is said to be good eating. The fur
has a yellowish-brown hue, the central line of the back
having a chestnut tinge ; but the colouring varies con-
siderably at different periods of the year.
THE BLACK SQUIRREL (Sciurus niger) is a large
species measuring upwards of two feet when the tail is
taken into account. It is also a North American form,
being more particularly abundant on the northern shores
of Lake Huron and Lake Superior. According to Sir
John Eichardson, it is likewise tolerably plentiful in the
United States. The fur is short, coarse, and of a deep
black colour ; the ears have an elliptical form, and are
devoid of tufts.
THE GREY SQUIRREL (Sciurus dnereus] is an inhab-
itant of the United States, being common in Pennsyl-
vania and Carolina. Like our English species, it lays
up a provision of nuts and acorns against the season of
scarcity. This species is particularly destructive to
the maize crops, and large numbers are therefore annu-
ally destroyed. The grey squirrel is about one-third
longer than our form. Its ears are not tufted, and the
fur is of an ashy-grey colour generally ; underneath the
belly, and on the inside of the limbs it is white. The
tail is nearly as long as the body.
THE WHITE-STRIPED SQUIRREL (Sciurus getulus)
is a native of the northern parts of Africa, and more
particularly of Barbary. The fur exhibits a reddish-
grey colour, the sides of the body being banded with
two white stripes. It is about the size of our British
species, the tail being well developed, and, according
to the description given by Pennant, regularly marked
with shades of black, one beneath the other. It lives
chiefly among palm-trees.
THE MALABAR SQUIRREL (Sciurus maximus) is
an Indian species, measuring about thirty -three inches,
including the tail, which is rather longer than the body.
Like the above, it is mostly found among palm-trees,
being particularly fond of the cocoa-nut, and the milk
which it contains. The fur presents a rich chocolate-
brown colour, which subsides into a pale yellowish-
brown on the inner sides of the limbs and underneath
the belly. The ears are short, and provided with long
brush-like tufts.
SMITH'S SQUIRREL (Sciurus Cepapi) is a native of
Southern Africa, and was originally discovered by Dr.
Smith on the banks of the Limpopo river. The fur
has an ochreous yellow tint, and is marbled with black-
ish brown patches. The ears are sharp and blunt
above, being also slightly notched near the tip. This
species is remarkably shy and agile.
SPARRMANN'S SQUIRREL (Sciurus bicolor) is also
found in Java, and is, in common with several other
species, termed by the natives the Jelerang. It is also
a native of India and Cochin China. This animal was
Fig. 44.
Sparrinanu's Squirrol, or Jelerang (Sciurus bicolor).
first described in the Transactions of the Gothebnrg
Society for the year 1778. The body is three feet
long, including the tafl, for which about nineteen inches
have to be reckoned (fig. 44). The ears are pointed,
but not tufted. The fur varies much in colour, being,
in some cases, uniformly black above and of a golden
hue beneath ; in other instances it is more or less tawny
throughout, with patches of a darker tint on the shoul-
ders and hips. It is neither so abundant nor so prolific
as the above.
132
SCIURID.E. MAMMALIA. SCIURIDJ.
THE BOKKUL (Sciurus insignia). — This squirrel
inhabits Sumatra and Java, where, from the observa-
tions of Dr. Horsfield, it would appear to be a very rare
species. The fur has a tawny greyish-brown colour
generally, becoming ferruginous at the sides, and white
beneath the belly ; its most characteristic feature con-
sists in the presence of black bands, which pass from
the region of the shoulder to the root of the tail. The
body, including the last-named organ, is about thirteen
inches long. This species, in common with other allied
forms found in India and the adjacent islands, possesses
a cylindrical tail ; the ears are also short and rounded.
THE BAJING (Sciurus Plantanf) is likewise a Java-
nese form, and is extremely abundant everywhere in the
island. It was first described by Ljung in the twenty-
second volume of the Swedish Transactions. The body
is seven inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which
rather exceeds this measurement. The fur has a beau-
tifully variegated tawny-brown colour ; the inner parts
of the limbs and the belly being of a lighter yellow.
The tail is banded near its root by several dark rings.
The Bajing lives principally among the tamarind and
cocoa-nut trees. It is readily tamed.
THE PALM SQUIRREL (Sciurus palmarum).— This
title is applied to several small species which are
abundant in India and Africa, and are found most com-
monly on palm-trees. They commit terrible ravages
amongst the fruit, and though much hunted, do not
appear to be at all shy. The general ground colour of
their fur is reddish-brown, the surface being generally
marked with a varying number of bands; the inferior
parts of the belly and the inside of the h'mbs are pale
yellow; dark-coloured rings also occur on the tail.
The body is about a foot in length from the tip of the
nose to the extremity of the last-named appendage.
THE FOUR-BANDED SQUIRREL (Sciurus quadrivit-
tatus) is thus named from the circumstance of its
displaying four white lines on the back, these being
separated from one another by intervening bars of a
blackish colour. The sides of the body are reddish-
brown, the under parts being lighter coloured. This
species inhabits the wooded districts of North America.
It is a remarkably lively creature, and when alarmed
utters a chirping note, which often proves troublesome
to the hunter when in quest of other animals dwelling
in the same localities.
THE GROUND SQUIRREL (Sciurus Lysteri), or
HACKEE, is an elegant little species, characterized by
the possession of cheek pouches. It has a brownish-
grey fur, subsiding into orange, and becoming white
beneath the belly. The sides are also marked by a
white band bordered with black, extending from the
shoulder to the rump. The tail is comparatively short.
The Hackee is a native of North America, being
abundant on the shores of Lakes Huron and Superior.
THE ALPINE MARMOT (Arctomys marmotta) —
Plate 14, fig. 44 — is a stout-built animal, about the size
of a rabbit, measuring sixteen inches long, excluding
the thick-set tail, which gives us six inches more. It
inhabits the loftiest slopes of the Alps and Pyrenees,
immediately beneath the snow line. The fur has a
yellowish-grey colour, becoming brownish-grey about
the head. Its food consists of insects, as well as veget-
able matters. Its burrows in the earth have three
chambers and two outlets, several retreating into the
same hole. When alarmed they utter shrill cries, and
also on the approach of storms. The female produces
three or four young at a birth.
THE POLISH MARMOT (Arctomys Bobac), or BOB AC,
is an inhabitant of the smaller hills of eastern Europe
and Siberia, extending all the way from Poland to
Kamtschatka. The fur exhibits a yellowish-grey colour,
the hairs about the head having a russet tint. This
species corresponds very closely with the preceding in
size and general appearance.
THE SOUSLIK (Sperjnojjhilus citellus) is a native of
Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, and Siberia. It is an
attractive-looking species, its greyish-brown fur being
prettily marked with small white spots. It belongs to
the group of marmots possessing cheek pouches. It is
said to have a decided liking for annual food, and will
occasionally devour its own species.
THE QUEBEC MARMOT (Arctomys empetrd) is, as
the title implies, a native of Canada. In appearance it
closely resembles the bobac, whilst its habits are similar
to those of its congeners generally. The fur exhibits a
hoary aspect, with shades of brown and black intermixed,
passing into reddish orange beneath. The tail is about
half the length of the body, and black at the extremity.
THE SHORT-TAILED MARMOT (Arctomys brachy-
urus] is an inhabitant of the plains of Columbia, and is
characterized by a brownish-grey fur, variegated with
red, this colour becoming more conspicuous underneath
the belly. The tail is not shorter than that of several
allied species. This animal lives in large companies,
a single burrow containing ten or twelve occupants.
On being disturbed they utter a shrill whistling cry.
PENNANTS' MARMOT (Arctomys pruinosus} is de-
scribed under the title of the WHISTLER by Harmon
and Sir John Richardson. It is a large species; a
specimen taken on the banks ol the Mackenzie River
measuring twenty-seven inches in length. The fur is
long, coarse, and of a yellowish-brown colour, the tail
being darker and bushy. The Whistler is found occu-
pying the slopes of the Rocky Mountains. The female
produces two young at a birth.
THE MARYLAND MARMOT (Arctomys monax), or
WOOD-CHUCK, is a well-known native of the central
districts of the United States, where it is regarded by
farmers as a pest, since it proves very destructive to
the crops of red clover. The habits of these animals
are social and diurnal ; for having placed sentinels
before their burrows, they wander forth in mid-day to
commit their havoc. They are very prolific, the female
producing six young at a birth. The fur of the adult
has a grey ferruginous colour generally.
THE PRAIRIE MARMOT (Arctomys latrans), or
WISTONWISH, is another American species, abounding
on the banks of the Missouri and its tributaries. The
fur is of a reddish-brown colour, the inferior parts being
whitish. The tail is short and banded near the tip.
When alarmed this creature utters a peculiar barking
sound, whence it is often called the prairie dog. Its
habits are gregarious, hundreds of them forming a
colony, where they construct deep burrows ; the entrance
to each hole being surrounded by an elevated mound.
SCIURID.*:. MAMMALIA. MYOXID.E.
133
Limitation of space prevents our giving full details
of the Marmots. Those of our readers, therefore, who
desire further information on this head should consult
Sir John Richardson's "Fauna Boreali Americana,"
where they will find a detailed account of the following
species of American marmots, unavoidably omitted
in this work: — The American Souslik (Spermophilus
guttcitiis) ; the Tawny Marmot (Arctomys Richard-
sonii) ; the Leopard Marmot (A . Hoodii) ; Say's Mar-
mot (A. lateralis) ; Douglas's Marmot (A. Douglasii) ;
Beechey's Marmot (A . Beecheyi) ; Franklin's Marmot
(A. Franlclinii} ; Parry's Marmot (A. Parryi).
In regard to the Squirrels possessing flying mem-
branes, we can only offer the following particulars : —
THE EUROPEAN FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciuropterus
volans) is only found in the north-eastern parts of our
continent, being more abundant in the forests and wild
wastes of Siberia. Its habits are similar to those of the
common squirrel, feeding, as it does, on the buds of
beech-trees and on the seeds contained in fir-cones.
During its flying leaps — so much increased in power by
membranous expansions of the skin between the fore
and hind limbs — the tail is stretched out to aid in
steering the body. In a state of repose, this organ is,
as usual, gracefully curved over the back.
NIETJHOFFS FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciuropterus
sagitta}. — This very rare animal — concerning the spe-
cific distinctness of which there can be no reasonable
doubt — has been carefully described by Pennant. It
is a native of Java and other Indian islands, and mea-
sures eighteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail,
which would give us other fifteen inches. The fur is
of a bright bay colour, inclining to orange. During its
flying leaps, it is said to employ the tail as a prehensile
organ.
THE KECHUBU (Sciuroplerus genibarbis) is another
form of Javanese flying squirrel, measuring, with the
tail, about fourteen inches. According to Horsfield it is
comparatively rare, and infests the forests of Pugar, one
of the most sequestered districts of the eastern portion
of Java. Its habits are nocturnal. Xhe fur has a
tawny-grey colour generally, the inferior parts being
lighter ; the texture of the hair is particularly soft and
downy.
HORSFIELD'S FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciuropterus
lepidus) very closely resembles the above, and the dis-
tinctions given by Horsfield scarcely seem to warrant
its being regarded as a separate species. " It is only
found in the closest forests of Java, where the height
of the trees and the luxuriance of the foliage effectu-
ally conceal it. It is with great difficulty pursued or
seized."
THE GREATER FLYING SQUIRREL (Sciuropterus
Sabrinus)— Plate 14, fig. 43— of North America, is
about a foot long, including the tail. The fur has a
pale reddish-brown colour generally, being also of very
delicate texture. The Rocky Mountain variety so
closely resembles it, that, in the opinion of Sir John
Richardson, the two kinds ought to be regarded as
identical.
THE ASSAPAN (Pteromys volucellci) is a compara-
tively small species of flying squirrel. It is very
abundant in the United States, infesting the prairies
in large troops. Its tail is about one-fourth shorter
than the body, and, as in other allied forms, is flat and
distichous.
FAMILY II.— MYOXID^B.
The Dormice represent a group intermediate between
the squirrels and the mice. The molars are sixteen in
number, furnished with fangs, and have their crowns
marked with transverse ridges of enamel. The feet
are pentadactylous, but the fifth toe of the fore-foot is
merely represented by a rudimentary tubercle or warty
excrescence. The ears are rounded and oval, and the
whiskers well developed. The fur is particularly soft
and fine. The tail is very long, hairy, and more or less
tufted at the extremity. The food of the Dormice con-
sists principally of vegetable matters; but they also
devour beetles, and have been known, in a state of
confinement, to eat bats, and even their own young.
THE COMMON DORMOUSE (Myoxus avellanarius]
—Plate 15, fig. 47.— This well-known little animal,
with its ruddy yellow fur, is a great favourite with those
who delight in domesticated animals — in which condi-
tion it is particularly gentle and docile. It is tolerably
common throughout Europe, and dwells in the seques-
tered parts of dense thickets and plantations. During
the summer it lays up a store against the winter, when
it falls into a drowsy and torpid state ; but on warm
sun-shiny days it sometimes emerges from its snug
retreat or dormitory. Its habits are nocturnal. In
the spring the female usually produces four young,
which are blind at the time of birth. According to
Mr. Bell, a second brood is occasionally brought forth
in the early part of autumn.
THE GREAT DORMOUSE (Myoxus Glis) is an inha-
bitant of Southern Europe, being also found in Georgia
and on the borders of the Wolga. It is about the size
of our common rat, and has a pale ash-coloured fur,
which is white underneath the belly, and at the inner
sides of the limbs ; the eyes being surrounded by a
dark-brown circle. This animal was, in early times,
highly prized as a dainty, and was kept by the ancients
and fattened in separate hutches expressly for the table.
It is still eaten by the Italians. It nestles in holes of
trees and rocks, and sometimes attacks small birds.
FAMILY III.— DIPODnXffi.
The Jerboas are at once recognized by their re-
markably developed hinder extremities, although this
peculiarity is also seen in a less striking degree in the
marsupial kangaroos. The elongation of the hind
limbs eminently fits the members of this family for
dwelling amongst wild wastes and open plains ; and it
is therefore in such localities that they are found. Their
molar teeth are complex, and in some instances desti-
tute of roots. The hind feet are tridactylous in the true
Jerboas, and tetradactylous in aberrant forms. The
clavicles are well developed. The eyes are large ; the
tail is very long, hairy, and frequently tufted at the tip.
THE .EGYPTIAN JERBOA (Dipus jEgyptius')—
Plate 14, fig. 45— is extremely common in the country
from whence its name is derived. According to Swain-
134
DIPODHXE. MAMMALIA. MURIDJ-:.
son, it is a sly and timid animal, living in societies,
and constructing burrows underground ; and is with
difficulty preserved in a state of domestication. Some
naturalists consider this species as identical with the
variety found inhabiting the waste country between the
Don and Wolga rivers, and in the southern steppes at
Fig. 45.
The ./Egyptian Jerboa (Dipus -^Egyptian).
the Irtitsch ; but the limits of our space prevent our
discussing this question or giving further details. The
accompanying drawing (fig. 45) represents the Jerboa
about to take a leap.
MITCHELL'S JERBOA (Dipus MUchellii) has been
so named by Mr. Ogilby after the original discoverer,
Sir Thomas Mitchell, who found this species on the
marshy grounds near the junction of the Murray and
the Murrumbidgee, on the northern boundaries of
Australia Felix. In size it scarcely exceeds our com-
mon field mouse. The tail is particularly long, and
ends in a hairy tuft, two niches in extent.
HAEDWICKE'S JERBOA (Dipus Indicus), is a native
of Hindostan, frequenting the cultivated districts, and
proving highly destructive to the wheat and barley
crops. It feeds principally on gram, but will in times
of scarcity consume other kinds of vegetable food.
During its leaps, which extend over a space of four or
five yards at a single jump, the tail is stretched out
horizontally. At evening time hundreds issue forth
from their snug retreats, but they disappear on the
slightest alarm.
THE CAPE JERBOA (Hdamys Capensis)—?\&ie 14,
fig. 46— is a native of South Africa. The hind feet
are tetradactylous, and armed with very long, sharply-
pointed claws. The ears are largely developed ; so is
also the tail. The molar teeth have no roots ; their
crowns also are divided into two equal, oval-shaped
portions, by a fold from the outer side in the upper
series, and from the inner side below. The fur is of
a bright yellow-brown colour generally. The Cape
Jerboa is a very powerful animal, leaping as much as
thirty feet at a single bound. During sleep it assumes
a sitting posture.
THE ALAX-DAARGHA (Sdrtetes jaculus) is the name
given by the Mongols to a species of jerboa inhabiting
the steppes between the Donau and the Don; this
animal is also found in the Crimea. The feet are
pentadactylous, but the three central toes of the hinder
extremity are very cogently developed. The molar
teeth are rooted, and have their crowns surmounted by
contorted ridges of enamel. The ears are fully as long
as the head.
FAMILY IV.— MURHLE.
The Rats and Mice, properly so called, have largely-
developed ears. The clavicies are distinct. There are
usually twelve molar teeth, uniformly covered with
enamel ; and the inferior incisors are compressed and
sharply pointed. The fore-feet are tetradactylous, the
several digits wide-spread, and the thumb represented
by a warty tubercle, which in some cases is clawed ;
the hind feet are pentadactylous. The skeleton —
Plate 33, fig. 106 — is comparatively slim throughout.
The tail is mostly very long, naked, or only thinly
haired. The species are extremely numerous, and
abound everywhere.
THE COMMON MOUSE (Mus musculus] is almost
too well known to' require more than a passing notice.
The fur exhibits an ashy-brown colour, which becomes
lighter underneath the belly. Its ears are about half
as long as the head ; the tail being rather shorter than
the body. This elegant little animal is extraordinarily
prolific, the female breeding at all seasons of the year,
and usually producing five or six young at a birth.
White varieties are very common.
Speaking of the methods adopted for destroying these
pests, Mr. Bell remarks as follows : — " In addition to
the usual means employed for then- extermination, such
as traps of various kinds, and the carnivorous instinct
of the cat, the ferret, and the weasel, there still exists
in Wales a custom so disgustingly cruel that the very
mention of it would be scarcely pardonable but for the
possibility of thus producing some degree of shame in
the perpetrators of it, and consequently saving some
poor little mice from being the victims of such barbarity.
It is customary in some parts of Wales to roast a mouse
alive, hanging it before the fire by its tail tied to a string,
that its screams may scare the rest from the house."
MI-RID.E. MAMMALIA.
135
As this statement was originally penned some twenty
years ago, we indulge the hope that sounder principles
of humanity have at length reached the western borders
of our isle ; and if they have, we shall hail with plea-
sure any information on this head.
THE HARVEST MOUSE (Mu.s messorius) has a red-
dish-brown fur above, being white underneath. The
ears are comparatively short. The body is only two and
a half inches long. The tail is prehensile. This species
constructs its nest in the form of a ball, which is sus-
pended amongst rushes, or placed amongst the leaves
of some strong wild plant, such as the common thistle.
It has been known to devour flies with avidity. Eight
or nine young are produced at a single litter.
THE LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE (Mas sylvaticus)
resembles the foregoing in the colouring of the fur, but
is distinguished by a brownish spot on the breast, wliile
the ears are much longer, and the tail about the length
of the body, including the head. This species proves
terribly destructive in our corn-fields ; but its diet is
not exclusively granivorous, as it has been known to
eat young birds, and even its own species. It is rather
more than three and a half inches in length, exclusive
of the tail.
THE BARBARY MOUSE (Mus Barbarus] is an
inhabitant of northern Africa. The fur has a dark-
brown colour, the sides being prettily marked with five
or six yellowish longitudinal bands, which run parallel,
and extend from the neck to the rump. Two of the
toes on the fore-foot are rudimentary. This species is
also known as the Palmetto mouse.
DARWIN'S MOUSE (Mus Darwinii) is a native of
Coquimbo. It measures rather more than five inches
in length, not including the tail. The colour of the fur
is a mixture of cinnamon and black, the under parts of
the body and the feet being white. The ears are very
large and nearly naked. The tail is brownish-black
superiorly.
THE BLACK RAT (Mus Ratttis)— Plate 15, fig. 48 —
is indigenous in Europe. In this country it is not
so abundant as formerly, in consequence of the intro-
duction of the brown species, which persecutes and
destroys it. It is chiefly distinguished by the greyish-
black fur, and by the tail, which is a little longer than
the body. The ears are half as large as the head. Its
habits are omnivorous. It increases rapidly, the female
producing from seven to nine young at a birth.
THE BROWN RAT (Mm decumanus) is also termed
the Norway Rat, from an old and erroneous notion that
it was indigenous in that country. This is now the
common species here, and its destructive habits are
only equalled by its boldness and ferocity. It is even
more prolific than the above, the female producing as
many as twelve or fourteen young at a litter.
THE BANDICOOT RAT (Mus giganteus) is a huge
species inhabiting India, and measuring thirteen or
fourteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail. It is a
very mischievous beast, undermining houses and places
where stores of grain are kept, and also commits great
havoc in gardens, besides sometimes attacking poultry.
The low cast Hindoos are very partial to its flesh.
THE TIKUS-WLROK (Mus sctifer) is a species of rat
inhabiting Java. The fur is of a brownish-black colour,
and is distinguished by " numerous rigid hairs, which
are scattered over the upper parts of the body, and
project widely from the general covering." According
to Dr. Horsfield, it rarely approaches the dwellings of
the natives, and is generally found at the confines of
woods and forests.
THE AMERICAN FIELD MOUSE (Mus leucopus)
may be considered as the representative of our long-
tailed Mus sylvatlcus. Sir John Richardson states that
this mouse does considerable mischief in gardens, and
will destroy an entire plantation of maize in a few
nights. The fur exhibits a bluish-brown colour, being
white underneath the belly. Specimens, taken from
the Columbia river district, measured four and a quarter
inches.
THE LABRADOR JUMPING MOUSE (Meriones Labra-
dorius) is very abundant throughout the fur countries.
The fur has a liver-brown colour above, becoming
yellowish at the sides and underneath. The hind legs
are very long, and stouter than those in front. The
body is about four and a half inches in length, exclusive
of the tail, which measures five and a quarter inches.
THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN RAT (Neotoma Drum-
mondii) has a yellowish-brown fur, which is white
beneath the belly ; but it is principally distinguished
by a bushy, hairy tail, in winch respect we perceive an
approach to the squirrel. It lives in crevices of the
higher rocks, its food consisting principally of herbage
and the twigs of pine trees. The body measures nine
inches, exclusive of the tail, which is still longer.
THE HYDROMYS (Hydromys leucogagter^.—TvfO
varieties have been described, but they are by some
considered to be one and the same species. They have
been termed, respectively, the white-bellied and the
yellow-bellied Hydromys. They are aquatic animals,
about twice as large as an ordinary rat. They have
only four molar teeth. The hind feet are pentadacty-
lous ; the posterior being semipalmate. The tail is
remarkably thick at the root, and only thinly haired.
These animals are found at Van Diemen's Land, and
other islands off the coast of Australia.
THE HAMSTER ( Cricetus frumentarius) is a well-
known European animal, found in various parts of
Russia, Germany, and especially in Thuringia, as well
as in Siberia. It lives in subterranean holes, where it
hoards up large stores of grain. It is torpid during the
whiter months. The fur is greyish-yellow above, and
black inferiorly, and it is marked by three spots on each
side ; these marks being sometimes light-coloured, and
at other times quite black. The Hamster possesses
several pouches, and the tail is very short and hairy.
The fore-feet are tetradactylous.
THE PHLOZOMYS (Phlceomys Cummingii) is a com-
paratively large animal from the Philippine islands.
The fur has a blackish-brown colour generally, with a
reddish tinge on the back. Its length is nearly twenty
inches, excluding the tail, which is not so long as the
body. The fore-feet are four-toed ; the claws being
large, compressed, and curved inwards. It was first
described by Mr. Waterhouse, in the proceedings 01
the Zoological Society for the year 1839.
There are many other murine genera and species,
for whose consideration we have not sufficient space.
136
ARVICOLJD.E. MAMMALIA. ARVICOLIDJE.
FAMILY V.— ARVICOLID^.
The Swimming Arvicoles or Voles are distinguished
from the true mice chiefly by the character of the teeth.
The incisors are large, chisel-shaped, and coloured
deep yellow in front ; the molars have flat crowns pre-
senting enamelled folds, in the form of alternating
triangles, on either side. The fore-feet are tetradac-
tylous, with a rudimentary thumb. The muzzle is
obtuse, and the ears are not large. The tail is rather
short, rounded, and hairy.
THE WATER EAT (Arvicola amphibia} has a very
close, thick, and shining fur of a rich reddish-brown
colour, which becomes paler inferiorly (fig. 46). Its
habits are almost too well known to require des-
cription. Frequenting the banks of almost every stream,
canal, or dyke in this country, it constructs its bur-
rows upwards from the water's edge. "It dives
Fig. 46.
The AYater Rat (Arvicola amphibia).
and swims with great facility, instantly seeking the
water upon every alarm, and plunging at once to the
bottom ; from whence, however, it is obliged to return
to the surface for respiration about every minute. It
has often been asserted that the water vole lives upon
small fish, earthworms, and insects, and it has even been
accused of destroying young ducks. There is not, how-
ever," observes Mr. Bell, " the slightest foundation for
this opinion." It feeds on roots and various aquatic
plants. The female produces five or six young at a
single birth.
THE FIELD VOLE (Arvicola agrestis), or MEADOW
MOUSE, is about four inches in length, exclusive of the
tail, which measures rather more than an inch. Its
habits are extremely destructive. It feeds on various
vegetable matters, grain, &c., and is particularly fond of
carrots. It is very prolific, the female producing from
five to seven young at a birth. The best method of
destroying these pests is by entrapping them in holes
excavated in the ground; these pits should be wider
below than above.
THE BANK VOLE (Arvicola riparia} is, in common
with the foregoing, a native of Europe. It is three
inches and a quarter long, and the fur is of a bright
chestnut red above and greyish beneath. The tail is
about half the length of the body. It is not very
abundant in Britain, and but little is known respecting
its habits.
THE YELLOW-CHEEKED VOLE (Arvicola xantho-
gnathus) is an American species, and is abundant in the
neighbourhood of Fort Franklin, and also among the
Rocky Mountains, especially in localities where the
woods have been destroyed by fire. Its habits are
similar to those of the common water rat. Length of
the body is from five to eight inches. The females
produce seven young at a birth.
WILSON'S VOLE (Arvicola Pennsylvanicus) is, ac-
cording to Sir John Richardson, very abundant from
Canada to Great Bear Lake. It infests barns and
storehouses, where it hoards up grain and seeds of
various kinds ; it is said also to be very partial to the
bulbs of the Philadelphia lily. The body is about
three and a half inches long, the fur being brownish
and white underneath.
RICHARDSON'S VOLE (Arvicola borcalis), or NOR-
THERN MEADOW MOUSE, is about four and a half inches
long, exclusive of the short tail, which measures only
an inch. Its habits are similar to those of the Yellow-
Cheeked species. It is found in abundance on the
borders of the Great Bear Lake. The fur has a chest-
nut tinge mixed with black ; under the belly it is greyish.
THE SCANDINAVIAN LEMMING (Myodes Lemmus)
is about the size of an ordinary rat. The fur is of a
ruddy yellow colour, variegated with black. Its proper
residence is among the mountains of Norway and
Sweden, but it has a remarkable propensity to emi-
grate at certain periods. Van der Hoeven remarks, that
on these occasions multitudes of them " eat everything
bare on the road, like locusts. This usually forbodes
a hard winter. The number of these animals thus
suddenly appearing in situations where they were pre-
viously unknown, gave occasion in former times to the
strange opinion that they descended from the clouds."
It is sometimes called on this account the NORTHERN
MOUSE OF PASSAGE.
THE GREENLAND LEMMING (Myodes Greenlandi-
c?/s)— Plate 15, fig. 49 — was first described by Dr.
Traill, from a specimen procured by the distinguished
navigator, Captain Scoresby. The body is six and a
quarter inches in length, the tail measuring only three-
quarters of an inch. There are no external ears. The
fore-feet are hairy beneath, the digital claws being
rounded and sharply pointed. The central line of the
back is marked by a dark band. The muzzle terminates
in a sharp nose. The eyes are near each other, and
comparatively small.
THE HUDSON'S BAY LEMMING (Myodes Hudsonius)
is scarcely so large as the preceding, and, according to
Richardson, is distinguished by the two central claws
of the fore-feet being unusually large ; they are like-
wise compressed, " their very blunt extremity being
rendered double by a deep transverse notch." Although
this species is very easily tamed, very little is known
respecting its habits.
BACK'S LEMMING (Myodes trimucronatus] inha-
bits the wooded districts of North America, and is
named after Captain Back, who first discovered it on
the banks of Point Lake. Sir John Richardson states,
CASTORID.*:. MAMMALIA. CASTORID.E.
137
that " in the winter it travels under the snow in a
semi-cylindrical furrow, very neatly cut to the depth of
two inches and a half in the mossy turf. These hollow
ways cross each other at various angles, but occasion-
ally run to a considerable distance in a straight direc-
tion. From their smoothness, it was evident that they
were not merely worn by the feet, but actually cut by
the teeth." The muzzle of this species is blunt, and
the nose of a black colour ; the fur has a chestnut hue,
being greyish underneath.
THE SLEPEZ (Spalax typhlus), or BLIND MOLE-
RAT, is a very singular animal (fig. 47). It is also
Fie. 47.
The Slepez or Blind Mole-rat (Spalax typhlus).
known by the names of Podolian Mai-mot, Zemni, and
Sfochor Nomon, the latter name being that employed by
the Cossacks. It is characterized by the presence of
large incisor teeth, and twelve complex molars. The
head is even broader than the body, flat on the crown,
and truncated in front. There are no ears ; whilst the
eyes are almost rudimentary, being represented by tiny
specks partly concealed by the fur. The limbs and
feet are short, and armed with small claws. The fur is
soft, dense, and of an ashy-grey colour, inclining to red.
This animal, observes Mr. Broderip, "burrows exten-
sively beneath the tuif, driving at intervals lateral pass-
ages in its search for roots, particularly that of the
bulbous Chcerophyllum. Openings to the surface occur
at distances of some yards from each other, and there
the earth is raised into hillocks, sometimes of two yards
in circumference, and of considerable height. It works
stoutly and rapidly, and on the approach of an enemy
instantly digs a perpendicular burrow. Though it can-
not see, it lifts its head in a menacing attitude towards
its assailant, and when irritated snorts and gnashes its
teeth, but emits no cry ; its bite is very severe. In the
morning it often quits its hole, and during the season
of love basks in the sun with the female." According
to a popular superstition in the Ukraine, any one who
has squeezed this animal to death in his hand, and who
has been bitten by it in so doing, has conferred on him-
self the power of curing goitre by merely touching those
who are suffering from this disease. The Slepez is
about eight inches in length.
FAMILY VI.— CASTORID^E.
The Beavers are readily distinguished from all other
Rodents by their flattened scaly tail, which in the typical
species has an oval outline. The molar teeth are
VOL. I.
twelve in number; they have flattened crowns, the
inner border of the upper series being marked by a
single enamelled fold, and the outer by three folds;
this complicated arrangement is reversed in the lower
series (fig. 42). The feet are pentadactylous, the digits
of the hinder feet being clothed at the margins by long
hairs. The tail is more than half the length of the body,
being double-edged towards the free end, and covered
throughout with scales and short hairs. The habits of
the beavers are aquatic. Fossil remains of several spe-
cies have been found in various parts of Europe ; some
of those obtained from the crag deposits in Norfolk and
Suffolk differing in several respects from the
skeletons of those now living, and being, in the
view of Professor Owen, clearly distinctive of
a much larger species. There can be no doubt,
however, that the Beaver, which, though scarce,
is still living in- Europe, formerly abounded in
Great Britain ; and there is every reason to
believe that it is identical with the American
species, which we have now to describe.
THE COMMON BEAVER (Castor fiber} —
Plate 15, fig. 50.— This well-known animal is
one of the largest, and at the same tune the
most interesting of all the Rodents, and con-
sequently demands at our hands a more length-
ened consideration than any of the foregoing.
The body measures nearly three and a half feet in
length, exclusive of the tail, which would give another
eleven or twelve inches. Ordinarily the fur has a
rich reddish-brown colour; though in some cases it
is spotted, in others black, and in a third rare variety
quite white. In Europe the Beaver occurs sparingly
along the banks of the Rhone, the Danube, and the
Weser; but in the northern districts of Canada it is
still very abundant in places. At one time such were
the multitudes destroyed annually, that it was feared this
useful animal would become totally extinct. To pre-
vent this, however, the furriers of the Hudson's Bay
Company and certain Indian tribes, have adopted
arrangements by which a moderate supply of furs
will always be forthcoming, for the manufacture
of hats and other articles. The most interesting
circumstance in the history of these animals is the
extraordinary skill they display in the construction of
their dams and dwellings. Many excellent records of
their habits, in this particular, have from time to time
appeared ; but for minuteness and accuracy of detail
none have equalled the account given by the traveller
Hearne in his " Journey to the Northern Ocean."
We shall, therefore, record his observations in extenso,
which are as follows : — " Where the beavers are
numerous, they are found to inhabit lakes, ponds, and
rivers, as well as those narrow creeks which connect
the numerous lakes with which this country abounds ;
but the two latter are generally chosen by them, when
the depth of water and other circumstances are suit-
able, as they have then the advantage of a current to
convey wood and other necessaries to their habitations,
and because in general they are more difficult to be
j taken than those that are buOt in standing water.
j They always choose those parts that have such a depth
! of water as will resist the frost in winter, and prevent
138
CASTORID.E. MAMMALIA. CASTORID.E.
it from freezing to the bottom. The beavers that
build their houses in small rivers and creeks, in which
water is liable to be drained off when the back supplies
are dried up by the frost, are wonderfully taught by
instinct to provide against that evil by making a dam
quite across the river, at a convenient distance from
their houses. The beaver dams differ in shape accord-
ing to the nature of the place in which they are built.
If the water in the river or creek have but little motion,
the dam is almost straight ; but when the current is
more rapid, it is always made with a considerable
curve, convex towards the stream. The materials
made use of are driftwood, green willows, birch, and
poplars, if they can be got; also, mud and stones
intermixed in such a manner as must evidently con-
tribute to the strength of the dam; but there is no
other order or method observed in the dams, except
that of the work being carried on with a regular sweep,
and all the parts being made of equal strength. In
places which have been long frequented by beavers
undisturbed, their dams by frequent repairing become
a solid bank, capable of resisting a strong force both of
water and ice ; and as the willow, poplar, and birch
generally take root and shoot up, they by degrees form
a regular kind of planted hedge, which I have seen in
some places so tall that birds have built then- nests
among the branches. The beaver houses are built of
the same materials as their dams, and are always pro-
portioned in size to the number of inhabitants, which
seldom exceeds four old and six or eight young ones ;
though by chance I have seen above double that num-
ber. Instead of order or regulation being observed hi
rearing their houses, they are of much ruder structure
than their dams ; for, notwithstanding the sagacity of
these animals, it has never been observed that they
aim at any other convenience in their houses than to
have a diy place to lie on ; and there they usually eat
their victuals, which they occasionally take out of the
water. It frequently happens that some of the large
houses are found to have one or more partitions, if they
deserve that appellation ; but it is no more than a part
of the main building, left by the sagacity of the beaver
to support the roof. On such occasions it is common
for those different apartments, as some are pleased to
call them, to have no communication with each other
but by water; so that, in fact, they may be called
double or treble houses, rather than different apart-
ments of the same house. I have seen a large beaver
house built in a small island, that had near a dozen
apartments under one roof ; and, two or three of these
only excepted, none of them had any communication
with each other but by water. As there were beavers
enough to inhabit each apartment, it is more probable
that each family knew their own, and always entered
at their own doors, without any further connection
with then- neighbours than a friendly intercourse, and
to join their united labours in erecting then* separate
habitations, and building then" dams where required.
Travellers who assert that the beavers have two doors
to their houses, one on the land side and the other
next the water, seem to be less acquainted with these
animals than those who assign to them an elegant suite
of apartments. Such a construction would render
then- houses of no use, either to protect them from
their enemies or guard them against the extreme cold
of winter. So far are the beavers from driving stakes
into the ground when building their houses, that they
lay most of the wood crossways and nearly horizontal,
and without any other order than that of leaving a
hollow or cavity in the middle. When any unneces-
sary branches project inward they cut them off with i
then- teeth, and throw them in among the rest to i
prevent the mud from falling through the roof. It is a
mistaken notion that the wood-work is first completed
and then plastered ; for the whole of their houses, as
well as their dams, are from the foundation one mass of
mud and wood mixed with stones, if they can be pro-
cured. The mud is always taken from the edge of the
bank, or the bottom of the creek or pond, near the door
of the house ; and though their fore-paws are small,
yet it is held so close up between them under their
throat that they carry both mud and stones, while they
always drag the wood with then- teeth. All then-
work is executed in the night ; and they are so expe-
ditious that in the course of one night I have known
them to have collected as much mud as amounted to
some thousands of their little handfuls. It is a great
piece of policy in these animals to cover the outside of
then- houses every fall with fresh mud, and as late as
possible in the autumn, even when the frost becomes
pretty severe; as by this means it soon freezes as hard
as a stone, and prevents their common enemy, the
wolverene, from disturbing them during the winter.
And as they are frequently seen to walk over them,
and sometimes to give a flap with then- tail, particu-
larly when plunging into the water, this has, without
doubt, given rise to the vulgar opinion that they used
then" tails as a trowel with which they plaster their
houses ; whereas that flapping of the tail is no more
than a custom which they always preserve even when
they become tame and domestic, and more particularly
so when they are startled. Then- food consists of a
large root, something resembling a cabbage stalk,
which grows at the bottom of the lakes and rivers
(the plant being, according to Sir John Richardson,
the yellow water lily, Nuphar luteum). They also
eat the bark of trees, particularly those of the poplar,
birch, and willow ; but, the ice preventing them from
getting to the land in the winter, they have not any
barks to feed on during that season, except that of
such sticks as they cut down in summer, and throw
into the water opposite the doors of their houses;
and as they generally eat a great deal, the roots above
mentioned constitute a principal part of their food
during the winter. In summer they vary their diet by
eating various kinds of herbage, and such berries as '
grow near their haunts during that season. When the
ice breaks up in the spring the Beavers always leave
their houses, and rove about until little before the fall
of the leaf, when they return again to their old habita-
tions, and lay in their winter stock of wood. They
seldom begin to repair the houses till the frost com-
mences, and never finish the outer coat till the cold is
pretty severe, as hath been already mentioned. When
they erect a new habitation they begin felling the
wood early in summer, but seldom begin to build until
CASTORID.E. MAMMALIA. HYSTRICID.E.
the middle or latter end of August, and never com-
plete it till the cold weather be set in." Further on
our author remarks, that " in respect to the Beavers
dunging in their houses, as some persons assert, it is
quite wrong, as they always plunge into water to do it.
I am the better enabled to make this assertion from
having kept several of them till they became so
domesticated as to answer to their name and follow
those to whom they were accustomed, in the same
manner as a dog would do, and they were as much
pleased at being fondled as any animal I ever saw.
In cold weather they were kept in my own sitting-room,
where they were the constant companions of the Indian
women and children, and were so fond of their com-
pany, that when the Indians were absent for any con-
siderable time, the Beavers displayed great signs of
uneasiness; and on their return showed equal marks
of pleasure by fondling on them, crawling into their
laps, lying on their backs, sitting erect like a squirrel,
and behaving like children who see their parents but
seldom. In general, during the winter, they lived on
the same food as the women did, and were remarkably
fond of rice and plum-pudding. They would eat par-
tridges and fresh venison very freely, but I never tried,
them with fish, though I have heard they will at times
prey on them." The flesh of the beaver is considered
to be a luxury by the Indians, especially if roasted with
the skin on. Sir John Richardson says that its flavour is
like that of pork, and that it sits heavy on the stomach,
requiring strong digestive powers for its assimilation.
The female beaver is provided with eight teats, and
usually produces about the middle or towards the end
of May a litter of from four to eight or even nine young.
The voice of the cub resembles the cry of an infant.
THE MUSQUASH (Castor zebethictui), MUSK-RAT, or
ONDATRA, is a small kind of beaver, having a strong
musky odour, which some consider to be pleasant.
The body is fourteen inches in length, exclusive of the
tail, which measures about nine inches. The hind
feet are not webbed. The fur has a ruddy-brown
colour generally, being darker on the head and along
the central line of the back. The tail is flattish, rounded
at the sides, and blunt at the extremity. The Musquash
inhabits marshes and lakes, and the grassy banks of
sluggish rivers in North America, between the latitudes
of thirty and sixty-nine degrees. It feeds chiefly on
vegetable matters, but it would appear to be very par-
tial to fresh-water mussels. These animals construct
huts on a small scale, somewhat after the fashion of
their more powerful congeners, the huts being of simple
construction and proportionately small ; the interior is
lined with dry grass, the aperture of access being under
the water. They are much hunted by the Indians, who
spear them whilst they are snugly ensconced within
their humble dwellings. Several hundred thousand
skins are annually imported into England.
THE COYPU (Myopotamus Coypus)— Plate 16, fig.
51 — is by some naturalists placed among the Hystri-
cidce, but in the arrangement and character of its teeth
it corresponds with the beavers. The tail, however,
is not compressed, but rounded and hairy ; while the
fifth toe of the hind feet projects beyond the web-like
membrane which conjoins the remaining toes. The
fur has a dusky-brown colour generally, the tip of the
muzzle and chin being whitish ; whilst a yellow patch
occurs on either side of the head immediately beneath
the opening of the ear. The Coypu, which is nearly
as large as the common beaver, is an inhabitant of the
rivers and streams of South America, on both sides
of the Andes. It is not exclusively confined to fresh-
water lakes and streams, for Mr. Darwin states that it
is abundant in the Chonas Archipelago, living in the
bays and channels formed by the small and numerous
islands of that group. Like the musquash, it appears to
be fond of shell-fish. The flesh is said to be excellent
eating. By the South American traders the furs are
sold under the title of otter skins, several hundred thou-
sand being annually imported into Europe.
FAMILY VII.— HYSTRICID^).
The Porcupines are readily distinguished by the pos-
session of stiff, rigid bristles or quills, similar to those
found in the Hedgehogs; their characteristic rodent
incisors, however, at once showing the order with which
they are properly associated. The molar teeth are
sixteen in number ; they have flat crowns, marked by
undulating lines of enamel, transversely disposed and
slightly raised above the dentine. The tongue is rough
and armed with horny scales. They have fourteen
ribs. The clavicles are almost fully developed, being
articulated to the sternum, but only loosely connected
to the scapula by ligamentous bands. They have five
toes behind, the anterior feet being tetradactylous, and
the rudimentary thumb merely represented by a warty
tubercle. The Porcupines inhabit the warmer regions,
both of the eastern and western hemispheres. They
live in burrows, emerging only to feed upon roots, young
shoots of shrubs and trees, as well as bark and various
kinds of fruit.
THE COMMON PORCUPINE (Histrix cristata)— Plate
16, fig. 52 — is an inhabitant of Southern Europe and
Northern Africa, being, in the former continent, found
in Italy, Sicily, and Spain. The body is about two feet
long, including the short tail ; its colour is grizzled or
variegated, owing to the alternating shades of white,
brown, and black with which the quills are marked.
On the back of the head, the neck, and on the hinder
parts, the quills are represented by stiff bristly hairs ;
those on the tail form hollow horny tubes suspended
by slender stalks, which, though originally closed at
the ends, become subsequently opened by continual
use — the animal delighting to shake them together
with the view of creating a peculiar rattling sound.
The longest spines are considerably thicker than an
ordinary goose quill, and are upwards of twelve inches
in length. The habits of the Porcupine are nocturnal,
and its food consists of vegetable matters, such as
roots, fruits, young shoots, and leaves. During the
coldest winter months it hybernates for a short period,
retreating within its capacious burrow, which has gene-
rally two or more apertures of ingress. Finally, it is
almost superfluous to remark, that this animal has no
power of shooting its quills, as some have imagined. •
THE CANADA PORCUPINE (Histrix pilosa) has a
tolerably wide distribution in North America, being
140
HYSTKICID.E MAMMALIA.
found between the latitudes of thirty-seven and sixty-
seven degrees. It has been known from the earliest
times, and has the credit of being a remarkably sluggish
animal. It makes its burrow chiefly among the roots
of old trees, and is most abundant in sandy districts,
where it feeds upon the bark of the banksian pine and
other conifers. On being disturbed, it utters a whining
cry. From the observations of Sir John Richardson, it
would seem that this species has the power of detaching
its quills ! " It is readily attacked," he says, " by Indian
dogs, and soon killed, but not without injury to its
assailants, for its quills, which it erects when attacked,
are rough, with minute teeth directed backwards, that
have the effect of rendering this seemingly weak and
flexible weapon a very dangerous one. Their points,
which are pretty sharp, have no sooner insinuated them-
selves into the skin of an assailant than they gradually
bury themselves, and travel onwards until they cause
death by wounding some vital organ. These spines,
which are detached from the porcupine by the slightest
touch, and probably by the will of the animal, soon fill
the mouths of the dogs which worry it, and unless the
Indian women carefully pick them out, seldom fail to
kill them. Wolves occasionally die from the same
cause." The flesh of this porcupine is coarse, but
appears to be enjoyed by the Indians. The female
produces two young at a birth, usually towards the
latter part of the spring. The fur has a liver-brown
colour, the spines being more or less white.
THE BRAZILIAN PORCUPINE (Synetheres prehen-
silis), or COENDOU, is a native of Guiana, and bears a
general resemblance to the above, especially in its
habits, which are nocturnal. It is peculiar, however,
in presenting a long prehensile tail, which is thinly
haired and annulated towards the free extremity. The
hind feet are tetradactylous. Like the Canadian species
its movements are very sluggish ; but it is materially
assisted in climbing trees by its tail, which organ is even
more usefully employed during its downward progress ;
it is also no less than eighteen inches in length. The
coendou is further characterized by a short abrupt
muzzle armed with long white whiskers.
THE JAVANESE PORCUPINE (Hystrix fasiculata]
is a small species measuring little more than a foot in
length, while the tail would add only another four or
five inches. This organ has very few hairs on it, their
place being supplied by flat blackish scales, arranged
in the form of rings ; at the tip, however, there is a tuft
of long flat bristles, bearing, as remarked by Buffon, a
resemblance to narrow slips of parchment cut in an
irregular manner, the tuft being about two inches long,
and of a white colour. The general colour of the body
is that of a dusky-brown. Its habits are like those of
its congeners. When irritated it bristles up its spines,
and looks capable of resisting almost any enemy. It
is not confined to Java, but is found on the Malayan
peninsula, and on most of the islands of the Indian
Archipelago.
There arc many other Rodent forms which have
been grouped together into various subfamilies. Of
these we need only mention the genera Cercolabes,
sEckimys, Capromys, Aulacodus, Loncheres, and Cer-
comys, which are pretty closely allied. The genera
Orycterus and Bathieryus are associated together in
Dr. J. E. Gray's arrangement — under the family
ASPALACID^E — the last-named genus being represented j
by several interesting species. Among these may be
mentioned—
THE SHORE MOLE (Buthiergus maritiimis), which is
a native of Southern Africa. It is provided with very
large incisors, the upper ones being grooved longi-
tudinally. This peculiarity is not found in those
members of the family occupying the sand-hills of the
interior. All of the species, however, possess sixteen
molars, which have the crowns divided by a transverse
line of enamel. They have no ears, very small eyes,
and short tails. The fore-feet are furnished with
strong fossorial claws, that of the second digit being
particularly large. They feed principally on roots.
FAMILY VIII.— OCTODONTID.E.
The species included under this head have no true
roots to their molar teeth ; these organs usually display
only a single fold of enamel on either side of their flat-
tened crowns, but in a few instances a second fold is
observable on the inside of the lower series. The hind
feet are in most cases pentadactylous, but in some
tetradactylous. The members of this family, though
of small bulk, are comparatively strong, and well adapted
for burrowing under ground. They are found in the
South American continent, especially in the central and
more southern districts. With few exceptions, the
whole structure of their skeleton, the form of their
skull, and the stout fore-limbs, armed with powerful
claws, demonstrate their adaptability to a subterraneous
mode of existence.
CUMING'S OCTODON (Octodon degut), is a native of
Chili, and is sometimes called the CHILIAN SQUIRREL,
from the habit it has of scrambling up bushes and low
brushwood. The fur has a brownish-yellow colour
generally, and is very pale underneath. The ears are
conspicuous, rounded, and thinly haired. The thumbs
of the fore-feet are only feebly developed ; while the
claws of ah1 the" toes are somewhat concealed by the
hair, especially those of the hind feet. The food ot
these animals consists mostly of herbage, but in times
of scarcity they feed upon the bark of species of mimosa
and oestrum. Mr. Darwin states that they may be
seen by hundreds in the hedgerows and thickets of
central Chili, and that their numerous burrows freely
intercommunicate. Their habits resemble those of
rabbits, and they prove veiy destructive to fields of
young corn ; when disturbed while feeding, they scam-
per off to the hedgerows with their tails uplifted.
THE SCHIZODON (Schizodon fuscus) inhabits the
eastern slopes of the southern Andes. The fur has a
deep brown colour above, while it exhibits a pale
yellowish tint below. This animal was first discovered
by Mr. Bridges, who found it in the Valle de las
Cuevas, at a height from between five to seven thou-
sand feet above the level of the sea. Its habits are
nocturnal, but it seldom comes out of its burrows,
which are by preference made in grassy swamps, near
to small mountain streams.
POPPIG'S SPALACOPUS (Spalacopttt nociii'ogim} is
CHIXCHILI.ID.E. MAMMALIA. CHIXCHILLID.E.
141
also an inhabitant of Chili, possessing habits very simi-
lar to the above. The fur is glossy, and displays a
rich purple-brown and blackish tint. The incisors are
smooth and of a pale yellow colour in front. The
molars are so uniformly indented
on either side, that each resembles
a figure of eight. The ears are
very small, the tail being parti-
cularly short. The claws of the
feet are compressed and curved
inwards; those of the fore-feet
are rather shorter than the toes.
BENNETT'S HABROCOME
(Habrocoma Bennettii) and an-
other species — H. Cuvieri —
constitute a distinct genus, which
in the structure of the skeleton,
approaches very closely to the
Chinchillas. The auditory bullce
are remarkably large, while there
are no less than seventeen pairs
of ribs. The incisor teeth are
narrow; the crowns of the superior
molars have a single fold inter-
nally, those of the lower being
angular in form and directed
obliquely forward. These animals
have rather large and thinly-
haired ears. The whiskers are
particularly long. The feet are four-toed, and the
tail is moderately developed. The fur is very soft
and thick.
THE BRAZILIAN CTENOMYS (Ctenomys Brazilien-
sis) is an inhabitant of the continent from whence it
owes its specific name, and also of La Plata, Paraguay,
and Bolivia. The molar teeth are simple, decreasing
in size from before backwards; the last has a semi-
cylindrical form, that of the upper series being ob-
liquely lunated, with the concavity directed outwards,
whilst that oi the lower group is oval. The eyes are
small, the ears only rudimentary ; the tail being rather
short and covered with adpressed hairs. The fore-
feet are furnished with powerful claws, at the base of
which are numerous strong bristle-like hairs directed
inwards. Its habits resemble those of the family
generally. Several other species are known.
FAMILY IX.— CHIXCHILLID^E.
The Chinchillas are closely allied to the previous
family, having four rootless molars on either side of
each jaw, and simple, smooth incisors ; the molar teeth
being made up of narrow, parallel plates of dentine,
transversely disposed and surrounded by enamel. In
addition to these characteristic marks, the Chinchillas
have their posterior limbs nearly twice as long as the
anterior pair. The tail is also much developed, and
tufted with long bristly hairs at the extremity. The
ears are remarkably large, the internal auditory bul'ce
being also extensively developed. The clavicles are
well formed. The Chinchillas are natives of the South
American continent.
THE CHINCHILLA (Chinchilla lanigera} measures
about nine inches long, exclusive of the tail, which
would add some five or six inches more. The fur has
an ashy-grey colour generally, being much paler nnder-
Fig. 48.
The Chinchilla (Chinchilla
igera).
neath. The eyes are large and full, while the broad
ears are particularly attractive ; the whiskers are cor-
respondingly extensive (fig. 48). The anterior feet
are pentadactylous, the internal toe or thumb being
very small ; the posterior feet have only four digits.
The fur is beautifully soft and delicate, and conse-
quently fetches a comparatively high price ; multitudes
being destroyed annually for the purposes of sale, &c.
In regard to its habits, the best account that we have
is that given by the Italian naturalist, Molina. " This
little animal," he says, " lives in burrows under ground,
in the open country in the northern provinces of Chili,
and is very fond of being in company with others of its
species. It feeds upon the roots of various bulbous
plants, which grow abundantly in those parts ; and pro-
duces twice a year five or six young ones. It is so
docile and mild in temper, that if taken into the hands
it neither bites nor tries to escape, but seems to take a
pleasure in being caressed. If placed in the bosom,
it remains there as still and quiet as if it were in its
own nest. This extraordinary placidity may possibly
be rather due to its pusillanimity, which renders it
extremely timid. As it is in itself peculiarly cleanly,
there can be no fear of its soiling the clothes of those
who handle it, or of its communicating any bad smell
to them, for it is entirely free from that ill odour which
characterizes the other species of rats. For this reason
it might well be kept in houses without annoyance and
at a trifling expense, which would be abundantly repaid
by the profits on its wool. The ancient Peruvians, who
were far more industrious than the modern, made
coverlets for beds and valuable stuffs out of this fur."
The Chinchillas are fortunately extremely prolific,
otherwise they would have been extinct long ago. A
142
CHINCHILLIIXE. MAMMALIA.-
female preserved in the Zoological Society's Gardens,
Regent's Park, produced seven young ones at a single
litter. From eighty to a hundred thousand skins are
annually imported into this country.
THE CHINCHA (Lagotis Cuvien) is about the size
of an ordinary rabbit, possessing long ears and a
greyish-coloured fur. All the feet are tetradactylous,
the digits being furnished with rather small claws; each
molar tooth is made up of three laminae ; the whiskers
are very long, some ten or twelve of the bristles being
particularly stout. This animal lives on the western
slopes of the Andes, and has often been confounded
with the viscacha, from which, however, it is quite
distinct. According to Ulloa's observations, as quoted
by Mr. Bennett, the CHINCHAS " conceal themselves
in holes of the rocks, in which they make their retreats,
not forming burrows in the earth, like rabbits. There
they congregate in considerable numbers, and are
mostly seen in a sitting posture, but not eating ; they
feed on the herbs and shrubs that grow among the
rocks, and are very active. Then- means of escape do
not consist in the velocity of their flight, but in the
promptitude with which they run to the shelter of their
holes. This they commonly do when wounded, for
which reason the mode of killing is by shooting them
in the head." There is a second species, the Lagotis
pallipes of Bennett, which closely resembles its fellow.
One remarkable peculiarity possessed by these animals
consists in the caducous character of their fur; this
immediately after death, falls off on the slightest touch,
so that, in an economic point of view, the skin is
rendered almost valueless.
THE VISCACHA (Lagostomus trichodactylus) is also
known by the names of BISCACHO and MARMOT DIANA.
It lives on the eastern declivities of the Andes, and is
quite distinct from the chincha, which occupies the
western slopes of the same chain of mountains. Vari-
ous interesting accounts of the habits of this species
have been given by different writers, and more par-
ticularly by Darwin, Bennett, and Dobrizhoffer. These
records are in general very similar, though differing
in a few particulars. Mr. Darwin states that in the
evening the Viscachas come out of their holes " in
great numbers, and there sit quietly on their haunches.
They are, at such times, very tame, and a man on horse-
back passing by, seems only to present an object for
their grave contemplation. They do not wander far
from then* burrows. They run very awkwardly, and
when hurrying out of danger, from their elevated tails
and short front legs, much resemble great rats. Their
flesh when cooked is very white and good, but it is
seldom used. The Viscacha has one very singular habit,
namely, dragging every hard object to the mouth of its
burrow. Around each group of holes many bones of
cattle, stones, thistle-stalks, hard clumps of earth, dry
dung, &c., are collected into a heap, which frequently
amounts to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain.
I was credibly informed," adds Mr. Darwin, " that a
gentleman, when riding in a dark night, dropped his
watch ; he returned in the morning, and by searching
in the neighbourhood of every viscacha-hole on the
line of road, as he expected, soon found it. This habit
of picking up whatever may be lying on the ground
anywhere near its habitation, must cost much trouble.
For what purpose it is done I am unable to form the
most remote conjecture ; it cannot be for defence,
because the rubbish is chiefly placed above the mouth
of the burrow, which enters the ground at a very small
inclination." The fur of the Viscacha has a greyish-
dusky colour, the tail is brownish-black, and the face is
marked with several black and white bands.
FAMILY X. — CAVIDJE.
The members of this family, as we propose to retain
them, may be fairly subdivided into two minor groups
— namely, those which have rooted grinders, and those
whose molars are rootless. Some have separated them
into two distinct famDies ; but in most particulars they
are very closely allied. The molars are sixteen in
number, being more or less complicated by laminar
plates. The front feet are either three or four-toed,
the hind feet being generally tridactylous, and in some
cases pentadactylous, with the two outer digits feebly
developed. The claws are strong, compressed, and
arched. The Cavies are all inhabitants of the South
American continent. Their bodies are clothed with
short hair ; the ears are moderately developed, whilst
the tail is either very small or altogether wanting.
THE PATAGONIAN CAVY (Doliclwtis Patagonica)
frequents the desert wastes of the southernmost parts
of America, extending as far north as La Plata. It is
considerably larger than our common hare, a full-
grown example weighing as much sometimes as thirty
pounds. The fur presents a mixture of grey and rust
colour, the under parts of the head, neck, and belly
being white. The molars have no roots ; the incisors
being smooth and nearly white. The fore-feet are
four-toed ; the hinder ones, three-toed. The large
ears are broad at the base, and more than half the
length of the head. The legs are high — a feature by
which it ought to be readily distinguished from the
hare, but is generally overlooked by uninformed tra-
vellers. In regard to its habits, it is, like its congeners,
fond of burrowing, and, according to Mr. Darwin,
"when found in the same districts with the viscacha, it
will avail itself of the excavations of this little animal
for a retreat. The Patagonian Cavies wander at times
to great distances from their homes, and usually two
or three are seen together on these occasions. The I
animal in its mode of running more nearly resembles !
the rabbit than the hare, and though its limbs are long ;
it does not run veiy fast. It seldom squats after the
manner of the hare, is very shy and watchful, and
feeds by day." The female produces two young at a j
birth.
THE BOCK CAVY (Cavia rupestris) is a native of
the rocky districts of Brazil generally. It is likewise
found abundant in the higher regions bordering the
Eio Pardo and Rio de St. Francisco. It is a taller
species than the above, and is remarkable as having
the nails of the toes blunt, and so small that they
scarcely project beyond the large digital toe-pads with
which the feet are also supplied. It has no tail, and
the ears are shorter than one half of the head. The
flesh is considered good eating.
CAVIDV
-MAMMALIA. LEPORID.E.
143
THE EESTLESS CAVY (Cavia aperca) is generally
considered to be the originator of our domestic variety
of cavy, commonly called the guinea-pig. It is an
inhabitant of Brazil, and is found in Paraguay and
La Plata. The hairs are brown, with reddish-yellow
points, the throat and inferior parts being either white,
greyish, or dirty yellow. In the tame varieties the
prevailing tint is white, with black and orange-coloured
spots. According to Dr. Rengger, this species lives
wild, in little societies, varying numerically from six to
fifteen individuals. Its principal feeding time is in the
morning and evening. In respect of its procreative
powers in the domesticated state, few animals surpass
it. The female produces from six to twelve young at
a litter, and this frequently takes place several times
during the year. In six or eight weeks the young are
themselves ready to give birth to other offspring.
THE BOLIVIAN CAVY (Cavia Boliviensis} occupies
only the higher altitudes of Bolivia. The fur has a
greyish-yellow colour, being whitish underneath. The
incisors have an orange yellow tint. This species is
very shy, and, from the statement of Meyen, is believed
to be extremely abundant on the lofty plains of Tarna
and Tajari. Several other species of cavy are found
in Brazil and different regions of South America.
THE CAPYBARA (Hydrochasrus Capybara) inhabits
the banks of almost every river in Brazil, Guiana,
and Paraguay, being also found more or less abundant
throughout the whole continent of South America.
This is the largest species of rodent now existing,
the body attaining sometimes a length of four feet.
The superior incisors are grooved longitudinally in
front. The molars are made up of numerous laminae,
and they are so disposed in the posterior teeth, that
Cuvier was led to indicate an affinity on the part of
this animal with the elephant— a view which enjoys
the sanction of the best comparative anatomists. The
head of the Capabara is long, thick, and drawn out
towards the muzzle. The feet are slightly palmated ;
the digits being armed with broad ungular claws.
The skin is clothed with long, thin, and scanty hairs ;
constituting another feature which serves to remind us
of the pachydermatous mammals. There is no trace
of a tail. According to Marcgrave, as recorded by
Broderip, this aberrant rodent lives on herbs and fruits.
It is a nocturnal animal, swimming across rivers and
torrents in search of food, and raising a horrible noise
on such occasions. Multitudes of them congregate
together on the banks of streams, where they are
attacked and destroyed by hunters before they can
plunge into the water. Those, however, which suc-
ceed in getting into the stream are safe ; for though
slow of foot, they are expert swimmers. Some writers
aver that they are fond of fish ; but this seems doubtful.
THE PACA (Ccelogenys Pacd) is a moderately large
South American rodent, measuring about two feet in
length, and like the foregoing presents some affinities
with the pachyderms. The general colour of the fur is
dark -brown above and white underneath ; the sides
being prettily marked with, four or five longitudinal
rows of white spots, extending backwards from the
shoulder to the rump. The Paca is furnished with
buccal pouches; the upper lip is cleft, and there is a large
fold of integument on the cheeks. The tail is very
feebly developed. The fore-feet are tetradactylous,
a rudimentary thumb existing in the form of a clawed
warty tubercle; the hind feet are three-toed. The
Paca frequents low forests in the neighbourhood of
water. It forms burrows which are comparatively
superficial, and have three openings. Though heavy-
looking and stout-built, it is tolerably swift on foot.
Its habits are nocturnal, feeding on fruits and herbage.
The female produces a single young one at a birth.
The flesh is excellent eating.
THE AGOUTI (Dasyprocta Agutfj. — ThQ several
species of the genus which this animal represents are
characterized by tetradactylous feet in front, and tri-
dactylous feet behind, and in this particular they
correspond with the paca. This rodent is about the
size of a hare, and, as a kind of game, seems to supply
the place of our " puss " in Brazil, where it is much
hunted. The general colour of the fur is yellowish-
brown; a mottled or speckled appearance being pro-
duced by the hairs in the region of the neck from
accumulations of brown, yellow, and black colour.
The Agoutis do not construct burrows, but frequent
thickets, and when pursued generally seek for holes
under old trees, or any place calculated to afford a
semblance of security. When captured they utter a
plaintive cry, and offer little or no resistance. Their
claws being blunt and straight, they are unable to
clamber up the trees. These animals are very prolific,
the female bringing forth several young at a single
birth. Many other species occur in Brazil and the
adjoining West Indian islands.
FAMILY XL— LEPORID^.
The Hares are at once distinguished from the other
families of the rodent type, by the circumstance of their
possessing four incisor teeth in the upper jaws. Two
of these are very small, and are placed immediately
behind the anterior pair, so as to present the appear-
ance of double teeth, hence the Hares are sometimes
called the Duplicidentates. The molars are generally
twenty-two in number, six on either side above, and
five correspondingly opposed below. They are desti-
tute of roots, and are made up of two distinct laminae.
When the mouth is closed the lower series project
inwards beyond the margin of the upper ones. This
arrangement being associated with a certain facility
of movement of the condyle of the lower jaw at its
articulation, not found in other Rodents, it must be
evident that the Hares employ a chewing action some-
what similar to that found in the ruminating mammals.
The last molar tooth of the superior series is very
small. The orbital fossae are perforated by a common
foramen opticum. The bony palate is incomplete ;
whilst, in the typical forms, the clavicles are also imper-
fectly developed. The soles of the feet are clothed
with hair, there being five digits in front, and four
posteriorly. The claws are long and narrow. The
tail is either short or entirely absent. The Hares have
a very wide geographical distribution in the hemi-
spheres, being more particularly abundant in North
America.
144
LEPORII>.:
-MAMMALIA. LEPORID.E.
THE COMMON TTATTR (Lepus timidus}— Plate 16,
fig. 53 — is familiar to every one in these islands, and
is to be met with throughout Europe, except in Norway
and Sweden. The general colour of the fur is tawny-
grey, inclining to brown on the back, and to a rusty tint
lower down ; underneath the belly and throat it is white,
as well as on the inferior surface of the tail, which,
however, is usually directed uppermost. The ears are
longer than the head, and more or less tipped with
black in different individuals. Respecting its habits,
they are almost too well known to need any lengthened
record. To the sportsman, hares afford the excitement
of the hunt, the amusement of the course, and the
pastime of the gun. Of all the various methods employed
in destroying these comparatively defenceless animals,
perhaps that of shooting them is the least cruel, and
therefore the most perfectly legitimate. The barbarities
of the slaughter-house, where cattle are daily sacrificed
for civilized man's consumption, are not one whit less
cruel than the ordinary method employed for destroy-
ing game by shooting ; and these animals, are "nothing
to be refused," if received with thankfulness. While
deprecating most sincerely any wanton cruelty in the
use of these gifts, we hold the ordinary methods of
destroying game to be quite consistent with mercy
and humanity ; and of one thing we are tolerably cer-
tain, that if man did not undertake to destroy these
defenceless creatures in the usually summary manner
that he does, their natural enemies would effect the
same result, in ways far less considerate. For example,
witness the case of the agonies of the poor hare (seen
by the Eev. F. W. Hope, and recorded at page 91)
with a weasel sticking to its throat! Witness again
the instances where they fall into the merciless clutches
of the fox, or even into the penetrating talons of the
hawk tribe ! Surely a charge of shot, or the sudden
gripe of a greyhound, renders the agonies of death less
prolonged and less painful than do the natural modes
of death above cited. And, if so, why display a false
and useless sentimentality in denouncing the conduct
of those who, with the gun, cut short the existence of
these creatures which are designed to form part of his
means of subsistence? Whilst writing these very
words, an important batch of game, including " puss,"
arrives from a friend in the country ; and we respect-
fully beg to inform our readers that we shall allow no
qualms of conscience, on the score that these creatures
have fallen under the torture of powder and shot, to
destroy the satisfaction we hope to derive from their
consumption. This, at ah1 events, is a practical view
of the question. The hare feeds exclusively on vege-
table substances, and causes terrible injury to young
plantations, fields of early wheat, and other cereal crops.
The habits of the hare are for the most part nocturnal.
During the day they rest in open fields and stubbles,
and especially in grassy situations. For partial conceal-
ment and comfort, they construct superficial hollows
in the soil. These excavations are technically termed
" forms," and they are more or less perfect, according
to the character of the situation chosen. Here they rest
in a cat-like crouching manner, with the chin and throat
resting on the front paws. Hares are good swimmers,
when occasion requires. Thus, in the fifth volume of
London's Magazine, Mr. Yarrell has recorded the fol-
lowing interesting circumstance : — " A harbour of great
extent on our southern coast has an island near the
middle of considerable size, the nearest point of which
is a mile distant from the mainland at high water, and
with which point there is frequent communication by a
ferry. Early one morning in spring, two hares were
observed to come down from the hills of the mainland
towards the sea-side, one of which from time to time
left its companion, and proceeding to the very edge of
the water, stopped there a minute or two and then
returned to its mate. The tide was rising, and, after
waiting some time, one of them, exactly at high water,
took to the sea, and swam rapidly over in a straight
line to the opposite projecting point of land. The
observer, on this occasion, who was near the spot, but
remained unperceived by the hares, had no doubt they
were of different sexes, and that it was the male that
swam across the water, as he had probably done many
times before. It was remarkable that the hares remained
on the shore near half an hour, one of them occasionally
examining, as it would seem, the state of the current,
and ultimately taking to the sea at that precise period
of the tide called slack- water, when the passage across
could be effected without being earned by the force of
the stream either above or below the desired point of
landing. The other hare then cantered back to the
hills." The female generally produces two young at
a litter, but frequently as many as three, four, and even
five ; the leverets having their sight at the time of birth,
and being able to shift for themselves at the expiration
of about a month. A full-grown hare weighs eight
or nine pounds, but an instance has been given of one
which weighed upwards of thirteen pounds. The flesh
is usually considered good eating, but in some speci-
mens we have found it decidedly coarse. In cold
climates the fur becomes lighter during the whiter
months. Black varieties also occur in this country ;
a fine specimen of this kind was shot a few years since
on the grounds of Sir Edward Kerrison, of Broom Hall,
in the county of Suffolk.
THE ALPINE HARE (Lepus variabilis} is a native
of the mountainous districts of Northern and Southern
Europe. The Alpine hare is rather smaller than the
common form, and has a light, fulvous-brown fur,
which becomes white on the approach of winter. The
ears, however, which are shorter than the head, remain
black-coloured at the tips throughout the cold season.
The head itself is small, as is also the tail, when com-
pared with that of Lepus timidus; the posterior pair
of limbs being also shorter.
THE IRISH HAKE (Lepus Hibernicus). — From a
cal-eful examination of several specimens, Mr. Bell con-
siders this hare as specifically distinct from the above.
It differs from the common hare in the relative propor-
tion of the ears and head, which are much smaller;
whilst it is distinguished from the Alpine species by the
size and "form of the body, the tail, and the texture
and colour of the fur," the latter .exhibiting a uniform
rufous-brown tint.
THE AMERICAN HAEE (Lepus Americanus) is
tolerably abundant throughout the more wooded parts
of the entire northern continent from which it derives
LEPORID.E. MAMMALIA. LEPORID.E.
145
its specific title. In form, size, and general appearance
it very closely resembles our English rabbit; feeding
on grass and various vegetable matters, and being parti-
cularly fond of willow bark. During the winter, great
numbers are destroyed on the banks of Mackenzie river
by the Hare Indians, who capture them with snares.
According to Sir John Richardson, this species has
numerous other destructive enemies, " such as wolves,
foxes, wolverines, martens, ermines, snowy owls, and
various hawks; but the Canada lynx is the animal
which perhaps most exclusively feeds upon it. It has
been remarked that lynxes are numerous only when
there are plenty of hares in the neighbourhood. At
some periods a sort of epidemic has destroyed vast
numbers of hares in particular districts, and they have
not recruited again until the lapse of several years,
during which the lynxes were likewise scarce. In the
spring and summer the hares are much infested by a
species of cimex. In the fur countries this hare becomes
white in the winter." In the milder districts the ordi-
nary greyish-brown colour is retained throughout the
cold season — a phenomenon which also occurs hi the
Alpine species. Several thousand furs are annually
imported to this country, under the title of rabbit skins,
but their value is scarcely sufficient to reward the
trouble of exportation.
THE PRAIRIE HARE (Lepus Virginianus) very
closely resembles our common English species, not only
in form and general appearance, but also in its habits
and swiftness of foot. It is tolerably plentiful on the
plains bordering on the Saskatchewan, and on those of
Columbia. In winter the fur becomes pure white.
THE POLAR HARE (Lepus glacialis) is a large spe-
cies, and now very generally considered to be distinct
from the Alpine, or varying hare. The fur is quite
white, except at the free ends of the ears, which are
tipped with brownish-black. Its weight is said to
extend to as much as fourteen pounds. The authority
above mentioned states, that "although it does not fre-
quent thick woods, it is often seen near the small and
thin clumps of spruce fir which are scattered on the
confines of the barren grounds. It seeks the sides of
hills, where the wind prevents the snow from lodging
deeply, and where, even in the winter, it can procure
the berries of the Alpine arbutus, the bark of some
dwarf willows, or the evergreen leaves of the Labrador
tea plant. It does not dig burrows, but shelters itself
amongst large stones, or in the crevices of rocks, and
in the winter-time its form is generally found in a
wreath of snow at the base of a cliff." It does not
appear to be at all a shy animal, for Captain Lyon
remarks that, while on the coast of Winter Island, the
hares went out on the ice to the ships, to feed on the
tea-leaves thrown overboard by the sailors. It may
generally be approached within shooting distance with-
out much difficulty. During the Arctic explorations
of Dr. Kane and other bold adventurers, this little
animal formed a frequent addition to their scantily
provided feasts.
THE RABBIT (Lepus cuniculus) is familiar to every
resident in the country throughout Europe. The brown-
ish grey colour of the fur, becoming quite white under-
neath the tail and belly, associated with a ruddy tinge
VOL. I.
about the neck, are characters familiar to all. The
ears are nearly as long as the head, but do not present
the black markings at their ends, such as we find in the
hares. The habits of the rabbit are too well known
to require minute detail. Their destructive propen-
sities are so great, that the generality of farmers extir-
pate them by every means at their disposal. Not only,
however, do these little animals afford a considerable
source of food to our population, but their skins are so
highly valued for manufacturing purposes, that in addi-
tion to those procured at home, we have several hun-
dred thousand skins annually imported into this country
from Germany. Fortunately the rabbit is extremely
prolific ; and as it begins to breed at the age of six
months, and is capable of producing litters of seven or
eight young, six or seven times in the year, Pennant
has calculated that in the course of four years, other
conditions being favourable, the progeny of a single
pair and then- offspring, would amount to upwards of a
million individuals !
THE LITTLE-CHIEF HARE (Lagomys princeps] is
the name applied by Sir John Richardson to a small
rodent, less than seven inches in length, and which
inhabits the Rocky Mountains of North America. The
fur is blackish-brown above and greyish beneath ; the
head being short and thick, and the ears somewhat
rounded. It has no tail. " It is often seen at sunset,
mounted on a stone, and calling to its mates by a pecu-
liar shrill whistle. On the approach of man it utters a
feeble cry, like the squeak of a rabbit when hurt, and
instantly disappears, to reappear hi a minute or two at
the distance of twenty or thirty yards, if the object of
its apprehension remains stationary." They do not
appear to construct any kind of burrow, but make then-
habitations among crevices in the limestone rocks. The
Little-Chief Hare is distinguished from its congeners in
presenting small digital pads at the base and end of its
toes; these have a black tint. The claws are also
dark- coloured, short, compressed, and concealed by
the fur.
THE CALLING HARE (Lagomys pusillus}— Plate 16,
fig. 54 — is a native of the south-eastern parts of Russia
and the slopes of the Ural Mountains, as well as of the
western side of the Altai chain. The head is long, the
ears large, short, and rounded, and the tail absent.
The molar teeth are twenty in number ; that is, five on
either side of each jaw. The body is about six inches
only hi length. The fur has a greenish-brown colour,
being hoary underneath. The Calling Hares frequent
sunny banks hi the neighbourhood of woods. They
form burrows amongst the shrubs and herbage ; their
openings being difficult to detect, but for the peculiar
cry which the occupants make. This noise, which can
be heard at a considerable distance, is uttered at regular
intervals every morning and evening, and sometimes
during the day if the weather be cloudy. The Tartars
apply to it the name of barking mouse, while the Cos-
sacks of the Wolga call it Semlanoi sactshik, or ground-
hare. The young at the time of birth are blind and
destitute of fur.
Closely allied to this species is the Ogotona of thu
Monguls (Lagomys Ogotona), which is found to the
south of Lake Baikal.
14G
MAN-ID.E. MAMMALIA. MANID.E.
OKDEB VIII.— EDENTATA.
THE group of mammalian individuals to which the
above title is applied, vary considerably in their skeletal
characters, while the ordinal sign by which they are
indicated is altogether a misnomer. It is doubtless
unnecessary to inform our readers that the term EDEN-
TATA implies that the animals thus called are toothless ;
nevertheless, in a work like the present, it is not only
correct that as few words as possible should remain
unexplained, but that when an ambiguous phraseology
is, through general acquiescence, adopted, an explana-
tion of its meaning and the cause of its retention
should both be satisfactorily explained. We have to
remark, therefore, that the Edentata are so called
merely from the circumstance that the several species
of the order possess neither incisors nor canine teeth ;
though, indeed, an exception to this rule occurs in the
case of two kinds of armadillo, the jaws of which display
two incisors above, i.e., one on either side at the
posterior part of the intermaxillary bone, and two
correspondingly opposed on each side towards the
anterior part of the lower jaw ; these latter apparently
being entitled to come under the same serial category.
Be that as 'it may, if any one doubts this statement let
him procure and examine the skull of the six-banded
armadillo, or in the event of not being able to pro-
cure the cranium, let him turn to the exceedingly
accurate figure given in the 212th Plate of Cuvier's
" Ossemen Fossiles ;" and he will, we are assured, be
convinced as to the incisive character of the superior
pair just mentioned, from a consideration of the posi-
tion which they occupy. He will at the same time be
satisfied as to the very slender grounds on which the
members of the present family are called Edentates.
In all of them, we admit, there is a more or less con-
spicuous deficiency of dental organs at the fore part of
the mouth (fig. 49) ; but, as if further to demonstrate
the absurdity of the common title, the molars are in
Fig. 49.
Skull of the Armadillo.
some species remarkably numerous, no less than one
hundred small grinders being observed by Frederick
Cuvier in the jaws of the great armadillo of Surinam !
But without dwelling further on this point, we pass on
to notice that the teeth, if considered by themselves,
are extremely simple both in their structure and exter-
nal configuration, presenting no roots at their basal
surfaces; this part of their conformation being hol-
lowed out so as to favour a continuous and progressive
growth from below upwards. Histologically speaking,
they are made up of dentine and cement, and have
no enamelled cappings or ridges on their crowns. In
regard to the skeleton, striking differences occur in the
various genera, according as to whether they pursue
arboreal habits, feeding on vegetable matters, as in
the sloths— Plate 34, fig. 112— or, on the other hand,
exhibit insectivorous propensities, and do not possess
the power of climbing, as in the ant-eaters — Plate
33., fig. 107. Among the most striking of these dif-
ferences are those which refer to the structure and
configuration of the osseous element entering into the
constitution of the head, tail, and extremities. Can
anything be more significant than the attenuated, nar-
row, and long cranium of Myrmecophaga, and the
abrupt, short, and broad skull of Bradypus ? Observe
how conversely the comparison holds good in respect
of the limbs— drawn out and armed with long claws
in the sloth ; shortened and furnished with trowel-like
nails in the ant-eater ! And, lastly, remark the power-
ful tail in the last-named animal, while the caudal
development of the former is reduced to a mere useless
appendage. It is needless to enlarge further on these
distinctions, yet we cannot quit this introductory part
of our subject without calling attention to the gigantic
sloths of a former epoch. The skeletal elements of the
Mylodon and Megatherium exhibit a relative massive-
ness which utterly throws into the shade any features
of a similar kind seen in the stoutest living Edentates,
while pachyderm skeletons look slender and feeble
in comparison with their monstrous bones! The
dwarfish living representatives of that giant race still
occupy the swamps and woods of South America ; and,
whilst not a few of the scaly tribe also occur in the
tropical regions of the eastern hemisphere, none of any
sort are known to inhabit the continent of Europe.
FAMILY I.— MANUXffi.
The Scaly Ant-eaters or Pangolins are, in every
sense of the term, true Edentates, being altogether
destitute of teeth. They have a long, round, extensible
tongue, and very small ears, which in some instances
are scarcely visible. Speaking generally, then- most
characteristic feature consists in the possession of an
integumentary armature of trenchant, horny, imbricated
scales. These are disposed in rows somewhat like tiles
on the roof of a house, and when the animals roll them-
selves u'p, after the manner of hedgehogs, into the form
of a ball, the sharp posterior edges of the scales project
like so many points of a cupping lancet, and together
constitute a powerful means of defence. Numerous light-
coloured hairs project from between the scales. The
head is elongated and narrowed in front. The limbs
and feet are short, pentadactylous, or tetradactylous, and 1
furnished with curved fossorial claws. The tail is largely
developed and of very remarkable strength. Tho
skeleton displays no clavicles, and there is no ccecum
in connection with the intestinal canal. The Pangolins
are natives of the warmer regions of Asia and Africa.
Their movements are comparatively slow; they feed
upon various kinds of insects, and more especially upon
ants and termites.
MYRJOOOPHAGHU
-MAMMALIA. MYRMECOPHAGID.B.
147
THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN (Manis penta-
dactyla), or BADGAREIT, is also known as the Broad-
tailed Manis, and is supposed to be the Phattagen
described by ^Elian. It is an inhabitant of the conti-
nent of India and Ceylon, and is the largest species at
present living. In the interior of Hindostan the natives
apply to it a number of curious names : thus, in the
Deccan, it is termed the " tiled-cat ;" elsewhere it is
called the " land-carp ;" and in Ceylon the " negumbo
devil." The body approaches four feet in length,
including the tail, which is not quite so long as the
body and head together. Although this animal is
very valuable as a destroyer of white ants and their
huge nests, it would appear from the observations of
travellers that the Badgareits are frequently subjected
to mere wanton cruelty on the part of the Asiatic
natives.
THE LONG-TAILED PANGOLIN (Manis tetradactyla)
— Plate 17, fig. 58 — is so named on account of the
extraordinary development of the caudal extremity. It
is a small animal, about three feet in length at the most ;
but the tail is twice as long as the body, and contains
no less than forty-seven vertebral segments, while in
the animal above described there are only twenty-six
of these bones. This species, the scales of which are
black, and yellow at the margins, is a native o'f the
coast of Guinea.
THE MANY SHIELDED PANGOLIN (Manis multi-
scutata), or PHATAGIN, has been thus named by Dr.
J. E. Gray, from the circumstance that the horny
scales forming its dermal armature are disposed in rows
varying from nineteen to twenty-one in number; whereas
in the two species above noticed, there are only eleven
rows. This species, the scales of which are small, of
a yellowish-grey colour, and three-pointed posteriorly,
is also a native of the coast of Guinea.
TEMMINCK'S PANGOLIN (Manis Temmincki) is a
native of Southern Africa, being found to the north of
Cape Colony, in the neighbourhood of Mozambique,
and also in Sennaar. The body is rather more than
two feet in length, including the tail, which measures
about a foot. The scales are disposed in eleven rows,
the last four rows having only four scutes in each, while
those of the anterior series have five. It is a scarce
animal, its almost total extinction having been brought
about by a prevailing superstition among the natives
that it has some evil effect upon cattle. Accordingly,
when they catch any unfortunate Pangolin, they burn
it alive as an offering to the deity, in the hope that
some advantage may accrue to their flocks! It is,
however, a poor harmless little beast, feeding, like its
congeners, principally upon ants.
FAMILY II.— MYRMECOPHAGID^.
Under this head are brought together the Ant-eaters
properly so called. They are distinguished from the
pangolins by the substitution of an abundant hairy fur
in place of the scaly covering above described. None
of the typical Ant-eaters display any organs of denti-
tion ; but in the aberrant genus Orycteropus, we find in
young individuals upwards of twenty molars. Usually
also the ears are short, rounded, and feebly developed ;
but in the particular genus referred to they are long
and sharply pointed. The tail is of considerable
length in all the species. Another peculiarity of great
interest has reference to the feet ; for here we notice
in the fore-limbs that the ultimate phalanges of the
toes, which support the claws, are so constructed as to
allow the movements of the latter being restricted to
flexion inwards ; and in order to maintain this position,
there are powerful ligaments which keep the phalanges
directed towards the palm, and never allow the digits
to be stretched out in the manner of the plantigrade
carnivora. The relative size and strength of the toes
is also very significant, both in this family and in the
preceding; in those which have five toes the central
digit attains an enormous bulk, while the outer pair
are comparatively small. In order, moreover, to afford
adequate power for the digging and burrowing propen-
sities of these animals, the phalanges are all closely
connected together up to the base of the ultimate
phalanx, converting the hand into a sort of trowel
simDar to that found in moles. From, what has been
advanced, therefore, it will readily be remarked, that
the Ant-eaters do not walk on the soles of their feet ;
neither do they tread on their strongly-curved toes,
which would damage the claws, but, in the fore-feet
at least — as may be seen by referring to the drawing
of the Great Ant-eater given in Plate 17, fig. 57 —
the anterior part of the body is seen to rest entirely
upon their outer edge ; and that part of the hands thus
subjected, as it were, to an unusual pressure, is in these
creatures supplied with an efficient callous pad to
protect the outer phalanges from injury. Another
circumstance in the organization of these creatures
which has especial claim upon our attention, is the
remarkable development of the anterior part of the
head, and the more than coextensive elongation of the
tongue. In the typical species this organ is rounded,
and marked by annulations which indicate the several
muscular rings entering into its composition; but in
the aberrant genus previously alluded to, the lingual
organ assumes a flattened form : in the typical species
it can be extended to nearly twice the length of the
head. Such, in brief, are the leading characteristics
of this singular family; all of them pointing to their
insectivorous habits, and demonstrating a special design
in their construction and adaptability to the mode of life
they lead. Having torn open the habitations of ants and
other nest-building insects, the swarming myriads issue
forth to give battle to the unceremonious intruder ; the
slimy and extensile organ is immediately presented to
the astonished crowd, who, collecting on the glutinous
appendage, are, within less than a second of time, drawn
within the capacious maw of the keen and small-eyed
myrmecophaga ! The typical species seem, in South
America — where they alone occur — to represent the
scaly pangolins of Asia and Africa; but the single
aberrant genus Orycleropus is a native of the last-named
continent.
THE GREAT ANT-EATER (Myrmecophaga jubata) —
Plate 17, fig. 57 — is a native of Brazil, Surinam,
Columbia, Paraguay, and, in short, of all the tropical
districts of South America. By the English and Spanish
colonists it i?. known as the Ant-bear ; but one would
148
IIYRMECOPHAGII>.£. MAMMALIA MYP.MECOPHAGID.E.
have supposed that its attenuated head and toothless
jaws would have been sufficient to have preserved it
from such a misplaced designation. And this leads us
to diverge a little from the immediate subject of our
description, and to remark how singularly perverse are
colonists in all quarters of the globe on the subject of
animals. It is in vain that you shall protest that the
Great Ant-eater is not a " bear." It is in vain that
you shall explain the non-existence of sea-serpents, or
prove to demonstration that tigers, properly so called,
do not live in Africa ! Your Dutch settler, and your
English explorer, having met with a " spotted hyaena,"
or with a " serval," forthwith put it down for a fact that
tigers — yes, real tigers ! — occur in Africa. Even this
very day, while we are writing — 24th September — a
member of the Livingston expedition records in the
Times an encounter with a tiger; and thus, with the
apparent sanction of those who, we are assured, know
better, these false notions are propagated from age to
age. But we must return to our edentulous ant-eater.
This great species measures about four feet from the tip
I of the snout to the root of the tail, which, if included,
would give us another thirty inches, or upwards of three
feet if the long hair at the extremity be taken into
consideration. The head alone is about fourteen inches
long, being extremely narrowed towards the snout.
The eyes are particularly small, and protected by naked
lids. The fur is long, and more especially at the
anterior part of the back, over the region of the shoul-
ders. The tail is very bushy, the long harsh hairs
assuming a bristly character. The general colour of the
fur is greyish-brown ; but the under part of the chest
and throat is black, and from this part there proceeds
obliquely upwards on either side a dark band, which,
as it passes over the shoulder, gradually diminishes
and becomes narrowed to a point over tie region of
the loins. This black line is also rendered more con-
spicuous by parallel bars of a whitish tint which embrace
it, so to speak, throughout its entire length. According
to D'Azara the Great Ant-eater generally invades low
swampy grounds, and the banks ot rivers and stagnant
pools ; and although not able to climb, it is frequently
found in dense thickets. Its movements are slow, and
even when pursued it is easily overtaken by any person
on foot. Being very stupid it offers but a feeble resist-
ance, and consequently is easily taken or destroyed.
It passes the greater part of its existence in a state of
repose, sleeping with the head doubled up underneath
the hairy chest, whilst the thick tail is curved over the
body to protect it from the powerful rays of the sun.
These animals are nowhere very numerous, and conse-
quently have no difficulty in procuring sustenance from
the multitudes of ants' nests which abound in the warm
parts of South America. The female produces a
solitary cub, which she carries about on her back, even
after it has attained sufficient growth to shift for itself.
THE LITTLE ANT-EATZB (Myrmecophaga didac-
tyla) is also known by the name of the two-toed
ant-eater, from the circumstance of the fore-feet being
didactylous. The hinder extremities are tetradacty-
lous. This species is of very diminutive proportions ; j
the entire body being less than fourteen inches in
length, and the tail appropriating more than half of
this measurement. The fur has a pale fulvous colour
generally ; but it is brownish on the back. The head
is much shorter than in the great ant-eater, the snout
terminating more abruptly. The skeleton exhibits
several peculiarities, but we have only space to men-
tion the remarkable breadth of the ribs. The Little
Ant-eater is a native of Brazil and the northern parts of
South America. Its habits are similar to those of its
more powerful congeners. Von Sack, in his " Voyage
to Surinam," gives an interesting account of the tame
ones in his possession ; and after describing their
characters, he tells us that the inhabitants of that
country aver, that when captured these animals will
not be induced to eat, and only lick their paws after
the fashion of a bear. " When I obtained the first,"
says Von Sack, as quoted by Mr. Ogilby, " I sent to
the forest for a nest of ants, and during the interim I
put into its cage some eggs, honey, milk, and meat ;
but it refused to touch any of them. At length the
ants' nest arrived; but the animal did not pay the
slightest attention to it either. By the shape of its
fore-paws, which resemble nippers, and differ very
much from those of all the other species of ant-eaters,
I thought that this little creature might perhaps live
on the nymphae of wasps, &c. I therefore brought it a
wasps' nest, and then it pulled out with its nippers the
nymphae from the nest, and began to eat them with
great eagerness, sitting in the posture of a squirrel. I
showed this phenomenon to many of the inhabitants.
who all assured me that it was the first time they had
ever known that species of animal to take any nourish-
ment. The ants with which I tried it were the large
termites upon which fowls are fed here." According
to Von Sack and most observers, the tail is employed
as a prehensile organ. It is, as we have seen, larger
than the body, very stout and broad at its origin,
thickly clothed with short hairs, and much attenuated
towards the extremity. Generally speaking, the fur
displays a thick, soft, shining, woolly texture. The
female, it is said, produces a single young one at a
birth, although it is furnished with four mammae.
THE TAMANDTJA (Myrmecophaga Tamandua) is, in
respect of size, intermediate between the two above-
described species; the body measuring upwards of
two feet in length from the extremity of the snout
to the root of the tail, while the latter organ would
give us nearly eighteen inches more. The colour of
the fur is subject to considerable variation ; and to so
great an extent is this the case, that a number of well-
marked forms have been recognized, and by some the
more noticeable of them have been regarded as so
many distinct species. Most, if not all, display a dark
band on the fur, running diagonally over the shoulders
from below upwards. The woolly hairs are compara-
tively short, and the tail instead of being bushy at the
tip, as in the great ant-eater, terminates in a narrow,
scaly, prehensile point. The feeding habits of the Ta-
mandua very closely resemble those of the last-named
animal ; but it infests the thickest forests of Brazil and
the neighbouring districts, living almost exclusively
on the trees. It is particularly partial to honey, and
proves terribly destructive to the wild and stingless bees
which form their nests among the highest branches.
MAMMALIA. DASYPID.E.
149
I
The female brings forth a single cub at a birth. For
some months the young preserves a pale-yellow colour,
and is carried about on the back of its parent until it
is able to shift for itself.
THE AAED-VAEK ( Orycteropus Capensis] or GROUND-
HOG, differs from the foregoing in several important
particulars. Some of these we have already described
in our introductory observations ; but we have further
to observe regarding the feet, that they are compara-
tively shorter and stouter than obtains in the true
ant-eaters, the anterior pair being tetradactylous, and
the posterior pentadactylous. A very distinctive char-
acter is seen in the head, which is furnished with large
pointed ears ; while the tail, being of moderate length,
not so long as the body, is very thick, rounded at the
root, and densely clothed with hair (fig. 50). Alto-
gether it is a stout, heavy animal, the large bones
of the neck in particular demonstrating its strength
in the cervical region. The fur, which is very scanty,
exhibits a greyish-brown colour generally. The per-
manent teeth of the adult, twenty in number, have a
simple form and structure, being made up of rootless
cylinders, those in front displaying a slightly flattened
aspect at the sides. The Aard-vark is a very common
animal throughout the southernmost parts of Africa. It
is rather larger than the common badger, attaining a
length of upwards of four feet. Its habits are noc-
turnal, and it constructs large subterraneous burrows
with extrordinary rapidity. It appears to live entirely
upon ants, and for this purpose the tongue is largely
developed, and armed with a glutinous secretion.
This organ, however is not so long as in the true ant-
eaters, while it is at the same time more flattened and
attenuated. The Aard-vark invariably fixes his retreat
Fiff. 50.
Ground-hog (Orycteropus Capensis).
near to some large ants' nests, which he ventures only to
attack after dark. He is a timid creature, and does not
move far from his burrow ; and when attacked, should
he succeed in gaining access to his abode, it is next to
impossible to get him out ; for it is said he can burrow
faster than his enemies can dig. According to those
who have witnessed its method of procuring food, the
Aard-vark, having approached an ant-hill, forthwith
, proceeds to scratch a small part of it, just sufficient to
allow of the introduction of its long, narrow snout.
These ant-hills, it must be remembered, are sometimes
three or four feet in height, and contain myriads of
insect inhabitants — strongly ensconced in fancied
security complete ! " Here," observes Mr. Ogilby,
"after having previously ascertained that there is no
danger of interruption, he lies down, and inserting his
long slender tongue into the breach, entraps the ants,
which fly to defend their dwellings upon the first alarm,
and, mounting upon the tongue of the Aard-vark, get
entangled in the glutinous saliva, and are swallowed
by whole scores at a time. If uninterrupted he con-
tinues this process till he has satisfied his appetite ; but
on the slightest alarm he makes a precipitate retreat,
and seeks security at the bottom of his subterranean
dwelling. Hence it is that these animals are seldom
seen, even in those parts of the coTintry in which they
are most numerous. Like other nocturnal animals,
passing the greater part of their lives in sleeping and
eating, they become exceedingly fat, and their flesh is
considered to be wholesome and palatable food. The
hind quarters particularly, when cut into hams and
dried, are held in great esteem."
FAMILY IH.— DASYPH)^.
Under this title are brought together an interesting
little group of animals familiarly known as the Arma-
dillos. We treat of them in this place because they
represent a type of structure intermediate between the
ant-eaters and the family we have next to consider —
150
DASYPIDJE. MAMMALIA. PASTPIH.*:.
namely, tlie sloths. The armadillos are readily recog-
nized by their hard coat of mail, consisting of numerous
many-sided plates closely soldered together. The
individual scales have most commonly a hexagonal
form, are osseous in structure, and so combined as to
form a series of bucklers completely investing the
superior and lateral parts of the body. In order,
however, to allow a certain degree of movement, a
series of slightly elastic bands, varying in number, are
found intersecting the dermal shield at the centre of
the back. These zones are partly bony and partly
integumentary, the latter structure having a dense
pliable, and leathery consistence. The front and
upper parts of the head are also furnished with a small
shield, the scutes resembling tesselated pavement.
The internal skeleton likewise displays several points
of interest. The clavicles are well developed, the
first rib on either side being remarkably broad. An-
other peculiarity is seen in the presence of a second
spinous-like ridge, projecting from the posterior and
outer surfaces of the scapula. This is also seen in
the true ant-eaters, but not in the aard-vark. The
acromion process of the shoulder-blade is likewise
unusually prominent. The teeth have a cylindrical
form, and vary considerably in different species. The
feet are in some cases all furnished with five toes ;
but in others the anterior pair are tetradactylous.
The under parts of the belly are loosely clothed with a
thin fur, whilst a few thin wiry hairs also project from
between the scutes of the dermo-skeletal bucklers, and
from the soft parts of the semi-elastic zones. The tail
is long in a few species, but in others very short. It is
usually protected by rings of small scutes, which in
certain forms degenerate, so to speak, into mere tuber-
cles, whilst in others this organ is altogether naked.
The armadillos are natives of South America ; and in
that country we find the fossil remains of an allied
genus called the Glyptodon, which was a large animal,
possessed oi immense strength and a proportionately
tliick and complicated dermal armour. The arma-
dillos feed on vegetable matters, and construct burrows
into which they retreat when pursued.
THE PEBA (Dasypus peba)— Plate 17, fig. 56 — or
BLACK ARMADILLO, is very abundant in the district of
Paraguay ; being also found in Guiana and Brazil, but
not to the south of the Rio de la Plata. This species
has likewise been designated the Long-tailed Arma-
dillo, the Black Tatou, the Tatouhou, and the nine,
eight, or seven banded armadillo, according to circum-
stances ; these bands having been regarded as criteria
of specific distinctness, and the same animal described
as so many separate species. The Peba is not quite
a foot and a half in length, exclusive of the tail,
which measures other fourteen inches. The head
is elongated, and much narrowed towards the snout.
The ears are conspicuous, long, sharply pointed, and
closely approximated. The limbs are short, and the
feet comparatively small. The dermal armature may
be divided into three portions, namely, the cephalic,
humeral, and iliac bucklers, according to the regions
they invest. The two latter are made up of semi-
circular parallel rings, whose concavity is directed
forwards towards the head, and between them are the
bands which occasionally overlap each other during
the turning movements of the body. The molar teeth
are thirty-two in number ; that is, eight on each side
of either jaw. The Peba is an expert burrower, and
when pursued its only chance of escape depends upon
its gaining access to its dwelling. It is generally
found in the more open grounds and cultivated dis-
tricts. The olfactory powers of this little animal are
extremely acute ; and as affording an example of this
faculty, D'Azara relates 'the foUowing incident — " My
friend Noseda," he says, "having arranged a trap for
the purpose of taking chibigazous, and having placed
in it, by way of bait, a cock with a small quantity of
maize to support him, it so happened that a few grains
of the maize fell through between the boards which
formed the bottom of the trap. An armadillo arrived
during the night, and wishing to get at the maize
thus accidentally spilt, opened a trench or burrow at
some distance from the trap, and without deviating a
hair's breadth from the straight line of his direction,
pushed it on to the very spot where the grain had
fallen, and possessed himself of the booty." The food
of the Peba and its allies consists principally of vege-
table matters, such as maize, potatoes, roots of the
mandioc, fallen fruits, &c. ; but it also at times par-
takes freely of animal food in the shape of ants, worms,
frogs, lizards, vipers, eggs of birds, dead and half-
decomposed carrion of wild cattle — in short, almost
anything, including even the contents of human graves
when access can be gained to them. Notwithstanding
all this, the South American natives and colonists
generally, pronounce its flesh to be a real delicacy,
especially when roasted in the shell.
THE PICHEY (Dasypus minutus) is a very diminu-
tive species of armadillo, measuring only ten inches
from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the tail,
which latter organ is about half the length of the
body. It is an inhabitant of the Pampas lying to the
south of Buenos Ayres, extending nearly to the borders
of Patagonia. The bands between the humeral and
iliac bucklers vary in number according to the age ot
the animal. Generally speaking, these are either six
or seven, each ring consisting of a number of lineally
arranged quadrangular plates. The tail is scaly, and
tolerably well furnished with hairs. The limbs and
claws are of moderate size. The Pichey constructs
burrows, but is often seen abroad even during the day,
and only occasionally retires into its habitations. In
other respects its habits are beh'eved to resemble those
of its congeners generally ; and in common with the
majority of them its flesh is highly esteemed, being
exceedingly delicate and well-flavoured.
THE TATOTJAY (Dasypus Tatouay) is a compara-
tively rare species found in Brazil and Guiana. It is
called the Wounded Armadillo, from a notion enter-
tained by the natives that its tail has been deprived of
the osseous covering seen in other species. This
organ is about eight inches in length, and is almost
entirely destitute of any protecting crust, the naked
skin being thinly clad with short brown hairs above,
and a few scales on the lower surface. The body is
about a foot and a half long, the head being less nar-
rowed anteriorly than in the preceding species. The
DASYPID.E. MAMMALIA.-
molars are thirty in number — fourteen below and
sixteen in the upper series. The ears are largely
developed, and about two inches from root to tip.
One of the most distinguishing characteristics is seen
in the enormous enlargement of the digits of the
anterior feet. These clearly demonstrate the exalted
nature of its burrowing powers ; but beyond this little
is known of its habits. In the catalogue of Edentata
preserved in the British Museum, this species is de-
nominated Xennrus unidnctus.
THE POYOU (Dasypus sexcinctus] is one of the
commonest forms of armadillo, and is especially abun-
dant in the province of Paraguay. It is at once
recognized by its remarkable breadth as compared
vith its height. The body measures sixteen inches
from the tip of the muzzle to the root of the tail ; this
organ being about eight inches long, and protected at
the base by three or four osseous plates hi the form
of rings, while throughout the remainder of its extent
it is covered with small scaly tubercles. The limbs,
as we have hinted, are very short; nevertheless the
animal is very swift of foot. The head is broad, flat,
triangular, and truncated at the muzzle ; the ears being
of moderate size, and widely separated from each other.
Its habits are similar to those of its congeners ; but as it
is particularly fond of carrion, its flesh is not considered
by the Spanish and other European colonists of South
America to be so good eating, as those species whose
diet is exclusively vegetable.
THE HAIRY ARMADILLO (Dasypus villosus) is
rather smaller than the above, and is a native of
Buenos Ayres and the districts south of the Rio de
la Plata. So abundant is it in the plains of these
regions, that D'Azara writes as follows : — " In an
expedition which I made into the interior, between
the parallels of 35° and 36° south latitude, I met
with vast multitudes of this species of armadillo ; so
that there was scarcely an individual ot the party
who did not each day capture one or two at least ;
for, unlike the Poyou, which moves abroad only dur-
ing the night, this animal is to be found at all times,
and upon being alarmed promptly conceals itself, if
not intercepted. In March and April, when I saw
them, they were so extremely fat that their flesh sur-
feited and palled the appetite ; notwithstanding which,
the pioneers and soldiers ate them roasted, and pre-
ferred them to beef and veal." The distinguished
Spanish officer and naturalist further observes, that
the Hairy Armadillo " scents the carcasses ot dead
horses from a great distance, and runs to devour them ;
but, as it is unable to penetrate the hide, it burrows
under the body till it finds a place which the mois-
ture of the soil has already begun to render putrid.
Here it makes an entrance with its claws, and eats its
way into the interior, where it continues feasting on
the putrid flesh till nothing remains but the hide and
bones ; and so perfectly do these preserve then- posi-
tion, that it is impossible from a mere external view to
anticipate the operations which the armadillos have
been carrying on within." This species does not con-
struct burrows for the purposes of habitation, and is
alwavs met with on dry open grounds. It is, as the
name implies, better provided with hair than obtains
in the case of its congeners. The bands vary numeri-
cally, there being usually six or seven. The teeth are
thirty-two in number, equally divided above and be-
low. The ears are conspicuously developed ; but the
most characteristic feature of this species arises from
the sharp, projecting margin of the lateral bands and
tesselated bucklers at the lower part of the body.
THE MATACO (Dasypus tricincius) is another very
interesting form of armadillo living in Brazil, Paraguay,
and Buenos Ayres. It is also denominated the Bolita,
on account of a propensity to roll itself up into a ball. It
is nearly as large as the Poyou, excluding the tail, which
in the Mataco is reduced to a mere appendage scarcely
more than two niches in length. The limbs and feet are
rather small and feeble. The head is short, pear-shaped,
and armed with a cephalic mail ; whilst the bucklers,
which are made up of osseous polygonal plates somewhat
irregularly disposed, are strongly developed and sepa-
rated from each other by three broad, movable bands ;
this latter character rendering the Mataco distinct
from all other species of armadillo. The ears are
comparatively short and rounded. The Mataco is
rather a scarce animal, probably from the facility with
which it is captured; for, when pursued, having no
burrows wherein to hide itself, and being a slow runner,
its only mode of defence consists in rolling itself up
into a helpless sphere.
THE GREAT ARMADILLO (Dasypus gigas) is not
only distinguished by its great bulk, but also by the
possession of a multitude of molar teeth, varying in
number from eighteen to one hundred. Exclusive of
the tail, the body measures about forty inches in
length, while the caudal extension would give us some
sixteen or eighteen inches more. The ears are small,
but the head is more cylindrical than in the generality
of species. The humeral and iliac bucklers are made
up of numerous rows of square-shaped plates, and are
separated from each other by twelve or more movable
bands inclosing scutes of a similar character. The
long tail is comparatively stout at the base, and is
armed throughout with a close-set mail of osseous
rings, presenting externally an appearance of spiral
lines crossing each other obliquely. The native Botu-
codos employ this dermal armour of the tail to form
speaking trumpets, which they use in the densely
wood-bound forests of Brazil and Surinam. The digits
of the fore-feet are enormously developed, as hi the
Tatouay, the middle and fourth toes being furnished
with large trenchant claws. These digging weapons
they employ with such skill and power, that hi bury-
ing then- dead the natives are obliged to place strong
barriers of stakes, planks, and stones in order to have
a resting-place for their departed companions, secure
from the depredations of this gigantic carrion-loving
armadillo.
THE PICHICIAGO ( Chlamydophorus truncatus) forms
the type of a remarkably aberrant genus, hi many
respects closely allied to the true armadillos. It is a
native of Mendoza, on the eastern slopes of the Cordil-
leras, and of other parts of Chili. In point of size it
comes very near to the common mole, the body measur-
ing a trifle more than five inches from before backwards.
Its anatomy has been very closely investigated by Dr.
152
DASYPIDJE. MAMMALIA. BRADYPID.E.
Harlan of New York, Mr. Yarrell of London, and Dr.
Hyrtle of Vienna ; and each of these distinguished natu-
ralists have published lengthened memoirs upon the
subject. From their combined descriptions we gather
the following particulars : — The molar teeth are thirty-
two in number, have a simple structure, and are equally
distributed above and below. The head presents the
figure of a cone, sharply pointed at the muzzle, and
widening out at the occiput ; the bones of the skull do
not display any trace of sutures in the adult cranium,
and over the upper part of the frontal elements there
arise two small globular osseous masses, the function
Fig.
of which will be immediately rendered apparent.
Scarcely any trace of an ear can be detected on the
outer surface, this organ being represented by a patu-
lous opening, marked by a slightly elevated margin,
and situated immediately behind the small, black, half-
concealed eyes. The oral opening is not large ; but
the nose is furnished with an extended cartilaginous
septum internally. One of the most striking peculiari-
ties of the Pichieiago consists in the uniform hard
dermal armature, protecting the entire length of the
head, neck, and back (fig. 51). This coriaceous
covering is made up of numerous square, rhomboidal,
The Pichieiago (Chlamydophorus truncatus).
or cubical plates, closely connected together by a
tough leathery development of the epidermis; these
plates are disposed in rows, of which there are twenty-
four. Throughout the greater part of its extent, this
shield is only loosely attached to the body by soft
connective tissue; but, along the central line of the
back, it is more firmly adherent to the capitals of the
vertebral spinous processes, whilst, at the free part of
the head, it is very firmly fixed to the two frontal
osseous prominences above described. Posteriorly the
dorsal -shield terminates abruptly, imparting to the
hinder quarters an unusual appearance. This part of
the body, however, is carefully protected by five semi-
circular rings of plates, having a structure precisely
similar to those on the back. At the lowermost part,
the anal shield is notched for the growth and lodg-
ment of the tail, into which crevice this organ is, as
it were, lodged, and is, under ordinary circumstances,
doubled up beneath the belly. It presents the char-
acter of a rigid cylinder, but at the tip it is flat-
tened out in a spatulate manner, to form a kind of
paddle. At the semi-circumferential margin of the
anal shield, and along the side of the dorso-cephalic
covering, there is developed an extensive fringe of
silky hairs, the under parts generally being thickly
clothed with fur. All the feet are peutadactylous, the
claws of the anterior pair being remarkably long,
slightly curved, and sharply pointed ; the several digits
are intimately bound together, and are so disposed that
the claws when acting together form a kind of scoop.
The hinder extremities are, comparatively speaking,
small and feeble, the toes being also more widely sepa-
rated from each other. Kespecting the habits of the
Pichieiago very little is known, but from the statements
of Mr. Closeberry, the original discoverer of the species,
there is every reason to believe that its mode of living
very nearly resembles that of our common mole. It
dwells almost entirely under ground, its limbs at once
showing how unfitted it is for rapid progression on the
surface. The female is said to carry her offspring
beneath the margins of her dorsal shield; but this
statement requires confirmation.
FAMILY IV.— BEADYPID^E.
Following Cuvier, some naturalists prefer to consider
the Sloths under the family title of Tardigrada, as
indicating one of the most remarkable characteristics of
this tribe of animals. The tardigrades then, or, in
simpler phrase, slow-moving Edentates, are at once
distinguished by a peculiar conformation of the extremi-
ties, admirably fitting them for an arboreal mode of
existence, but rendering their movements on the
ground very awkward, for the obvious reason that they
are unnatural. If we examine the skeleton of an
ordinary Sloth— Plate 34, fig. 112— the first thing that
strikes us is the unusual size and extension of the
limbs, and especially of the anterior pair ; the latter are
BRADTPID^E. MAMMALIA. BRADYPID.E.
153
very nearly twice as long as the hinder extremities,
and in this feature we are inevitably reminded of a
similar arrangement in the limbs of certain quadru-
mana whose habits are in some respects analogous to
those of the family under consideration. On closer
inspection of the hands, it will be noticed that the
bones of the carpus and metacarpus are short and
ankylosed together, whilst the terminal digits are
long, and furnished with immense hooked claws.
These prehensile talons are closely curved towards the
palm while not in use, or in a state of rest ; but when
the animal requires to grasp a fresh branch, they are
forcibly extended by muscular contraction, assuming
a position like that given hi the raised arm of the
accompanying representation, above referred to. The
hind feet are similarly constructed, and a glance at
their position, with the soles directed obliquely inwards,
is sufficient to show how unnatural it is to represent a
Sloth walking all-fours on a plain level surface. In the
older natural history collections of the United Kingdom,
nothing is more common than to observe the errors
into which taxidermists have fallen in mounting and
displaying the stuffed skins of Sloths; and we could
still point to fine collections where the tardigrade
edentates may be seen sprawling on the floor in the
most approved style, with their backs toward the sky !
Having personally inspected, with care, the principal
museums of natural history in London, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, and Dublin, we have no hesitation in saying
that, if any one wished to see the way in which Sloths
ought to be stuffed, they would do well to take a
glance at the specimens preserved hi the museum of
Trinity College, Dublin — and they are not the only
evidences of taxidermal skill to be seen hi the Irish
capital. But, to return to our skeleton, and the
figure reduced from that given in Cuvier's celebrated
" Ossemens Fossiles " — let us next examine the head
(fig. 52). Here we have a striking contrast when
compared with the attenuated crania of the ant-eaters.
Fig. 52.
Skull of the Sloth.
The Sloth's head is short, rounded, flat, and truncated
at the muzzle ; the jaws are generally furnished with
eighteen molar teeth — the anterior pair, above and
below, having been regarded by Cuvier as incisors;
the .young individual carries twenty molars. In the
construction of the bones of the trunk, and especially of
the pelvis, we notice other interesting adaptations to the
peculiar habits of these creatures ; but among these we
have only space to mention the remarkable elongation
VOL. I.
of the neck. This cervical extension was at one time
supposed to be due to the presence of nine true neck-
vertebrae; but some years since, Professor Bell satis-
factorily demonstrated, from prepared skeletons in his
own collection, that the so-called eighth and ninth
cervical veretebrse were, in reality, true dorsal segments,
seeing that he had discovered a pair of little rudi-
mentary ribs attached to each of the osseous elements
in question. " The object," says Mr. Bell, " of the
increased number of vertebrae in the neck, is evidently
to allow of a more extensive rotation of the head ; for,
as each of the bones turns to a small extent upon the
succeeding one, it is clear that the degree of rotation of
the extreme point will be in proportion to the number
of movable pieces in the whole series. When the
habits of this extraordinary animal are considered,
hanging as it does from the surface of boughs with the
back downwards, it is obvious that the only means by
which it could look towards the ground must be by
rotation of the neck ; and as it was necessary, in order
to effect this without diminishing the firmness of the
cervical portion of the vertebral column, to add certain
movable points to the number possessed by the rest 01
the class, the additional motion was acquired by modi-
fying the two superior dorsal vertebrae, and giving
them the office of cervical, rather than infringing on a
rule which is thus preserved entire without a single
known exception." As we shall immediately have
occasion to return to the consideration of the habits of
these animals, we have here only further to observe
that the Sloths are all natives of the forests of South
America, where they feed upon vegetable matters,
chiefly leaves. The extinct genera, Megatherium,
Megalonyx, Scelidotkerium, Erinathopsis, and Erep-
todon, are also referable to this family, forming the
subdivision of gravigrade edentates.
THE AI (Bradypus tridactylus) or THREE-TOED
SLOTH — Plate 17, fig. 55— is the best known of all the
species. The specific term applied to it rests upon the
arbitrarily assumed grounds that it is the only species
which is furnished with the three toes; but there is
every reason to believe that at least two other Sloths —
the B. gularis of Pvuppell, B. torquatus of Illiger, and
B. infuscatus of Wagler being regarded as so many
distinct species — have tridactylous feet. Be this as it
may, the generality of naturalists appear content to retain
the old Linnaean appellation, and we shall not deviate
in the present instance from their combined authority.
The Ai inhabits the most secret recesses of the South
American forests. The body is enveloped by a coarse
shaggy fur, and so disposed about the short round
head, as to impart to the physiognomy a human look.
The fur has a greyish colour generally, young indi-
viduals being frequently spotted with brown and white;
the under parts have usually a light fulvous tint.
When describing the skeleton, we took occasion to
remark somewhat on the habits of this animal, and
especially referred to its awkward behaviour when placed
on a level surface. One of the most singular errors
into which the great French anatomist fell, was that
of ascribing to the Ais deficiencies and imperfections
of organization, as if they were not well adapted to the
mode of existence which the Creator had been pleased
U
154
RUMINANTIA. MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.
to assign to them. "These animals inhabit trees,"
says Cuvier, " and never remove from that on which
they are located until they have stripped it of every
leaf, so painful to them is the requisite exertion to reach
another I " Our readers are well aware how frequently
these errors have been exposed by Bell, Blyth, Buck-
land, Broderip, Owen, and a host of other distinguished
English writers; nevertheless we have pleasure in quot-
ing some apt remarks of the last-named authority,
recently given in his manual of the " Skeleton and
Teeth." Alluding to the Ai, Professor Owen observes
that " it is less able to raise its trunk above its limbs
than the seal, and can only progress by availing itself
of some inequality of the soil offering a holdfast to its
claws, and enabling it to drag itself along. But to
judge of the creative dispensations towards such an
animal by observation of it or report of its procedure
under these unnatural circumstances, would be as
reasonable as a speculation on the natural powers of
a tailor suddenly transferred from his shopboard to the
rigging of a ship under weigh, or of a thorough-bred
seaman mounted for the first time on a full blood-horse
at Ascot. Rouse the prostrate Sloth, and let it hook
on to the lower bough of a tree, and the comparative
agility with which it mounts to the topmost branches
will surprise the spectator. In its native South Ame-
rican woods, its agility is still more remarkable, when
the trees are agitated by a storm. At that time the
instinct of the Sloth teaches it that the migration from
tree to tree will be most facilitated. Swinging to and
fro, back downwards, as is its habitual position, at the
end of a branch just strong enough to support the
animal, it takes advantage of the first branch of the
adjoining tree that may be swayed by the blast within
its reach; and stretching out its fore-limb, it hooks itself
on, and at once transfers itself to what is equivalent to
a fresh pasture. The story of the Sloth voluntarily
dropping to the ground, and crawling under pressure
of starvation to another tree, is one of the fabulous
excrescences of a credulous and gossiping zoology."
Such, in brief, is a fair estimate of the capabilities of
the Ai in a state of nature ; and the testimony of such
trustworthy travellers as Stedman and Waterton as to
its power of rapid motion under certain circumstances,
has long placed the matter beyond dispute. " He
travels at a good round pace," says the latter, " and
were you to see him, as I have done, passing from tree
to tree, you would never think of calling him a sloth."
In conclusion, we may remark, that the female is fur-
nished with two mammae, and produces one young at
a single birth, which adheres to the parent by its claws
until able to shift for itself. The Ai is much sought
after by the natives, who consider the flesh to be
excellent eating. When on the move it utters a short
plaintive cry resembling our pronunciation, in a shrill
voice, of the two-lettered name by which it is appro-
priately called.
THE GIPAXEIOTT (Bradypus torquatus} is, like the
above, a native of the north-easterly districts of Brazil,
but it occurs more sparingly. The fur exhibits a friz-
zled, ferruginous aspect along the under parts of throat
and belly; but above it has an orange-yellow colour
generally, whilst the face is black and destitute of hair.
A more characteristic feature is seen in the presence of
a deep black band, forming a sort of collar round the
neck ; its specific distinctness being rendered still more
certain by differences observable in the structure of the
cranium, compared with that of other sloths. The habits
of the Gipakeiou closely resemble those of the ai.
THE UN ATT (Cholcepus didactylus), or Two-TOED
SLOTH, has been generically separated by Uliger from
the above-described species, on account of certain pecu-
liarities in the teeth, associated with a comparative
elongation of the head on the one hand, and a short-
ening of the anterior pair of limbs on the other. The
fore-feet are, as above indicated, furnished with only
two digits ; and the tail, which in the ai is reduced to
a mere stumpy appendage, is altogether wanting in the
Unau. The first molar teeth of this animal are long,
and sufficiently acuminated at the summit to resemble
ordinary canines, whilst the superior pair, during the
closure of the jaw, are placed in front of the lower ones.
Besides these spurious canines, there are fourteen other
molars, four on either side above, and three on either
side below, the crowns of which are wedge-shaped, that
is to say, in their worn condition. In regard to the
skeleton, its clavicles are fully developed, and the bones
of the carpus and tarsus become very early consolidated
together. The Unau is about half as large again as
the common ai, whilst the fur exhibits a dark-greyish
brown colour generally, being here and there tinged
with red. A living specimen of this singular species
may be seen in the London Zoological Society's Gar-
dens, Regent's Park.
ORDER IX.— EUMINANTIA.
THROUGHOUT the entire mammalian series, there is not
a better defined group than that formed by the rumi-
nating quadrupeds here associated together under the
above distinctive title. This was the opinion of the
greatest of French naturalists, and it is in no degree
contra-indicated by Professor Owen, in whose more
exacting system of classification — an outline of which is
given at page 8 — these cud-chewing species collectively
maintain their zoological continuity, as a subordinate
division of the even-toed ungulates — more precisely
called Artiodactyla.
The essential features by which the ruminants may i
be distinguished are not confined merely to one or two j
trifling characters, but involve the structure and mor-
phology of several important organs and appendages.
In a few words they may be stated as follows :— All
the feet terminate in two digits, the ultimate phalange
of each being armed with a tightly investing hoof; and
the opposed surfaces of these hoofs are flattened in such
a way as to impart to the foot an appearance of splitting
in the mesial line. With an exception in the case of
the camels, all the species are destitute of incisive |
MAMMALIA. RUMINANTIA.
155
teeth in the upper jaw, the vacant space being occupied
by a callous pad ; the lower jaw is invariably furnished
with six incisors, but in all the ruminants not included
in the last-named family, the two canines of the lower jaw
are closely approximated to the incisors, and, forming
a very close resemblance in form and size, are easily
mistaken for true incisors. In the typical species, also,
there is always a wide unoccupied space intervening
between the molars and canines of the lower jaw, while,
when the latter are present hi the upper maxillary bone,
a similar, though somewhat shorter interspace, is corre-
spondingly manifest above. The typical species likewise
usually display six molar teeth on each side of either jaw,
their flattened crowns being surmounted by two double
and irregularly crescent-shaped folds of enamel; the
convex outline being directed inwards in the superior
series, and outwards below. But the most interesting
character by which all the species are noted, consists hi
the multiple character of the stomach, which is divided
into four cavities, so as to provide for the ruminating act
(fig. 53) . This organ — we say it unhesitatingly — affords
one of the most striking illustrations of the special evolu-
tion of a complex mechanism from the general or more
simple type of structure seen in the majority of mam-
malia, whilst, to the mind of an unprejudiced truth-
seeker, it irresistibly indicates evidence of creative
design: and we hold this argument to be in no way
lessened by the easily demonstrated fact, that two if
not three of its divisions are essentially modified dilata-
tions of the lower end of the oesophagus, A ! This is a
department of natural history knowledge too important
to be slurred over hi a work like the present ; there-
fore, before proceeding to explain the ruminating func-
tion, we are careful to notice the form and mechanism
of this beautifully constructed organism. Most people
are aware that the first compartment, B, is called
the paunch. This is much larger than any of the
other so-called stomachs, exhibits a rhomboidal outline
rounded at the angles, and occupies no inconsiderable
portion of the entire abdominal cavity of the animal.
Certain constrictions externally, corresponding with
folds of the lining membrane internally, cause this organ,
when carefully separated from its other stomachal con-
nections, to assume the appearance of an enormously
Fig. 53.
Stomach of the Sheep.
distended coil of intestine, bent upon itself hi the form
of the letter S. In the typical ruminants the internal
surface is closely beset with villous projections, which
impart to the membrane a rough, shaggy aspect, the
cogency of which is variously maintained at different
parts of the mucous surface ; the villi forming small,
flattened, prominent, pedunculated masses, in shape
resembling racket bats. Such is the general character
of the paunch hi ordinary ruminants ; but hi the aber-
rant cameline genera we find very material differences.
Instead of presenting a rugous internal surface crowded
with these baton-like villosities, the mucous lining mem-
brane is conspicuously smooth. The most remarkable
feature, however, arises out of the formation of numerous
pouches, specially fitted for the reception and retention
of water (fig. 54). These sacs, which may be looked
upon as so many protrusions of the wall of the viscus,
are arranged in two distinct groups, one on the right
side and the other on the left ; the former being by far
the more numerous, and, in the full-grown dromedary,
measuring about one foot and a hah0 hi length and six
niches in breadth. The cells of each group are disposed
hi parallel rows, separated from one another by strong
muscular bands, given off from a single large bundle of
fibres, \vhich commences at the upper extremity of the
pamich, and proceeds in a longitudinal direction, so as
to divide the cavity into two compartments. The
muscular fasciculi are arranged transversely, and give
off secondary bundles at tolerably regular intervals, so
that the rounded orifices of each cell are guarded by
powerful square-shaped muscular lips. Some of the
pouches are more complicated than others, being sub-
divided into numerous smaller bags by foldings of the
internal lining membrane. The largest of the reservoirs
hi the adult dromedary have, when distended, a depth
and width of about three niches. A structure analogous
to this is found in the llamas ; but it is not so strongly
developed. This leads us, hi the next place, to de-
scribe the second stomach of the ruminants, otherwise
called the reticulum or water-bag, C (fig. 53). This
organ has been regarded by some as a mere appendage
of the paunch ; but it is as much entitled to a distinctive
recognition as any other of these connected viscera.
In respect of size, it is comparatively small, presenting
a globular outline, and forming a sort of cul-de-sac
between the first and third stomachs. Its most char-
acteristic feature is seen in the presence of multitudes
of polygonal cells, from which circumstance it has
been popularly called the honey-comb bag. In some
species, as, for example, hi the rein-deer and giraffe,
156
EUMIXANTIA. MAMMALIA. RUMISANTIA.
these cells are limited by very narrow walls of separa-
tion, scarcely elevated above the level of the general
surface ; and in the horned ruminants the mucous
surface is further characterized by a great number of
minute and sharply-pointed conical papillae, occupying
every part of the cavity ; being most prominently
marked along the ridges of the laminae, so as to give
to these slightly-elevated folds of separation a toothed
margin. In the camels and llamas the honey-comb
cells acquire a form and capacity strictly analogous to
the water-cells of the paunch ; but there are some slight
structural modifications apparently conformable with
Fig. 54.
Water-cells in the paunch of the Camel.
the more temporary or immediate purposes which they
subserve. The apertures of the cells of the paunch,
which have been designed to retain water for a leng-
thened period, are narrow and guarded by productions
of the lining membrane, whilst those of the second
stomach — destined to be continually parting with their
aqueous contents during the ordinary act ot rumina-
tion— are patent, and not covered" in by special mem-
branous folds. Moreover, in the distended state of
the cells, the external surface of the paunch is marked
by a corresponding number of vesicular bulgings,
whereas, in the reticulum, the walls remain uniformly
smooth, and do not exhibit on the outside any marked
traces of the internal water-cells ; nevertheless the
compartmental subdivisions are more numerous and
complicated than those of the first stomach. Another
distinction between the ordinary horned and the non-
typical hornless ruminants, may be seen in the absence
of any internal cuticular lining membrane in the reti-
culum of the camels. But we must now pass on to
notice the third stomachal viscus. Before doing this,
however, we have to remark, that in all ruminants
there is situated a short trough-like canal at the superior
and anterior margin of the reticulum, constituting the
remains, as it were, of that portion of the gullet which
has not, according to the developing theory, become
involved in the first and second great gastric dilatations.
This grooved channel forms a bond of intercommuni-
cation between the oesophagus and the three first
digestive cavities, and it is furnished with an extension
of the muscular tunics of the gullet, so as to fit it for a
two-fold office to be presently described. The third
stomach, or maiiyplies, D (fig. 53), intervenes between the
reticulum and the fourth or true digestive cavity; com-
municating with the former by a minute aperture, and
with the latter by a very wide opening. It is the smallest
of the four great stomachal organs ; but the extent of
its absorbing mucous surface bears no relation to its
diminished bulk, seeing that the latter is enormously
increased by a remarkable folding of the internal lining
membrane whose duplicatures resemble the leaves ot
a book, whence it is sometimes called the psalterium.
The leaf-like folds are disposed lengthways, and in the
empty condition of the organ are closely applied against
each other. In breadth they exhibit proportionate
differences, so that we find an alternating assemblage
of laminae presenting three gradations of development ;
one forming a very narrow fold, another very broad,
and a third of intermediate width, serially intercalated
between the two. Altogether about forty such septa
may be counted in the sheep, and more than double
that number in the ox. Internally the surface is beset
throughout with small conical eminences, similar in
character to the villi of the reticulum; those occu-
pying the free margins of the folds being more conspicu-
ously developed. The manyplies is much elongated
in the camels, and considerably larger than the water-
bag of the same aberrant group. In all ruminants the
fourth stomach, E (fig. 53), constitutes the true digestive
cavity, being functionally and morphologically analogous
to the simple gastric organ of the non-ruminating mam-
malia. This viscus is about one-third of the size ot
the paunch, smooth externally, pyramidal in shape, and
terminates by a narrow tubular portion at the inferior
or pyloric extremity, at which position the muscular
walls acquire increased thickness. Internally the
secreting membrane is marked by irregularly disposed
longitudinal folds, slightly elevated above the surface,
and intercommunicating by smaller foldings of the
same nature, having a more or less oblique direction.
The lining membrane is soft and smooth, and instead
of being provided with villous appendages, is furnished
with minute follicular openings leading to gastric
glands like those of the human stomach. At the
pyloric extremity, in addition to the ordinary narrow-
ing usually seen at this part, there exists a special
valvular process, developed from the mucous mem-
brane at the commencement of the duodenum — this
structure being evidently designed to guard more
effectually the entrance to the intestinal passage. At
this point, therefore, we are naturally led to explain
the function of rumination, which is characterized by
the following phenomena as they successively follow
each other under ordinary circumstances : — The food,
on being received into the mouth, undergoes a very
partial mastication, and in this crude state is speedily
RL-MI.NAXTIA. MAMMALIA. BUMIXANI
157
carried down the gullet, where, on arriving at the
lower part, the lips of the muscular channel, placed at
the entrance of the first three stomachs, separate so as
to insure its passage into the paunch. In like manner,
subsequent to the act of drinking, the margins of the
oesophageal groove open, and the water is conveyed into
the cells of the reticulum. In the camels a part of the
fluid passes into the first cavity, there to be retained
by the great water-cells, as a special provision against
those contingencies which their mode of existence
involves. While the coarse vegetable food is being
macerated by the moisture secreted from the wans of
the paunch— and probably also from the water taken
in by the mouth, some of which may have entered the
cavity — portions of the indigestible mass are transmitted
into the second stomach for further maceration, and
from thence into the grooved canal above described,
to be here moulded into the form of pellets, and
returned to the mouth by a kind of reversed peristaltic
action. The softened bolus thus brought back into
the mouth, is destined to receive a thorough and com- ]
plete remastication, constituting that part of the process
familiarly termed "chewing the cud." This phenomenon
is accompanied with an action of the jaws which differs
somewhat in particular species. Thus, it has been
shown by Professor Owen that in the camels the bolus
is triturated alternately from side to side ; whereas the
action of the teeth in the horned ruminants, including
the giraffe, is always in one direction — it may be from
right to left or left to right — occasioned by the rotatory
motion of the jaw. The necessary reduction of the
aliment having been accomplished, it is again trans-
ferred to the stomach in a pulpy semifluid condition ;
but this time, instead of entering the first or second
cavities, it passes directly along the now-closed oeso-
phageal groove into the third stomach, or manyplies.
In this viscus the superfluous moisture is supposed to
be absorbed before the bolus is ultimately transmitted
into the fourth stomach, in which organ the true diges-
tive act remains to be fulfilled. In the newly-born
ruminant, the first, second, and third stomachs are
very incompletely developed; and no chewing of the
cud being necessary, the food passes uninterruptedly
into the fourth. In the calf a peculiar organic acid is
secreted by the lining membrane of the true stomach,
which, it is well known, possesses the singular power
of converting the albumen of milk into curd and whey.
In the young, as well as in the adult animal, various
foreign substances are occasionally found in the paunch,
and sometimes in the reticulum. The concretionary
masses are either made up of hair, vegetable fibres,
or calcareous particles, generally agglomerated to-
gether in a rounded or oval form. The hairy balls
found in the calf and cow result from the licking of
their own hides, or there of others ; and the individual
hairs, on being transferred into the stomach, are col-
lected together, and rolled by the action of this organ
into the characteristic shapes above mentioned. In
the camel we find them in the form of pedunculated
pellets, strung together in grape-like bunches. In the
chamois, the formation of the so-called bezoar stones,
takes places in consequence of a partiality for saline
matters, which the animal gratifies by licking fragments
of rock containing saltpetre. Thus a variety of earthy
and silicious particles are at the same time swallowed,
and by the secretions and peristaltic action of the
stomach, are agglutinated together, and converted into
curious pebble-like formations.
Before leaving this part of the subject, we deem it
right to notice our discovery of two very remarkable
peculiarities occurring in the alimentary canal of the
aberrant genus Camelopardalis. The first of these con-
sists in the presence of pouch-like folds in connection
with the compound glands of the intestine ; whilst the
second is a similar, but far more striking development
of the glands, situated close to the opening by which
the small intestine communicates with the large colon
and coecum. This structure we believe to be altogether
unique throughout the entire mammalian series; and
although we first directed attention to it at the Glasgow
Fig. 55.
Remarkable compound gland situated at the junction of the large
and small intestines of the Giraffe.
meeting of the British Association in 1855, and have
subsequently given details in the third volume of the
new series of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal,
and in the article " Euminantia," published in Dr.
Todd's " Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology," we
make no apology for again specially inviting the atten-
158
MAMMALIA. BOVID.E.
tion of naturalists to so interesting a structure (fig. 55) .
Here we have an intestinal gland, made up as it were
of from fifteen to twenty little pouches, combined to
form a beautiful network of cells, seven of them bearing
no inconsiderable resemblance to the water-carrying
reservoirs of the reticulum. These latter have a depth
of from three to four lines, whilst the remainder are
more or less incomplete ; and those farthest from the
ileo-colic orifice are mere depressions, the walls of
separation being scarcely elevated from the surface.
In other ruminants the only peculiarity affecting the
alimentary canal, which is worthy of notice, consists in
the remarkable lengthening of the intestinal tube gene-
rally, and in the bulky development of Ibe coecum.
There are some curious modifications oi stiucture to
be seen in the liver and gall-bladder; but these dis-
tinctions will be more appropriately indicated when
comparing and describing the several characteristics of
the cameline and cervine families.
The skeletal characters are tolerably uniform through-
out the order, except in so far as they relate to mere
size and strength, and to the presence or absence of
those remarkable cranial outgrowths, commonly called
horns. We shall treat of the latter structures when
specially considering the horned families. Meanwhile
we take occasion to notice, that whatever be the length
of the vertebral column, we invariably find the bones
of the neck to be only seven in number; and the
beauty of this law, though previously mentioned as
affecting the entire mammalian series, cannot be more
cogently illustrated than by comparing the long-necked
camels and giraffe with the short-necked cetacea —
which have yet to be described. Taking the skull of
the ox (fig. 56) as a type of the ruminant cranium, it
is only necessary to observe its general breadth and
massiveness ; the cerebral division bearing a very small
proportion to the entire mass. This disparity prevails
throughout the whole order, the bones of the face
occupying fully two-thirds of the entire length, and
the area of the face on section being nearly double
that of the cranium.
FAMILY I.— BOVID.E.
The group of animals commonly termed Oxen con-
stitute a division of the hollow-horned ruminants, which,
although very closely allied to the sheep and antelopes,
are easily recognized by their bulky and massive appear-
ance generally, and particularly by their broad muzzle
and powerful limbs. A still more striking character
istic is to be seen in the lateral direction of the horns,
which usually incline upwards, or forwards in a crescentio
manner. In the constitution of the skeleton, there are
numerous variations in the form, position, and degree
of development of the several osseous . elements ; but
these are not of sufficient importance to be detailed at
length. In regard to the cloven hoof, we may mention
what we have omitted in our general introduction to
the order, namely, that this split condition of the foot
is evidently designed to impart lightness and elasticity
to the spring ; and in view of giving full effect to such
an arrangement, many ruminant species are provided
with a special glandular sebaceous follicle between the
toes, whose office it is to furnish a lubricating secretion,
calculated to prevent injury from friction of the digits-
one against the other. According to Sir Charles Bell,
there is yet another intention in this cloven form, viz.,
that of aiding the voluntary elevation of the foot, when
it has sunk deeply into the soft ground. " We may
observe," he says, " how much more easily the cow
withdraws her foot from the yielding margin of a river
than the horse. The round and concave form of the
horse's foot is attended with a vacuum or suction as it
is withdrawn, while the split and conical-shaped hoof
expands in sinking and is easily extricated." In regard
to the economic purposes which this family
subserves, they are not second to those of
any other group of animals, for they supply
/ us with capital in the form of labour, fat,
' milk, leather, horns, &c. Geographically,
they enjoy a wide distribution, both in the
eastern and western hemispheres; whilst
numerous fossil remains testify to their abundance in
the tertiary epoch.
THE OX (Bos taunts) is known to every one, and
yet, notwithstanding our familiarity with it, we are
scarcely in a position to decide whether it is a descend-
ant of the great ancient British wild ox — Bos urus —
or whether it may not be a domesticated variety of
another species. We incline to the latter opinion; and
having ourselves carefully examined the cranium of
Bos primigenius, we are quite satisfied that the Ox is
not derived from that source. Cuvier, Bell, and other
eminent naturalists have expressed their opinion that
the view first referred to is the correct one ; but, on
the other hand, we have the weighty authority of Pro-
fessor Owen, whose sentiments are thus convincingly
expressed : — " It seems to me more probable," he says,
speaking of our domestic cattle, " that the herds of the
newly-conquered regions would be derived from the
already domesticated cattle of the Eoman colonists ; of
those ' boves nostri,' for example, by comparison with
which Caesar endeavoured to convey to his countrymen
an idea of the stupendous and formidable uri of the
BOVIDJE. MAMMALIA. Bovine.
159
Hercynian forests. The taming of such a species
would be much more difficult than the importation
of the breeds of oxen already domesticated and in use
by the founders of the new colonies. And that the
latter was the chief, if not the sole source of the ox
of England, when its soil began to be cultivated under
Roman sway, is strongly indicated by the analogy of
modern colonies. The domestic cattle, for example,
of the Anglo-Americans have not been derived from
tame descendants of the original wild cattle of North
America ; there, on the contrary, the bison is fast dis-
appearing before the advance of the agricultural settler,
just as the auroch (Bison prisons') and its contemporary
the urus have given way before a similar progress in
Europe." Professor Owen believes that no living des-
cendant of Bos urus exists on the habitable globe, and
that it is only known to us by its fossil remains ; but
there is reason to suppose the auroch and European
bison to be identical. Be this as it may, the common
ox is specifically recognized among existing forms by
its flat forehead ; the horns being placed at the two
extremities of a prominent crest, which separates the
forehead from the occiput. All our domesticated
cattle — so widely scattered over the face of the earth
— are derived from this species ; the various celebrated
breeds representing so many more or less permanent
types of variation. Oxen, although usually slaughtered
for food before many years have elapsed, are capable
of attaining an age of twenty-five years and upwards.
It is somewhat singular that the cow should have a
period of gestation precisely equal in duration to that
of the human female, namely, two hundred and eighty
days. The calf at the time of birth displays incisive
and canine teeth in the upper jaw ; but, as has been
previously hinted, the fall of the milk teeth leaves the
upper jaw destitute of these organs in the adult animal ;
their place being supplied by the development of a thick
THE EUROPEAN BISON (Bison Bonassus) appears,
as we have already stated, to be identical with the great
fossil auroch, or Bison priscus of Owen. At one time
it was common in Germany and the south of Sweden ;
but at the present day it occupies a comparatively
restricted range, being found only in the forests of
Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Caucasus.
" These animals," says Mr. Broderip, " have never been
domesticated, but herds of them are protected in cer-
tain localities in the forest of Bialowieza in Lithuania,
under the direction of the Emperor of Russia. There
are twelve herds thus kept, each herd being under the
superintendence of one herdsman. The estimated
number of all the herds is eight hundred. They feed
on grass and brushwood, and the bark of young trees,
especially the willow, poplar, ash, and birch. They do
not attain their full stature till their sixth year. They
are very shy, and can only be approached from the
leeward, as their smell is exceedingly acute. When
accidentally fallen in with, they become furious, and
passionately assail the intruder. When taken young
they become accustomed to their keeper; but the
approach of other persons excites their anger. Two
young specimens were presented to the Zoological
Society of London by the Emperor of Russia. Though
it had been stated that the auroch had a natural
enmity to domestic cattle, and that the young obsti-
nately refused to be suckled by the domestic cow, the
calves sent by the emperor were suckled by a cow in
the Regent's Park Gardens, and very speedily became
attached to their foster-mother. These creatures unfor-
tunately died a few months after they had been brought
to this country." The bisons, generally, are distin-
guished from oxen by then: horns, which take origin
in front of the so-called occipital ridge, and by the con-
vexity of the forehead ; they have also fourteen pair
of ribs, being a pair in excess of the number found in
the ox. The limbs of the auroch are also compara-
tively long ; its voice has the character of a grunt, and
the dusky-brown fur is curled and woolly, especially in
the region of the neck, where it is profuse, forming a
sort of beard under the chin and throat. By some
naturalists, the Caucasian variety is thought to be a
distinct species ; but this is exceedingly doubtful.
THE AMERICAN BISON (Bison Americanus) or
BUFFALO — Plate 18, fig. 59 — is generally admitted to
be distinct from the above, yet it must be confessed
that the two species very closely resemble each other.
So far as the form of the skull, the horns, the fur, and
the bulk of the animal are concerned, there is little or
no difference ; but the limbs and tail are comparatively
short, and, according to Mr. Blyth, it is provided with an
additional pair of ribs. The buffalo is an inhabitant of
all the temperate parts of Central and North America,
and at a period not very far back, but anterior to the rise
of civilization in that country, this fine animal roamed at
will throughout the length and breadth of the continent
— at least from the Atlantic to the Pacific, excepting
the extreme northern and southern latitudes. It has
never existed in South America, neither indeed has
any other member of the bovine family, unless pre-
viously introduced by European colonists. At the
present time they range over the wild prairies of the far
west; but, like the diminishing tribes of human kind
who dwell in those distant regions, it is evident that
their numbers are becoming " small by degrees and
beautifully less." Notwithstanding our satisfaction
at seeing civilization extending to the remotest comers
of the habitable globe, there is something melancholy
in reflecting on the past history of these animals,
associated as it is with the coeval disintegration of
ancient peoples, to whom, indeed, the buffaloes have
all along afforded £t principal means of subsistence.
These animals are still very numerous on the plains
watered by the Saskatchewan River, being found as
far north as Slave Point. Much has been written
respecting then: habits and the different modes in
which they are captured by the native Indian tribes ;
and most of us remember the stirring and beautiful
illustrations exhibited in this country by Mr. Cattlin,
in whose " Letters and Notes on the North American
Indians " abundant information is given about these
imposing creatures. Catesby, Washington Irving, Sir
John Franklin, Sir John Richardson, and others,
supply most interesting particulars ; but we have
space only to give a few notices from the two last-
mentioned authors. The latter affords us a condensed
view of what has been previously written in regard
1GO
BOVID.E. MAMMALIA. BOVID.B.
to the habits of the bison, and says that they " wander
constantly from place to place, either from being dis-
turbed by hunters or in quest of food. They are
much attracted by the soft tender grass which springs
up after a fire has spread over the prairie. In winter
they scrape away the snow with their feet to reach
the grass. The bulls and cows live in separate herds
for the greatest part of the year, but at all seasons
one or two old bulls generally accompany a large
herd of cows. In the rutting season the males fight
against each other with great fury, and at that period
it is very dangerous to approach them. The bison is,
however, in general, a shy animal, and takes to flight
instantly on winding an enemy, which the acuteness of
its sense of smell enables it to do from a great distance.
They are less wary when they are assembled together
in numbers, and will then often blindly follow their
leaders, regardless of, or trampling down the hunters
posted in their way It is dangerous for the hunter to
show himself after having wounded one, for it will pur-
sue him , and although its gait may appear heavy and
awkward, it will have no difficulty in overtaking the
fleetest runner " Sir J. Richardson then proceeds to
mention the case of a Mr. M'Donald, who one evening
went out to look for game. " It had become nearly
dark when he fired at a bison-bull which was galloping
over a small eminence, and as he was hastening for-
ward to see if his shot had taken effect, the wounded
beast made a rush at him. He had the presence of
mind to seize the animal by the long hair on its fore-
head as it struck him on the side with its horn ; and
being a remarkably tall and powerful man, a struggle
ensued, which continued until his wrist was severely
sprained and his arm was rendered powerless. He then
fell, and after receiving two or three blows became
senseless. Shortly afterwards he was found by his
companions lying bathed in blood, being gored in seve-
ral places ; and the bison was couched beside him,
apparently waiting to renew the attack had he shown
any signs of life. Mr. M'Donald recovered from the
immediate effects of the injuries he received, but died
a few months afterwards." Of the various modes of
taking the American buffalo, none display the courage
and dexterity of the Indian so much as that of hunting
them on horseback. " An expert hunter," says Sir John
Franklin, " when well mounted, dashes at the herd,
and chooses an individual which he endeavours to
separate from the rest. If he succeeds, he contrives
to keep him apart by the proper management of his
horse, though going at full speed. Whenever he can
get sufficiently near for a ball to penetrate the beast's
hide he fires, and seldom fails of bringing down the
animal; though of course he cannot rest the piece
against the shoulder, nor take deliberate ami. On this
service the hunter is often exposed to considerable
danger from the fall of his horse in the numerous holes
which the badgers make in these plains, and also from
the rage of the buffalo, which, when closely pressed,
often turns suddenly, and rushing furiously on the
horse, frequently succeeds in wounding it or dis-
mounting the rider. Whenever the animal shows this
disposition, which the experienced hunter will readily
perceive, he immediately pulls up his horse and goes
off in another direction." The most powerful adver-
sary of the buffalo is the great grisly bear, whose
strength is sufficient to crush the largest bull. A full-
grown male will weigh as much as two thousand
pounds, although an ordinary specimen comes con-
siderably below this amount. The body is about eight
and a half feet in length, from the tip of the muzzle to
the root of the tail.
THE CAPE BUFFALO (Bubalus Coffer) is a native
of South Africa, where it is known by several other
names, such as the CAPE Ox, the BUFFEL, and the
BOKOLOKOLO, the latter title being that employed by
the Bechuanas. It occurs in large herds in the plains
and forests of the interior. It is an extremely heavy
and powerfully built species, a full-grown specimen
weighing as much as five and forty stone or upwards.
The body is, in some individuals, nearly nine feet in
length, exclusive of the tail, which is three feet long,
terminating in a tuft of coarse black hair, reaching
below the hocks. The fur exhibits a leaden-black
colour. The horns are massive ; very broad at the base,
where they are closely approximated ; and spreading
from thence, horizontally, are turned upwards and
inwards at the tips, which are separated from each other
by an interspace of about four feet. Respecting the
habits of the Cape buffalo, the early travellers, Thun-
berg and Sparrmann, give us some interesting data ;
and from their observations, and that of several later
writers, these animals appear to be most formidable
antagonists. Then- ferocity when wounded is perfectly
frightful. The herds are usually found grazing in the
immediate vicinity of some large wood; in numbers
varying from twenty or thirty up to at least five hun-
dred. Their behaviour, when fired upon, seems to
vary according to circumstances. Captain Harris
having fallen in with a herd, thus briefly describes
their conduct : — " Creeping close upon them, I killed
a bull with a single ball ; but the confused echo rever-
berating among the mountains alarming the survivors,
about fifty in number, they dashed panic-stricken
from then- concealment, ignorant whence the sound
proceeded; and everything yielding to their giant
strength, I narrowly escaped being trampled under
foot in their progress." Mr. Andersson's account of an
encounter with these animals is very animated : — " A
herd of buffaloes," he says, " at least two hundred in
number, suddenly rushed past us with the violence of
a tornado, breaking down and crashing everything that
opposed then- headlong career ; and raising so great a
cloud of dust as nearly to conceal their dark forms from
view. I fired into the midst of them at random, and
had the satisfaction to see a cow drop to the shot.
The report of the rifle brought the whole herd almost
immediately to a stand, and facing round, they con-
fronted us in one dark mass. Taking advantage of a
tree at some little distance ahead, I stalked to within
about one hundred and fifty paces of this formidable
phalanx. Resting the gun on a branch, I took a steady
ami at the leading bull ; but though I very distinctly
heard the bullet strike him, he did not flinch in the
slightest degree. One of the natives having by this
time mustered courage to steal up to me with my rifle,
I fired a second time, though at another of the herd,
BOVID.E. MAMMALIA. Bovine.
161
but with no better result. Six several times at the
least, did I repeat the dose ; and though on each occa-
sion the ball told loudly on the animal's body, neither
it nor any one of the herd, strange as it may appear,
budged an inch ! They seemed to be chained to the
spot by some invisible power, eying me all the while
with an ominous and sinister look. Their strange and
unaccountable bearing, puzzled me beyond measure. I
expected every instant to see them charge down upon
me. But even had this happened — though I am free
to confess I felt anything but comfortable — my personal
safety would not, perhaps, have been much endangered,
as by ascending the tree against which I was leaning,
I should have been out of harm's way. However, I
was not driven to this extremity ; for, whilst about
to ram down another ball, the whole herd suddenly
wheeled about, and with a peculiar shrieking noise,
tails switching to and fro over their backs, and heads
lowered almost to the ground, they made off at a furi-
ous pace." From an examination of the ground where
they stood, and by information received from the bush-
men, Mr. Andersson subsequently ascertained that two
of the animals had been mortally wounded.
THE INDIAN BUFFALO (Bubalus arnd) is another
huge species, the body measuring ten and a half feet
from the extremity of the muzzle to the root of the
tail. In the wild state it is called the Arna ; but the
tame variety, so common throughout India, is termed
the Bliainsa. The wild buffalo lives in large herds,
and inhabits the marshy swamps and low grounds in
the immediate neighbourhood of large forests. It is
readily recognized by the uniform shortness of the tail ;
by the tufts of hair which protect the forehead and
knees ; and chiefly by the enormously developed horns,
which are particularly long and directed backwards in
one variety, and much curved and spread out laterally
in another. Like its congeners, the Arna is celebrated
for its ferocity. " He seems to look with disdain on
every living object, and to rely on the great strength
he possesses to overthrow whatever may be opposed
to his rage. The smallest provocation irritates him
incredibly ! And such is his courage that he will
sometimes even attack a group of elephants going
for fodder. I do not think," says Captain Thomas
Williamson, "there can be a more menacing object
than a single wild buffalo disturbed from wallowing in
the mud." This is a propensity to which they are
very much given ; and it is one which, associated with
certain external characters — such as the thickness of
the skin, its scanty covering of hair, &c. — serves to
demonstrate a partial alliance of the buffaloes to the
true pachydermatous mammalia. We cannot here,
however, enlarge upon this topic. In the wild state
the Indian buffalo proves a most terrible opponent,
not only to the elephint, but to the tiger also. One of
the principal sources of entertainment given — on anni-
versary celebrations and such like occasions— by the
Indian families of distinction, has ever consisted in
affording a display of the cruel ferocity of the tiger and
buffalo. We have neither space nor inclination to
describe these desperate encounters at any length ; but
we quote a few observations in order more particularly
to show the behaviour of the animal under considera-
Vou I.
tion. " The buffalo, on entering the area, smells the
tiger, and becomes instantly agitated with eagerness.
His eyes sparkle with fury, as they quest around for
the skulking enemy, which is generally attacked the
instant it is distinguished. The buffalo, shaking his
head and raking the ground for a few seconds with his
foot, places himself hi the posture of attack ; and with
his face brought parallel to the surface, his horns
pointing forward, and his tail indicating both his deter-
mination and his vigour, rushes forward at his full
speed." Such is the attitude this beast usually assumes
when charging an enemy ; and we can readily under-
stand the amount of presence of mind necessary for
any human being who may chance to become an object
of resentment. A remarkable display of this mental
discipline is recorded by Captain Williamson, in the
case of a Dr. Knight, when out shooting in the neigh-
bourhood of Daudpore. " A buffalo bull, which was
at a considerable distance, after shaking his head and
stamping with his fore-foot, at length fairly made at the
doctor, who was fortunately provided with an excellent
rifle, of a large bore. The doctor, knowing what sort
of a business it was likely to prove if he awaited the
buffalo's arrival, mounted a smart tanian or hill pony,
which was led by his syce or groom, and made oS
towards a very heavy cover, and had time to conceal
himself. The buffalo passed on after the doctor, who
did not fail to give Punch (which was the horse's
name) every provocation to exertion. His speed did
not, however, equal that of his pursuer, which, though
appearing to labour much, took immense strides, and
was fast coming up. The doctor, finding it impossible
to escape in this way, reined up suddenly, and dis-
mounted. He had scarcely time to turn his horse's
flank, and to level his rifle over the back of the saddle,
before the buffalo, being within the usual distance,
lowered his head and commenced the charge. The
doc"tor, who was a remarkably good shot, fired, and
happily lodged the ball between the horns of the ani-
mal ; which, though killed outright, did not drop until
within three or four yards of Punch's side." In con-
clusion, we may remark that the female Arna, after a
gestation of ten months, produces one or two calves in
the middle of summer. The tame buffalo, introduced
into Italy so early as the seventh century, is a true
variety of this species. As a beast of burden it pos-
sesses numerous advantages over the solidungulate
horses, being able to traverse muddy swamps two or
three feet in depth with comparative facility. This
animal is also much valued for its strong leathery hide;
but as a source of food it is much inferior to that of
ordinary cattle.
THE ZEBU (Bos Indicus) is one of those animals
with whose existence every reader of oriental history
is familiar. Regarded with veneration, and even wor-
shipped, the Zebu, or Brahmin bull, seems to lead a
happy life ; wandering to and fro from village to plain,
grazing where it will, or receiving the votive offerings
of the devout. Even its excrement is esteemed sacred;
the dried dung being used for fuel in cooking food —
upon which it is supposed by the natives to exert some
beneficial influence— and also employed in deciphering
objects on their filthy walls. The Zebu is easily recog-
162
BOVIDJ
-MAMMALIA. BOVID.E.
nized by its convex forehead, immense chest and dewlap,
and more particularly by a remarkable hump on the
shoulder, which, like the analogous formation seen in
the dromedary, consists entirely of fat. Some kinds
are provided with short, widely separated horns, but
in certain varieties these appendages are entirely want-
ing ; in others, again, and these are the most common,
the horns attain considerable development. This spe-
cies varies exceedingly both in respect of size, and
in the colour of the hide ; generally speaking, the fur
is greyish-white, and ash-coloured. The Zebu is not
only found in India, but is also met with in Persia,
Arabia, and even in Africa. It is in many places
employed in harness to draw light vehicles, and also as
an ordinary beast of burden for harder work. Its
flesh, though far superior to that of the species last
described, is not considered equal to that of the com-
mon ox. The hump is regarded as a delicacy ; its
choiceness depending apparently more on the manner
in which it is served up, than upon any inherent virtue
in the fatty mass itself.
THE GYALL (Bos frontalis), or JUNGLE Ox, is about
the size of a large bullock. Considerable difference of
opinion has all along existed respecting its origin. By
some it has been regarded as a cross breed between
the Indian buffalo and certain varieties of the zebu,
and by others as altogether distinct. Be this as it
may, it is a well-marked form, and is distinguished
more especially by the horns, which are short and
thick, flattened from before backwards, and directed
laterally with a slight inclination upwards. The
Gyall is found in the mountainous districts of north-
eastern India, and, as a domestic race, appears to thrive
most satisfactorily in the province of Chittagong.
According to Mr. Lambert, the bull is naturally very
bold, and will defend himself against any of the beasts
of prey. " The female differs little in appearance ;
her horns are not quite so large, and her make is some-
what more slender. She is very quiet, and is used for all
the purposes of the dairy, as also for tilling the ground ;
and is more tractable than the buffalo." The fur ex-
hibits a blackish-brown colour generally ; whilst the
length of the body, from the tip oi the inuzzle to the
root of the tail, is upwards of nine feet. One variety
of this species, termed the ASSEEL, GYAALL, is regarded
by some as the progenitor of the variety under con-
sideration. It is provided with longer horns, which
are strongly curved throughout, the space between
the tips measuring about fourteen inches. Over the
shoulders there is a considerable elevation ; but it does
not acquire the significance assigned to it in the humped
varieties of cattle. It is not at all ferocious, even in
its wildest condition. It frequents the neighbourhood
of forests, cropping shoots and leaves of shrubs in pre-
ference to grass.
THE GOUB (Bos Gaurus) is by some considered to
be a distinct species. It is a bulky animal, measuring,
according to Dr. Traill, very nearly twelve feet from
the tip of the muzzle to the end of the tail. The Gour
inhabits certain mountainous districts of Central India,
being particularly abundant on the Mysa Pat mountain
in the district of Sergojah. It occurs in herds of from
twenty to thirty and upwards, which, like the gyalls,
prefer to browse on leaves and tender shrubs — a marked
peculiarity, which militates rather against the statement
of Dr. Traill, that the habits of these two species are
different, and, in our view, lessens the value of his
persuasion, that these two animals are specifically dis-
tinct. However, the Gour is an important kind of ox.
It is a formidable opponent in combat, and is said to
be more than a match for the tiger. According to Mr.
Hodgson it is with great difficulty reared in a state of
confinement.
THE YAK (Bos puephagus) or GRUNTING Ox, is a
native of Thibet, where it is found both in the tame
and wild state, inhabiting " all the loftiest plateaus of
high Asia between the Altai and the Himalaya, the
Belur Tag, and the Peling mountains." It is a com-
paratively small species, and readily distinguished by
its small mane on the back, and more especially by
the tail, which is clothed with long hair like that of
a horse. This appendage, duly prepared and some-
times dyed, is highly valued as an article of trade,
and is sold to the Chinese, Turks, and other eastern
nations, who employ it as an ornamental badge of dis-
tinction usually attached to their caps or turbans.
Several varieties of the Yak are known, and employed
for different purposes. Hofmeister, in his " Travels
in Ceylon," speaks of the Yak oxen as very beautiful
animals. "Whilst being ridden they were shy, restless,
and apparently disposed to attack their riders. " As
the steepness increased," he says, " these poor animals
began .to moan, or rather grunt, in the most melancholy
manner; and this unearthly music gradually rose to
such a violent rattle, that, driven rather by its irksome
sound than by the discomfort of our saddleless seat, we
dismounted at the end of the first half hour." The
fur of the Yak is usually black, the back and tail being
sometimes quite white. Various cross breeds have
been produced between this species and the com-
mon ox.
THE MUSK OX (Ovibos moschatus) is a native of the
icy regions of North America, and is in those districts
an exceedingly valuable animal, supplying the Esqui-
maux with one of then- principal sources of food. It
is readily distinguished, not only by its moderate bulk,
but also by its long-haired, woolly hide (fig. 57). The
ears are short, and well-nigh concealed by the fur. The
horns are remarkably broad at the base, where they
closely approximate, separated by a hairy interspace
in the female. They are curved obliquely downwards
at first, suddenly bending upwards again towards the
tips. The first half of the horn is rough and light-
coloured ; but the remaining narrowed portion is
smooth and black at the extremity. The forehead is
convex, the face being prolonged forwards into a hairy
muzzle. The long fur has a rich brown colour gene-
rally, but is whitish on the limbs, where it is not so
fully developed. The best account of the habits of
this animal is that of Sir John Richardson, who writes
as follows: — "Notwithstanding the shortness of the
legs of the Musk ox, it runs fast ; and it climbs hills
and rocks with great ease. One pursued on the banks
of the Copper-mine, scaled a lofty sand cliff, having so
great a declivity that we were obliged to crawl on
hands and knees to follow it. Its footmarks are very
BOVID;
-MAMMALIA. ^GOSCERID^.
163
similar to those of the carabou, but are rather longer
and narrower. These oxen assemble in herds of from
twenty to thirty, rut about the end of August and the
beginning of September, and bring forth one calf about
the latter end of May or beginning of June. Heurne,
Fig. 57.
The Musk Ox (Ovibos moschatnn)
that they kill each other for the cows. If the hunters
keep themselves concealed when they fire upon a herd
of Musk oxen, the poor animals mistake the noise for
thunder, and, forming themselves into a group, crowd
nearer and nearer together as their companions fall
around them ; but should they discover their enemies
by sight, or by their sense of smell, which is very
acute, the whole herd seek for safety by instant flight.
The bulls, however, are very irascible ; and, particu-
larly when wounded, will often attack the hunter, and
endanger his life, unless he possesses both activity and
presence of mind. The Esquimaux, who are well
accustomed to the pursuit of this animal, sometimes
turn its irritable disposition to good account ; for an
expert hunter, having provoked a bull to attack him,
wheels round it more quickly than it can turn, and by
repeated stabs in the belly puts an end to its life."
The Musk ox is most abundant in comparatively in-
accessible districts, where rocks and craggy slopes,
unadorned with trees, seem to form its special home.
If it could be more easily procured, the woolly fur,
.finer than that of the bison, would be much more
extensively employed for economic purposes. Accord-
ing to an authority recently quoted, the carcass of the
Musk ox, exclusive of the offal, weighs about three
hundredweight. When well fattened, the flesh of the
cow has a tolerably pleasant flavour ; but that of the
males or females, when lean, has a musky taste, and is
both tough and highly coloured. We have said that the
foot-prints of this animal can scarcely be distinguished
from those of the reindeer; but according to the ex-
perience of Mr. Peterson, who accompanied Dr. Kane
on his arctic travels, those of the ox are much larger,
but not wider. Behind the prints there were slight
brushings of the snow, caused by hair growing from
the pastern joints.
FAMILY II.—
Partly for convenience sake we here associate under
the above title the closely allied genera represented by
the sheep and goats. It is admitted that, in a purely
zoological or anatomical point ot view, it is difficult
to impart a separate family definition to this group ;
nevertheless there is a tout ensemble about these ani-
mals which, in our opinion, justifies such a step. Even
the most superficial observer cannot fail to notice a
very marked difference in the general aspect of these
creatures, when compared with oxen properly so called.
The goats are characterized chiefly by their long horns,
which are directed upwards and backwards, are more
or less angular in front, rounded behind, and generally
marked by transverse bars or ridges. The chin is
clothed with a long beard. On the other hand, the
sheep, which have no beard, have the horns directed
at first backwards, and subsequently bent spirally for-
ward. None of the members of this family exhibit the
lachrymal sinuses, so characteristic of the majority of
the antelopes and deer. The value of these animals
to man is too well known to require lengthened
comment.
THE SHEEP (Ovis aries). — Any attempt to enu-
merate or describe the principal varieties of sheep
would, in a work like the present, be quite out of place.
It is impossible to determine with certainty how many
species of sheep exist ; but there is reason to believe
that all the forms may be reduced to one or two original
species. Our domesticated breeds are supposed to be
J64
JEOOSCERTDJE.-
-MAMMALU
-ANTILOPID.K.
derived from the Mouflon (Ovis musimori), which is
found in Cyprus, Candia, Corsica, and Sardinia. How
far this affects the question of the specific identity of
such kinds as the Thibet sheep (0. ammori), Plate 18,
fig. 60, the Argali of Central Asia (0. argali), and the
Rock}' Mountain sheep (0. montanus), Plate 18, fig. 61,
of North America it is not easy to decide. From the
earliest ages of human history the sheep has been
employed in the service of man, affording him food
and materials of clothing, &c. Now-a-days they
supply us with meat, suet, leather, wool, tallow, and
manure ; the latter substance indirectly conferring
many other advantages, by proving a source of fertility
to various crops of grain and fodder. Among the
more interesting varieties we may particularize the
Fat-tailed sheep of Persia, Tartary, and China, whose
caudal appendage is transformed into a globular mass
of fat weighing as much as sixty or seventy pounds.
Another interesting form is the Ovis polyceratus,
inhabiting Nepaul ; the male being provided with four
horns. These last-mentioned organs attain an enor-
mous development in the Rocky Mountain sheep —
Plate 18, fig. 61 — each of them measuring nearly three
feet along their outer curvature, from base to apex.
In the catalogue of ovine ruminants preserved in the
British Museum upwards of thirty well-marked varieties
of sheep are indicated, and this enumeration does not
separately take into consideration the multitudinous
sub-varieties, or domesticated breeds, which are found
in the United Kingdom, and in various parts of Europe.
THE WILD GOAT (Copra cegagras), or Paseng, is
believed to be the progenitor of our domestic goats, in
the same way that the Mouflon is supposed to be the
original stock of our sheep. The Paseng is a native
of the mountains of Persia and the Caucasus, and is
distinguished by its sharp horns, which attain a very
large size in the male. The varieties to which it is
believed to have given origin are exceedingly numer-
ous ; the various kinds differing not only in form, size,
and , colour, but also in the character of their hairy
covering, and in the number and disposition of their
horns. The Angora variety has beautiful long silky
hah- ; whilst the wool of the Thibetan goat supplies the
natives of India with material for the fabrication of
the celebrated cashmere shawls. The female, after a
period of five months' gestation, usually produces two
young at a birth. Though goats are chiefly valued
for their skins, the milk of the female, and especially
the flesh of the kids, are highly esteemed. The Rocky
Mountain goat (Capra Americana} is possibly a mere
variety of the common wild species.
THE IBEX (Capra ibex], Plate 19, fig. 62, is a
native of the Swiss Alps, and probably of the moun-
tainous chains of Southern Europe generally. It is
provided with immense horns, which are arched back-
wards, and marked with prominent node-like rings
throughout their entire length. The Ibex or steinboc,
as it is sometimes called, is subject to great difference,
those examples found in the Caucasus and in Asia
being, in all likelihood, mere varieties, although they
are described by some as distinct species. The Ibex
is a very hardy animal, and is said to leap fearlessly
down rocky precipices, falling on its massive and par-
tially elastic horns, which afford the necessary security
against injury.
FAMILY III.— ANTILOPID^E.
By far the greater portion of the hollow-horned
ruminants belong to this family, in which the osseous
axis of the horns is solid, persistent, and destitute of
cavities or pores. A large number of the antelopes
possess lachrymal sinuses or tear-pits, in common with
the deer tribe. The horns have usually a more or less
conical form, cylindrical, sometimes compressed, annu-
lated at the base, and directed obliquely backwards.
These appendages are usually two in number, simple
and unbranched; but in some cases there are four
horns, as, for example, in the Jungliburka and Chou-
singha, whilst those of the Cabrit have an additional
prong. This may be considered as equivalent to the
brow antler of the deer, and clearly indicates an
approach towards the cervine type of ruminant. Most
of the antelopes are remarkable for their very graceful
and slender build ; the structure of their limbs being
beautifully adapted for rapid flight. They are widely
distributed throughout the eastern hemisphere, being
more particularly abundant in Africa, where vast herds
of them supply the natives with food, and too often
afford the European hunter an aimless pastime — in
those cases where they are shot for mere sport only.
Like the generality of ruminants they are, for the most
part, gregarious in their habits.
THE GNOO (Catolkpas gnu}— Plate 19, fig. 63— is
a native of South Africa, and forms an aberrant type
between the bovine and the antilopine ruminants ; but
its more distinctive characters undoubtedly indicate a
closer alliance to the present family. The body is nine
and a half feet in length, and stands about four feet six
inches at the shoulder. The muzzle is large, bristly,
broad, and square-shaped, the nasal apertures being
operculated. The horns are broad at the base, where
they expand into a broad protecting plate on the fore-
head; from this point they are directed downwards and
slightly outwards over the eyes, and then making a
regular curve upwards terminating in a sharp hooked
extremity. The chin is furnished with a thick beard,
similar tufts of black hair being situated below the
eyes. A flowing whitish mane extends along the neck,
from the occiput backwards to a point beyond the
withers. The ears are comparatively small. The tail
resembles that of a horse, has a white colour, and
reaches to the ground. Between the fore-legs and
along the central line of the thorax, the brisket is •
clothed with a thick shaggy development of black hair.
The general colour of the fur is that of an amber-
brown, passing into brownish-black. The limbs are
particularly slender, terminating in bluish-black hoofs,
which are pointed and compressed anteriorly. The
udder of the female is provided with four mammae.
The habits of the Gnoos are gregarious, and they are
exceedingly wild and swift of foot, following one
another in single file, and skimming the plains with
extraordinary velocity; they are extremely restless,
seldom remaining long at one spot, and migrating
from place to place in vast herds. Captain Harris,
-MAMMALIA,
-ANTILOPIDJE.
1G5
from whose beautiful work, entitled " Portraits of the
Game and Wild Animals of Southern Africa," the
annexed illustration of the brindled species is given,
furnishes the following proof of their speed, and of their
resemblance to a lion when seen at a great distance.
"Whilst crossing the boundless plains of the Vaal river,
we had an opportunity of remarking the very similar
appearance of the two animals, in twice witnessing the
animating but abortive pursuit of a herd of Gnoos by
an enormous lion, rendered perfectly furious by the
qualms of hunger, and still more desperately frantic
at the disappointment entailed by the slippery heels
of his intended victims, who, on both occasions, left
their grim pursuer far behind, puffing and blowing, to
grumble over the loss of the morning repast which he
had vainly promised himself." The same eloquent
-writer, thorough sportsman, and competent naturalist,
says — "These ungainly beasts are nevertheless shot
from horseback without much difficulty, and can
scarcely be pronounced formidable except in external
appearance. The eyes are lowering and expressive of
great ferocity ; the solid casque of the horn, by which
their beetling brows are overshadowed, greatly height-
ening their aspect of suspicion and vindictiveness.
Like other animals possessing dispositions far more
gentle and tractable, the Gnoo is naturally prone to
charge in self-defence when wounded or forced into a
corner ; but, after fracturing its leg, I have repeatedly
driven a reluctant individual up to the waggons, either
to escape the trouble of carrying his sirloin, or because
I had expended the last bullet in my pouch. In the
wild districts bordering on the colony, where a succes-
sion of level plains are traversed by low ranges of bare
stony hills, prancing troops, consisting of from fifteen
to thirty Gnoos of various sizes, are to be seen engaged
in the most wanton frolics, and may easily be hemmed
into a valley and compelled to run the gauntlet." And
further on he adds: — "The curious and inquisitive
disposition of the Gnoo, often induces the herd to dis-
continue their giddy gambols, and slowly to approach
the passing caravan with an air of laughable defiance,
formed in a compact square, gazing, menacing, stamp-
ing with their slender fore-feet, and at length halting
within rifle range to scrutinize the bold intruders upon
their lone and hereditary pastures." Such is Captain
Harris' account of the whimsical character of this sin-
gular antelope, and it is fully borne out by the less
animated descriptions of other travellers. The female
Gnoo usually produces a solitary calf at a single birth,
which at first exhibits a whitish cream-coloured fur,
subsequently becoming reddish-grey. The flesh of the
adult is coarse, but that of the calf is considered excel-
lent. The tail is used for making chowries, whilst the
hide is brayed and converted into riems or thongs ; in
this state it is chiefly employed as harness, being also
applied to other economic uses as a substitute for rope
or twine.
THE BRINDLED GNOO (Catoblepcu Gorgon), Ko-
KOOK, or GORGON, is readily distinguished from the
common species by its arched face, laterally directed
The Brindled Gnc
horns, deep bluish-black hide striped with obscure
vertical bands, absence of any tufts of hair between
the fore-legs, and immensely thick, elevated and
powerful shoulders (fig. 58). The body measures nine
feet in length, including the tail and head ; the latter
alone being twenty-three inches from the tip of the
muzzle to the occipital crest. The Brindled Gnoo
inhabits the interior plains of Southern Africa to
the north of Orange river, its manners being similar
(Catoblepas Gorgon;.
to those of its congeners. According to some autho-
rities the name Kokoon ought to be applied to the
common species ; but we prefer the authority of Cap-
tain Harris, who remarks that it is thus named by
the Bechuanas, while the Dutch colonists call it the
Bastaard, and the Hottentot tribes designate it the
Baas or Kaop. He gives also the following graphic
description of its manners : — " When excited by the
appearance of any suspicious object, or aroused by any
166
AXTII.OPID^E. 11AMMALIA.
unusual noise, the Kokoon is wont to appear much
more grim and ferocious than it actually proves ; not
uufrequently approaching with an air of defiance, as if
resolved to do battle with the hunter, but decamping
upon the very first exhibition of hostility on his part.
On being pursued, the herd bring their aquiline noses
low between their knees, and flourishing their stream-
ing black tails, tear away in long regular files at a
furious gallop ; wheeling curiously about at the distance
of two or three hundred yards, advancing boldly towards
the danger, tossing their shaggy heads in a threatening
manner, presently making a sudden stop, presenting
an impenetrable front of horns, and staring wildly at
the object of their mistrust. The slightest demonstra-
tion, however, is sufficient to put the whole squadron to
flight, when they make a somewhat shorter excursion,
again wheel in a circle, show a more menacing and
imposing front than before, and most probably take up
their position within sure rifle range. When engaged
in grazing, they have an extremely dull and clumsy
appearance, and at a little distance might often be
mistaken for wild buffaloes ; but their usual manner is
sportive, at one moment standing to gaze at nothing,
and at the next scampering over the plain without any
apparent object in view, making various grotesque
curves and plunges, with their preposterous bonassus-
lookiug heads laid between the fore-legs." The flesh
of the Kokoon resembles that of beef, and is much
sought after by the natives. The hide is dressed with
the mane and beard attached, and when carefully pre-
pared is converted into useful and ornamental cloaks,
shawls, and tippets.
THE NYL-GHATJ (Portax pieta)— Plate 20, fig. 67—
is a native of India. It is as large as a stag, the sum-
mit of the shoulders standing more than four feet from
the ground. The fur exhibits a tawny, ferruginous
colour generally, being in the male of a uniform bluish-
grey at the upper parts. The head is furnished with a
pair of short horns, about seven inches in length, which
are slightly recurved forwards ; they do not exist in the
female. The muzzle is remarkably attenuated; the
ears are rounded, and the lachrymal sinuses rather
large. The neck is broad and compressed laterally;
and at the under part, near the middle line, it is fur-
nished with a conspicuous tuft of hair. Immediately
above this beard-like development there is a whitish
spot; two similar patches being also seen on either
cheek, below and in front of the eye. Besides these,
the pasterns are marked with white spots forming more
or less distinct bands round the ankle-joints. The
mane is pretty strongly developed, especially over the
region of the shoulders, where it forms a thickish tuft.
The tail is long and bushy at the tip. According to
Mr. Ogilby, the Nyl-ghau dwells principally in dense
forests, " whence it occasionally makes excursions very
early in the morning, or during the night, to feed upon
the corn-fields of the natives which happen to be situ-
ated in the vicinity of the jungle. It is a vicious animal,
of very uncertain temper, and as it is both powerful and
resolute, and frequently turns upon its pursuers, it is
seldom made an object of chase, except by the native
princes, who employ elephants for this purpose, or
inclose the game in nets." It is likewise added, that
" even in confinement, and when domesticated from
birth, the violent and changeable temper of the Nyl-
ghau cannot be trusted. Previous to making an attack,
it drops upon the fore-knees, advancing in this position
till within a proper distance; then darting suddenly
forwards with the velocity of an arrow, and with a force
which no ordinary animal can withstand." The female
commonly produces two young at a birth, her period
of gestation extending over a period of eight months.
THE BOSCH-BOC ( Tragelaphus sylvatica] is an inha-
bitant of Cape Colony and Caflraria, dwelling more
particularly in forests near the sea-coast. The body
of a full-grown male stands two feet eight inches high
at the shoulder, and measures rather more than five
feet in length. The fur exhibits a bright-chestnut
colour generally, being darker superiorly, but marked
along the spine by a narrow white streak ; white spots
also exist on the cheek, as well as on the flanks and fet-
locks. The forehead has a deep sienna-brown colour,
and the neck is encircled by a collar-like band of a still
darker hue. The horns are about a foot long, thick
below, and gradually attenuated towards the rather
blunt extremities ; their position is erect, and they are
marked by spirally directed ridges in front and behind,
which disappear after traversing the first two-thirds of
their length. The ears are large and rounded, the
limbs stoutish, the tail of moderate extent, and the
muzzle naked. There are no lachrymary openings.
The females are hornless, and furnished with four
mamma. Respecting the habits of the Bosch-boc, Mr.
Ogilby states that it never quits its forest haunts except
during bright moonlight nights, " when it comes out to
graze on the border of the forest, or to make incursions
into the neighbouring gardens and corn-fields. Its
voice resembles the barking of a dog, and its deceitful
tone sometimes leads the benighted traveller into the
most remote and lonely depths of the forest, in the vain
search after some human habitation, which he is all
the time leaving behind him. It is a slow runner, and
easily caught when surprised ; but it keeps close to the
woods, through which it penetrates with great ease,
running with the horns couched backwards along the
sides of the neck to prevent them from impeding its
course by striking against the branches, and having the
neck and throat frequently denuded by rubbing against
the underwood, as it forces its passage through the
thick covers." The Bosch-bocs are monogamous,
or solitary, the male and female being usually found
together, or accompanied only by one or two offspring.
THE KOODOO (Strepsiceros Kudu} is also an inha-
bitant of the wilds of Caffraria and Southern Africa,
generally frequenting also the borders of streams, and
not refusing to take to the water when occasion may
require. It is a very large and attractive species,
measuring upwards of nine feet in extreme length, and
standing more than five feet high at the shoulders.
The horns are massive and beautifully curved into two
wide-spreading spiral circles ; they are upwards of three
feet in length, of a brown colour, having their tips
directed outwards and upwards. The muzzle is broad,
the ears large and pointed at the ends, the forehead
black, the shoulders much elevated, and there are no
suborbital sinuses. The fur has a buff-grey colour
~
ANTILOPID.E. MAMMALIA. ANTILOPID/E.
1G7
generally, the limbs being reddish below the knees, the
rump white, the tail, which is two feet in length and
tapering, being rufous and whitish at the margins;
three white spots exist on the cheek, and a pale band
passes along the central line of the back, giving off, as
it were, at right angles, five or six transversely-disposed
whitish bands, directed downwards on either side
towards the belly. These mai-kings are not so con-
spicuous in the female, which is also of slighter build,
destitute of horns, and furnished with four mammse.
The Koodoos are gregarious, and, though still found
within the colony, are comparatively scarce. They are
deservedly admired by travellers who have seen them
in the wild state. " Of all the varied and beauteous
forms of animal life to be found in the boundless woods
and plains of tropical South Africa, the Koodoo is
unquestionably the most distinguished for elegance and
gracefulness, united with strength." So writes Mr.
Andersson, who considers it a perfect picture, and "one
of the grandest-looking antelopes in the world." The
same ardent sportsman gives us an account of a curious
method adopted by the natives for its capture : — " The
Bushmen have a way of their own of hunting the
Koodoo, viz., by running it down, not by speed of foot,
but by gradually exhausting it ! When a hunt of this
kind is decided on, a number of these people assemble,
armed with assegais, &c. Having started the animal,
one of the party takes up its "spoor" at a quick pace,
the rest following more leisurely. On feeling fatigued
the leading man drops behind his comrades, and the
next in order takes up the pursuit, and so on, until they
secure the prize. Sometimes this is effected in the
course of a few hours ; but it happens also that the
chase lasts for a whole day, or even longer. All
depends on the ground. If stony or rocky, the men
have an immense advantage over the animal, which,
under such circumstances, soon becomes foot-sore, lies
down repeatedly, and after a while is found unable to
rise, when it is quickly despatched. The Women and
children carry water on these occasions for the hunters,
so that, should the animal prove very enduring, his
pursuers may not be necessitated to give up the chase
for want of that indispensable necessary." The flesh
of the Koodoo is highly esteemed, and the hide is con-
verted into Various articles of clothing, harness, &c.
THE ELAND (Boselaphus oreas) is a magnificent
animal, the largest of the antelopes, and on many
accounts deserving of an extended notice. It is also
known by the names of the Cape Elk, Ganna, and
Impoofoo— the latter term being employed by the
Bechuanas and Matabili. The importance of this
ruminant will be at once appreciated when it is men-
tioned, that not only is its flesh of the most palatable
and nutritious character, but experiments have recently
established the fact that it will readily breed in this
country. When it is added, moreover, that several are
now thriving in the parks of English noblemen, and
that a single individual weighs from fifteen hundred to
two thousand pounds, it will be easily understood that
the day cannot be far distant when the Eland shall
become permanently domesticated in this country, and
supply wholesome food, at least to the table of the
wealthy. Not long ago an Eland, bred and fattened in
England, was slaughtered for the express purpose of
testing its epicurean qualities, the result of which was
that Royalty, both on this and the other side of the
channel, partook of the venison, and pronounced it
excellent. Professor Owen extolled its qualities in the
columns of the Times, whilst many other distinguished
fellows of the Zoological Society testified to the accu-
racy of his judgment. In short, every body pronounced
a favourable opinion, in terms very similar to those of
the gifted author of the " Game and Wild Animals of
Southern Africa," who amusingly says : — " Both in
grain and colour it resembles beef, but is far better
tasted and more delicate, possessing a pure game
flavour, and exhibiting the most tempting-looking layers
of fat and lean ; the surprising quantity of the former
ingredient with which it is interlarded, exceeding that of
any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted.
The venison fairly melts in the mouth ; and as for the
brisket, that is absolutely a cut for a monarch 1 With
what satisfaction would not King Jamie of hunting
memory, have drawn his good blade adown the breast
of a plump Eland, to be rewarded with five full inches
of ' prime white fat on that ilk,' instead of three, as on
the occasion in Greenwich Park, when Nigel assisted
his sporting Majesty in the sylvan ceremony? The
vast quantity of taUow yielded by the fat bulls, fur-
nished us with constant material for manufacturing
'dips' in a candle mould with which we were pro-
vided ; and during the greater part of our journey it
was to the flesh of this goodly beast that we principally
looked for our daily rations, both on account of its vast
superiority over every other wild flesh, and from the
circumstance of its being obtainable in larger quantities
with comparatively less labour." Here we must pause
to mention the principal characters by which this
gigantic antelope is easily distinguished (fig. 59). Aa
adult male stands fully six feet high at the shoulder, el-
even more ; the length being in some cases upwards of
nine feet from the nose to the root of the tail. The
horns are nearly straight, massive, conical, furnished
with a strongly-developed spiral ridge, which gradually
disappears at the upper third, where the ends become
attenuated and sharply pointed. In the female the
horns are longer, slighter, and less markedly furrowed.
The forehead of the male is clothed with a thick bundle
of stiff, wiry, brownish hairs ; the tuft being bordered
on either side by a band of yellow-orange colour. The
ears are comparatively small and the muzzle broad, the
neck thick, the dewlap very prominent and fringed with
long brown hairs, the legs rather short, the shoulders
and hind quarters enormously developed, the fur short
and of a rufous-dun or ashy-grey colour generally, the
tail being about twenty-six inches long and tufted at
the extremity. The female exhibits a bead-like tuft of
hair on the under part of the neck, has a more ferru-
ginous colour, and is furnished with four teats. Re-
specting the habits of this interesting animal, it is well
known to frequent only the more open plains of the
interior; "rejoicing especially," says Captain Harris,
" in low belts of shaded hillocks, and in the isolated
groves of Acacia capensis, which, like islands in the
ocean, are scattered over many of the stony and gravelly
plains of the interior; large herds of them are also
168
ANTILOPID.E. MAMMALIA,
-AjTTILOPIDJE.
to be seen grazing like droves of oxen on the more
verdant meadows, through which some silver rivulet
winds in rainbow brightness betwixt fringes of sighing
bulrushes. Fat and lethargic groups may be seen scat-
tered up and down the gentle acclivities, some grazing
on the hillside, and others lazily basking in the morning
sunbeam. Advancing, they appear to move like a
regiment of cavalry in single files, the goodliest bulls
leading the van; whereas, during a retreat, these it
is that uniformly bring up the rear." At one time
Elands were abundant in the immediate neighbourhood
of Cape Town, but now very few are found within the
borders of the colony. Considering the facilities which
exist for their destruction, every effort should be made
to follow up the experiments of domestication so suc-
cessfully commenced by the Zoological Society, and
steps should be duly taken to secure more specimens
from the colony, ere they are driven far up into the
interior, or altogether exterminated. Finally, we may
remark that Dr. Livingstone discovered to the north of
Sesheke a beautiful striped variety of Eland, distin-
guished by vertical streaks on the back, and by black
patches on the outer side of the fore-arm.
THE HAKTE-BEEST (Acronotus Caama), or CAAMA,
is also called Intoosel by the Matabili. It is a large
species, with a long head and much elevated shoulders.
The horns are of moderate length, approximating closely
at the base, diverging at first, and again converging
towards the tips. The back, the nose, and the hind
and fore legs are marked with dark streaks ; the chin
being also black. The general colour of the fur is
greyish-brown, with a deep red cast. The tail is hairy
and reaches down to the hocks. The Harte-beest occu-
pies the plains of the interior of Southern Africa in
immense herds, and is one of the most common species.
Its flesh, though inferior to that of the eland, is never-
theless fine-grained and highly esteemed. The female
is provided with two mammse, and produces only one
calf at a birth.
THE S ASS ABE (Acronotus lunata), or BASTARD
HAKTE-BEEST, is likewise a native of Southern Africa,
occurring in small herds in the district inhabited by
the Bechuanas. A full-grown example stands about
four and a half feet high at the shoulder, and is fur-
nished with horns nearly twelve inches in length. The
body is stoutish, the neck short, the limbs slender, the
withers elevated, the lachrymal sinus inconspicuous,
the ears being eight or nine inches long. The general
colour of the fur is rufous-grey ; the upper parts and
legs have a deep brown tint, the forehead being marked
by a dark longitudinal band. The Sassabe is natu-
rally tame, but is much hunted by the natives. The
female is comparatively small, and furnished with two
mammae.
THE BUBALE (Alcephalus bubalus) is widely distri-
buted over the entire regions of Northern Africa, being
especially abundant in Barbary. It is gregarious in
its habits, and naturally docile in disposition. By
the Arab natives it is termed the wild ox, or Bekker-el-
Wash. It is a large species, and is readily distinguished
by its remarkably compressed and straight forehead.
The horns are of moderate length, lyrate, stout at the
base, and strongly annulated throughout.
THE COMMON ANTELOPE (Ant Hope cwvicapra), or
SASIN — Plate 19, fig. 65— is a native of Persia, India,
and the southern parts of Asia generally, .where it
dwells on rocky hills and open plains. It stands some-
thing less than three feet high at the shoulder, and is
furnished with slim legs, a short tail, and a pair of large
horns, which are beautifully annulated and spirally
curved. The full-grown male is almost black above ;
the inside of the legs, under parts of the neck and
belly, and the rump remaining white. The Sasin is
altogether an elegant species, and remarkably swift of
ANTILOPID^E. MAMMALIA. AXTILOPHXE.
foot, leaping, it is said, as much as thirteen feet in
height, and clearing a space of twelve yards at a single
bound ! The flesh is insipid.
THE PALLAH (Antilope melampus), or BETJUAN, is
a native of South Africa. It is a fine species, standing
upwards .of three feet high at the shoulders. The
horns are twenty inches in length, lyrate, and coarsely
annulated. The general colour is rufous, being much
darker above than below, whilst the belly is quite
white. The tail is about a foot long, white at the
extremity, and marked by a dark-brown streak down
the middle. The Pallah is gregarious in its habits;
only six or eight individuals constituting a herd. The
females are hornless, and provided with two teats.
The flesh is coarse, but palatable.
THE MADOQTJA {Antilope Saltiana) is a remarkably
small and slim-built antelope inhabiting the mountain-
ous districts of Abyssinia. The summit of the shoulder
is only fourteen inches above the level of the ground ;
but it stands rather higher on the hind quarters. The
horns are correspondingly thin, and about three inches
in length, whilst the tail is only rudimentary, measuring
scarcely more than one inch and a half from root to
tip. The females are hornless.
THE GrCTEVI (Cephalophiis pygmmis] — Plate 19, fig.
C4 — is even smaller than the species above described,
and has been variously designated the Pigmy antelope,
Kleene, Blauw-boc, and Monmetzi. It is a native of
South Africa, dwelling either singly or in pairs amongst
dense woods and thickets near the sea-coast. The
head is long and pointed, with a wide muzzle, short
round ears, and diminutive horns ; the latter being less
Fig
than two inches long, black, conical, and strongly
annulated. The tail is about the same length, dark
above and white below. The fur exhibits a dull-
brownish, buff, or mouse colour, generally ; being lighter
underneath. The females are hornless.
THE MOHR (Antilope Mohr) is an inhabitant of
Western Africa, and stands about two and a half feet
in height at the shoulder. The horns are of moderate
size, thick, and strongly annulated at the lower two-
thirds of their extent, the tips being rather sharp, and
bent forwards. The fur exhibits a deep brownish-red
colour generally, but is white underneath and on the
back part of the rump. The Mohr is highly valued by
the Arabs on account of the bezoar stones or concre-
tions found in its intestines.
THE SAIGA (Antilope colits\ or COLUS, is an inhabi-
tant of eastern Europe from Poland to the Caucasus,
being also found in Northern Persia and Siberia. It is
of moderate size, and rather bulky in appearance. It
is gregarious in its habits, many thousands of them
herding together, and migrating southwards during the
cold season. They are much hunted and valued for
the sake of their horns, which are light-coloured,
semitransparent, and slightly twisted on their axis ;
the skins of the young are likewise highly esteemed,
and employed in the manufacture of gloves.
THE CHERTJ (Antilope Hodgsoni) is another gregari-
ous species inhabiting the open plains of Thibet. It is
a fine animal, measuring three feet in height at the
shoulder, and furnished with annulated horns more
than two feet in length. The fur displays a bluish-
grey colour generally, overcast with a rufous tint.
The Spring-hoc (Uazelle Euchore).
The tail measures about eight inches from root to tip.
The Chiru is shy, bold, swift, and, like other species
in which bezoar stones are found, is very partial to saline
matters, which it licks greedily.
VOL. I.
THF SPEING-BOC (Gazella Eucliore) is a beautiful
little creature, everywhere scattered over the plains of
Southern Africa in countless herds (fig. 60). The
horns are black, lyrately disposed, provided with about
Y
170
ANTILOPID.E. MAMMALIA. ASTILOPID^E.
twenty prominent annulations, and curved inwards at
the tip. The fur exhibits a bright rufous-dun colour,
the flanks being marked on either side by a broad, rich,
and deep chestnut-coloured band. The belly and in-
sides of the legs are quite white. One of the most
curious features in this species consists in the presence
of several folds of integument over the rump and loins,
which, when the animal is excited, are unfolded, and
by the snow-white aspect of the fur at this point, pre-
sent a very singular appearance. The tail is about
eight inches in length, and tufted with black hairs.
THE GAZELLE (Gazella Dorcas) is a native of North-
eastern Africa, and from its extreme elegance of form,
coupled with large, full, lustrous eyes, has deservedly
acquired distinction. The Gazelle or Corinne, as the
female is sometimes called, stands less than two feet
high at the withers, and is furnished with a pair of
strongly annulated horns about ten inches in length.
The ears are conspicuous and sharply pointed. The
fur is more or less fawn-coloured or fulvous, but varies
according to age. The habits of the Gazelle are gre-
garious. Considering their slender build, they are
remarkably courageous, and will unite to defend them-
selves against the strongest Carnivora, although they
usually fall victims to these overpowering enemies.
THE STEEN-BOC (Antilope tragulus) was formerly
a very common species, inhabiting the mountainous
plains and open valleys of Southern Africa ; but now it
is becoming comparatively rare in the colony. It
stands about twenty-two inches high at the shoulder,
and is furnished with round slender horns, about four
inches long. The ears are large, but the tail is only
rudimentary, and scarcely an inch in length. The fur
has a rich rufous colour. The habits of the Steen-boc
are monogamous, or solitary ; the females being horn-
less, and provided with four mammse.
THE GBYS-BOC (Antilope meldnotis) pretty closely
resembles the steen-boc, both as respects its solitary
habits and general appearance. The horns are about
three and a half inches long, the general colour of
the fur being of a deep chocolate red. The ears are
broad and rounded. The Grys-boc is found more par-
ticularly among the wooded districts bordering the sea-
coast. The females are hornless, and provided with
only two mamma?.
THE DUIKER-BOC (Antilope Grimmia), or IMPOON
of the Matabili, is also a Cape species frequenting those
districts near the sea-coast, and possessed of mono-
gamous habits. It is about two feet in height, the
horns being four inches long, and marked by a longi-
tudinal ridge in front, which traverses four or five
rings at the middle. The fur is yellowish-brown ; but
in winter it assumes a cinereous olive tint ; the fore-
head being clothed with a patch of long fulvous-
coloured hair. The tail is short, black, and tipped
with white. The female has four mammae ; her horns
being very short, and concealed beneath the hair.
THE BLESS-BOC (Antilope albifrons), or WHITE-
FACED ANTELOPE, is a native of Southern Africa,
inhabiting the plains bordering on the Vaal river,
and herding in immense flocks. A full-grown buck
stands three feet and a half in height, and carries a
pair of diverging annulated horns, measuring from
twelve to fifteen inches in length. The fur has a deep
chocolate colour in front, gradually passing into a hoary
bluish- white on the back and shoulders, the belly being
quite white. The tail is long, reaching to the hocks.
The female is similar, but of lighter build.
THE BHEE-BOC (Antilope Capreolus), is a gracefully
formed Cape species, occurring in small herds amongst
the hills and rocks in the neighbourhood of water pools
and dried-up rivers. It stands about two feet four
inches high, and is furnished with straight, slender,
vertically-pointed horns, nine inches in length. The
fur has a light rufous-grey colour, being white under-
neath the belly; its texture is woolly. The females
have four mammse, and are hornless.
THE BEIT-BOG (Antilope eleotragus), or IXGHALLA,
possesses similar habits, and is a comparatively rare
species, occurring only in the more northern parts of
Cape colony, and higher up in the interior. It is
larger • than the foregoing, standing three feet high ;
the horns measure about a foot in length, and are
annulated. The ears are long and pointed; the tail
being also conspicuously developed. The fur exhibits
a dull ash-grey colour, having a rufous tinge above,
while it is lighter underneath. The females have four
mammae, are smaller than the bucks, and hornless.
The reit-boc is gregarious in small families.
THE WATEB-BOC (Antilope ellipsiprimna), or PHI-
TOMOK of the Matabili, stands upwards of four feet
at the shoulders. The horns are strongly annu-
lated, upright, diverging, of a whitish-green colour, and
upwards of thirty inches in length, the last six inches
being smooth and destitute of rings. The fur has a
greyish-brown tint generally ; a white patch occurs on
the throat, and a similar streak before each eye. The
ears are full and rounded ; the tail being brown and
tufted, and scarcely reaching to the hocks. There are
no suborbital sinuses. The females are hornless, and
have two mammae. The Phitomoks are gregarious,
inhabiting the banks of the rivers of Southern Africa,
especially those of the Limpopo and Mariqua.
THE GEMS-BOC (Antilope Oryx}, or KOOKAAM, of
the Matabili, is found chiefly in the Karroo, or in the
open plains of Namaqualand in Southern Africa. It is
a strong, bulky, and courageous species, and is armed
with a pair of formidable horns, which are upwards of
three feet in length, almost straight, divergent, annu-
lated below, horizontally disposed, and tapering to a
point ; between them a black stripe passes down the
forehead, which is crossed by a similar band above the
muzzle. The ears are white, with black margins. The
fur has a rusty iron-grey colour generally ; it supports
a mane, the hairs of which are reversed in direction ;
the under parts of the belly and thorax, as well as the
legs, being white. The tail is bushy, black, and three
feet long. The females have two mammse, whilst their
horns are even longer than those of the buck.
THE BLAUW-BOC (Antilope leucophcea). — Not a
little confusion has arisen in regard to this species, the
name here given having been applied to the little slate-
coloured antelope. The Blauw-boc is, with its varieties,
also known as the Bastard Gems-boc, Roan Antelope,
EtaJc of the Matabili, and Takhaitze ; the latter con-
stituting a well-marked variety, known by its increased
-MAMMALIA. ASTILOPID.E.
171
size, large beard, and fine flowing mane. It is also dis-
tinguished for its fierceness. The Etak, properly so
called, stands about five feet high at the shoulder, and
is furnished with scimitar-shaped horns two feet in
length; they are strongly curved backwards, and marked
with about thirty conspicuous annulations. The face
is black, with white streaks in front and behind the
eyes ; the muzzle and under parts being also white.
The ears are pointed, and fourteen inches long. The
fur exhibits a roan or reddish-white colour generally.
The females are hornless.
THE LECHEE (Antilope Lechee) is a large animal,
inhabiting South Africa, on the banks of the river
Louga. In its habits and character, it very closely
resembles the Water-hoc. The horns are elongated,
annulated, and curve forwards at the tip. The fur
has a light brown colour generally, the limbs being
much darker. In the male the mane is slightly de-
veloped; the tail being tufted and black at the
extremity. Both Dr. Livingstone and Mr. Andersson
have given interesting particulars of this species. The
former says, " It is never found a mile from water ;
islets in marshes and rivers are its favourite haunts,
and it is quite unknown except in the central humid
basin of Africa. Having a good deal of curiosity, it
presents a noble appearance as it stands gazing with
head erect at the approaching stranger. When it
resolves to decamp it lowers its head, and lays its horns
down to a level with the withers ; it then begins with
a waddling trot, which ends in its galloping and spring-
ing over bushes like the pallahs. It invariably runs
to the water, and crosses it by a succession of bounds,
each of which appears to be from the bottom." Mr.
Andersson informs us that " great numbers are annually
destroyed by the Bayeye, who convert their hides into
a kind of rug for sleeping on, caresses, and other articles
of wearing apparel."
THE NAKONG (Antilope Anderssonii). — Believing
this antelope to be new to science, we do not hesitate
to recognize it under the above specific title. Dr. Gray
thinks it may be referred to Ogilby's broad-horned
antelope, but the characters, in so far as they are given
by Mr. Andersson, lead us to a different conclusion.
The fur displays a subdued brown colour, which is
darker on the back and on the fore-part of the head
and legs ; having an ashy tint underneath the belly.
The hair is long, and coarse in texture. The horns
are black, closely resembling those of the koodoo. Its
habits are similar to those of the last-described species.
" By means of its peculiarly long hoofs, which are
black — not unfrequently attaining a length of six to
seven inches — it is able to traverse with facility the
reedy bogs and quagmires with which the lake country
abounds." Mr. Andersson adds that the natives fre-
quently, at particular seasons, capture the Nakong by
means of pitfalls.
THE LEUCORYX (Antilope Leucoryx), WHITE ANTE-
LOPE, or ORYX— Plate 20, fig. 60 — is a native of
Eastern Africa. The fur has a milky-white colour
generally, the throat and neck being rufous-brown;
dark bands also occur on the forehead and cheeks, two
of them passing vertically downwards from the inner
corner of the eye. The mane is short and reversed ;
the tail being lengthy and tufted at the tip. The horns
are very attenuated, annulated at the lower half, and
slope obliquely backwards with a very slight curvature.
The Leucoryx is gregarious in its habits, and feeds
freely on acacia shrubs.
THE ADDAX (Antilope Addax) is a native of
Northern and Central Africa, and is a bulky, thick-set
animal, standing upwards of three feet at the shoulder.
The horns are long, narrow, spirally twisted, ringed to
within five inches of the tips, sharp at the points, and
measuring about thirty-six inches from base to apex.
The forehead is clothed with a patch of black curly
hair ; the mane is well developed, the fur having a
greyish-white tint generally ; but the head and neck are
rufous-brown. The Addax has monogamous habits.
THE CHOTJSINGHA (Antilope quadricornis) or
FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPE, is an inhabitant of the
northern and well-wooded districts of India, being
found especially in the districts ot Bahar and Orissa.
It is a comparatively small species, standing about
twenty inches at the shoulders. The horns are smooth,
black, conical, and sharply pointed ; the posterior pan-
being three inches in length, while the anterior are
scarcely a third of that measurement. The fur has
a reddish colour generally, being whitish underneath.
The females are hornless, and of a paler hue ; they
usually produce two young at a birth. The Chou-
singha is excessively wild ; it is also monogamous.
THE CAMBING-OUTAN (Antilope Sumatrensis) is an
inhabitant of the hilly forests of Sumatra, and in its
habits approaches the goats and chamois. The horns
are about six inches in length, slightly curved back-
wards, broad below, and sharp at the apex. The body
is stoutish, and clothed with a long deep brown-
coloured fur, approaching to black, except on the back
of the head, neck, and shoulders, and inside of the
ears, where it is quite white; the mane being well
developed and the tail moderately long. The habits
of the Cambing-outan are wild and restless.
THE CHAMOIS (Antilope Rupicapra) is an inhabi-
tant of the alpine slopes of Western Europe, and, like
the preceding species, is closely allied to the segoscervine
family. It is clothed with a deep-brown woolly fur,
the head being of a paler colour, and banded on either
side by a dark streak, which passes from the angle of
the mouth to the eye and base of the ear, enveloping
both. The horns are from six to eight inches long,
running nearly parallel to each other, and curving
backwards at the tip. The tail is short and black.
The habits of the Chamois are wild and impetuous,
like the torrents which it overstrides in rapid flight.
It feeds on young shrubs and various alpine herbs.
THE PRONG-HORN (Antilope furcifer) or CABRIT,
is an interesting species, as it presents a sort of tran-
sitional form between the antilopine and cervine genera;
and it is for this reason that we have reserved its con-
sideration until compelled to draw our descriptions of
the members of the present family to a close. The
Prong-horn is a native of the western borders of North
America generally, being more particularly abundant
on the borders of the Saskatchewan and Columbia
rivers. It is a stoutish animal, upwards of three feet
high at the shoulder, and at once recognized by its
172
AVTILOPID.3
-MAMMALIA. CAMELOPARDID.E.
peculiar horns, which arise from the forehead imme-
diately above the eyes, giving off a sort of brow antler
about half way up, and curving suddenly backwards
and hi wards at the tip (fig. 61). Below the prong the
Fig. 61.
The Prong-horn or Cabrit (Antilope farcifer).
horns are rough, like those of the deer; but above they
are black and smooth. The fur has a fawn colour
generally ; being whitish on the throat, chest, belly,
and rump. The Prong-horn is gregarious in its habits,
frequenting open plains and billy grounds. The flesh
is coarse and unsavoury. The horns of the female are
rudimentary.
According to Sir John Richardson, " the most nor-
therly range of the Prong-horn antelope is latitude
53°, on the banks of the north branch of the Saskat-
chewan. Some of them remain the whole year on the
south branch of that river ; but they are merely summer
visitors to the north branch. They come every year
to the neighbourhood of Carlton House when the snow
has mostly gone. Soon after then* arrival the females
drop their young, and they retire southwards again in
the autumn as soon as the snow begins to fall. Almost
every year a small herd linger on a piece of rising
ground not far from Carlton House, until the snow has
become too deep on the plains to permit them to travel
over them. Few or none of that herd, however, sur-
vive until the spring, as they are persecuted by the
wolves during the whole whiter. They are found hi
the summer season in the fifty -third parallel of latitude,
from longitude 106° to the foot of the Rocky Moun-
tains. According to Lewis and Clark, they also abound
on the plains of the Columbia, to the west of the
mountains, where they form the chief game of the
Shoshonees." Our authority also adds, that "the Prong-
horn appears on the banks of the Saskatchewan,
sometimes a solitary animal, sometimes assembled in
herds of ten or twelve. Its sight and sense of smell
are acute, and its speed is greater than that of any
other inhabitant of the plains, although I have been
informed by Mr. Prudens, that when there is a little
snow on the ground, it may with some little manage-
ment be run down by a high-bred horse. The Indian
hunters have no difficulty hi bringing an antelope
within gun-shot by various stratagems, such as lying
down on then* backs and kicking their heels hi the air,
holding up a white rag or clothing themselves in a
white shut, and showing themselves only at intervals.
By these and similar manoeuvres the curiosity of a
herd of antelopes is so much roused, that they wheel
round the object of their attention, and at length
approach near enough to enable the hunter to make
sure of his mark. From this disposition of the Prong-
horned antelopes, they are more easily killed than any
of the deer of the district which they inhabit."
Had space allowed, we should have supplied short
notices of several other antelopes, including the Kob,
Sing-sing, Nagor, Haar, &c.
FAMILY IV.— CAMELOPARDID^;.
Although represented only by a single genus, the
characters of this family are sufficiently distinctive and
osculant between the antilopine, cervine, and cameline
species, to warrant the propriety of their being sepa-
rately treated. We have already taken occasion to
mention one unique structure hi connection with
the intestinal canal ; but there are others scarcely
less characteristic, being also more obvious. Firstly,
we notice the horns, which are solid, persistent, and
completely invested with a hairy integument. A ques-
tion has been raised as to the existence of a central
CAMELOPARDIDJ
-MAMMALIA. CERVIDJE.
173
or third horn. If our space permitted, we should be
able to remove all doubt upon this point, having care-
fully compared a number of crania together, and satis-
fied ourselves as to the substantially correct views
originally enunciated by Ruppel in " Reise in Nordlichen
Afrika." Another peculiarity in the cranium arises
Front view of the Skull of the Giraffe.
out of a remarkable extension of the frontal, ethmoidal,
and sphenoidal cells (fig. 62). These form a series of
large intercommunicating air cavities on the top of the
head, reaching from the middle of the face to the occi-
put. Finally, the special elongation of the tongue, the
prominent orbits, the powerful ligamentum nuchse, the
long muzzle, the usual though not invariable absence
of a gall-bladder, and some other minor peculiarities,
satisfactorily demonstrate the legitimacy of the grounds
on which the Giraffe may be considered as the repre-
sentative of a distinct family.
THE GIRAFFE (Camelopardalis Giraffa), or CAMEL-
OPARD— Plate 22, fig. 73 — is a native of Abyssinia
and the plains of Central Africa generally. It is a
singularly beautiful and attractive creature, and is the
tallest of all animals living on this planet— the head of
a full-grown example occasionally reaching as much
as eighteen feet, and the shoulders twelve feet, from
the ground. The fur is short, whitish underneath,
and marked throughout by angular fulvous red spots,
which have a dark rusty tinge in the centre. The
upper lip is extensile and undivided, the ears large,
the eyes expressive, the body short, the tail being
nearly three feet in length and tufted with black hair.
The Giraffe is gregarious in small troops. It is natu-
rally gentle, timid, and docile, and, as Captain Harris
observes, has no other means of protection than that
afforded by the swing of the head and neck, and by
the kicking of its heels, seldom employing the latter
even when hemmed into a corner. The speed of
Giraffes is considerable, and often secures the safety of
these harmless animals ; their movements during flight
being characteristic and peculiar. The limbs of either
side do not, as is well known, move alternately, as in
the trot of a horse ; but the fore and hind legs of one
side are advanced almost at the same instant, so as to
produce a swinging action of the body. Their tails
are also partly raised and curled during flight, the
tufted ends being restlessly switched to and fro. The
Giraffe feeds upon mimosa twigs and blossoms. In its
selection it would appear to be guided rather by sight
than by taste or smell ; for Professor Owen mentions
that one of the fine specimens preserved in the Zoologi-
cal Society's Gardens, Regent's Park, observing a lady's
bonnet to present a very flowery aspect, suddenly,
yet gently and politely, applied its extensile tongue
to the gaudy trash, and without further ceremony
consigned the tokens of her vanity to the macerating
influences of its capacious paunch ! In like manner
the conceit of a peacock has been observed to subside
under the magic touch of this lingual wand ; for the
bird having invaded the paddock, one of the Giraffes
took occasion, when the uplifted tail had duly displayed
this poor bird's pride, to gather a bunch of the bright-
eyed feathers on his tongue, and swiftly raising the
astonished intruder high- into the air, gave him a vigor-
ous shake, permitting him again to reach the paddock
ground, from which he hastily retreated to hide his
diminished tail and head !
FAMILY V.— CERVID^E.
The true stags and deer are at once distinguished by
the presence of deciduous branching horns in the male;
the females being in nearly all cases hornless. These
organs vary much in character, being rounded in some
species and flattened in others. They are in reality
outgrowths from the cranium, and, being developed
periodically, have an important physiological signifi-
cance. Without detailing the anatomical and morpho-
logical changes which these singular organs annually
undergo in the more typical forms, we deem it suffi-
cient to indicate the peculiar phenomena which are
contemporaneously developed during the periodical
renewal of the antlers ; and we do so in language we
have elsewhere employed. A strong determination of
blood to the head takes place at the spring of the year,
and the vessels surrounding the frontal eminences
enlarge. This increased vascular action results in the
secretion of a fibro-cartilaginous matrix, manifesting
itself externally by a budding, commencing at the
summit of the core, at the spot where the horns of the
previous season had separated. In the early condition
the horn is soft and yielding, and it is protected only
by a highly vascular periosteum and delicate integu-
ment, the cuticular portion of the latter being repre-
sented by numerous fine hairs closely arranged. From
this circumstance the skin is here termed the "velvet.''
As development goes on, a progressive consolidation
174
CERVIMS. MAMMALIA.-
is effected, the ossification proceeds from the centre to
the circumference, and a medullary cavity is ultimately
produced. While this is taking place, a corresponding
change is observed at the surface. The periostea]
veins acquire an enormous size, and by their presence
occasion the formation of grooves on the subjacent
bone. At the same time osseous tubercles of ivory
hardness appear at the base of the stem; these coalesce
by degrees, and inclose within their folds the great
superficial vascular trunks, whiph are thus rendered
impervious. The supply of nutriment being thus cut
off, the first stage of exuviation is accomplished by the
consequent shrivelling up and decay of the periosteal
and integumentary envelopes. The full growth of the
horns is now consummated, and the animals being
aware oi then- strength, endeavour to complete the
desquamation by rubbing them against any hard sub-
stances which may lie in their path. This action is
technically termed " burnishing." After the rutting
season, the horns are shed, to be again renewed in the
ensuing spring; and every year they become more
perfect, as represented in the accompanying woodcut,
fig. 63. The letter references respectively indicate the
Fig. 63-
Development of the horns of the Red Deer.
several stages of development following upon that of
the second year, in which the horn has the form of
a simple unbranched stem, a. Like the antelopes, the
stags are very swift of foot; but most of them live
within, or in the immediate neighbourhood of large
forests, browsing on grass, leaves, various herbs, and the
shoots of young trees. Fossil remains of deer are very
numerous both in tertiary and recent formations; those
of the Bramatherium and Sivatherium discovered by
Dr. Falkener in the Sivalik hills of Northern India,
showing that in former times some members of. this
family attained the most gigantic proportions.
THE ELK (Alces Malchis), or MOOSE-DEER — Plate
21, fig. 71 — is an inhabitant of the northern regions of
both hemispheres. It is a large and ungainly-looking
animal, standing about six feet at the shoulders, and
furnished with massive .palmated horns, which occa-
sionally weigh upwards of sixty pounds, and spread
out laterally over a space six feet in width. The head
alone measures upwards of two feet from the tip of the
muzzle to the occiput, the nose being hairy and swollen
out at the upper border. The eyes are small, the ears
long, the neck provided with a coarse mane, the body
short and rounded, and the tail only three or four inches
in length. The fur is very coarse, rough, and wiry.
Respecting the habits of the Elk, we may observe that
it is naturally very timid, and when taken young is
easily domesticated. Its movements look awkward as
it glides along in a kind of shuffling, ambling trot, but
when severely pressed it gallops with great rapidity.
During the warm season it is gregarious and frequents
low swampy grounds, often taking the water, through
which it swims with marked facility ; resorting in cold
weather to sheltered forests. The flesh of the Elk is
highly esteemed, and the hide extremely valuable.
THE REIN-DEER (Tarandus Rangifer), or CARI-
BOW— Plate 22, fig. 72— is a native of the most north-
erly districts of both hemispheres ; being an animal of
the utmost importance to the inhabitants of those icy
regions. Space would fail us were we to enter minutely
into a consideration of the various purposes to which
this thoroughly domesticated species is applied ; or if,
on the other hand, we attempted to clear up the dis-
puted point as to whether the North American and
Lapland forms are one and the same species or entirely
distinct ; those who are interested in this question should
consult Mr. Andrew Murray's Memoir, published in
the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for 1858.
The Rein-deer is furnished with cylindrical horns, and
on account of the great variety of shape which the
branches assume, any attempt to establish specific dis-
tinctions, merely on the characters of the antlers, must
necessarily be attended with difficulty. The habits of
these animals are too well known to be here described
at any length. Elks undertake extensive migrations at
different seasons, with the view of obtaining a constant
supply of food, which consists, for the most part, of
various species of lichen. The females are provided
with four mamma?, two of which are spurious ; they
also support a pair of slender horns, very closely resem-
bling those of the male.
THE WAPITI (Cervus Canadensis), or GREY MOOSE,
a large North American deer, standing about four
feet six inches at the shoulders. The horns are cylin-
drical, and weigh about thirty pounds. The fur is
reddish-brown ; the hair on the throat of the male
being much elongated, and the rump in both sexes
marked by a patch of light-coloured hairs, bordered
on either side with a blackish streak. The Wapiti is
a stupid creature, gregarious in its habits, and often
utters a peculiar shrill cry, which, like a donkey's bray-
ing, is stated to be particularly disagreeable. Its flesh
is coarse and insipid.
THE RED DEER (Cervus Elaphus), or COMMON
STAG, is a native of the more temperate regions of
Europe and Asia, and though not so abundant in this
country as in former days — when the chase was the
peculiar delight of English noblemen — yet it is still
sufficiently cared for in the wilds of Scotland and the
western isles, where the deer-stalker enjoys his health-
ful and exciting sport. The fur of the stag exhibits a
fulvous-brown hue generally, the rump being marked
by a pale patch on either side of the short, stumpy tail,
which is also of a light colour ; in the fawn the hide is
marked with whitish spots. The period of gestation
n the hind extends over eight months, the young
jeing produced in the month of May. During the
CERVII^E MAMMALIA. CERVIX.
winter both sexes collect in vast herds ; but in the
rutting season the stags frequently engage in the most
desperate encounters, the struggle of a pair of males
occasionally ending in mutual slaughter Sometimes
the antlers are inextricably fixed by the " tynes," both
animals being thus left to perish, as it were, in each
other's arms !
THE FALLOW DEEE (Ccrvus dama) is much smaller
than the stag, and is the species most commonly seen
in the parks of this country. In summer the fur is
fulvous and spotted with white, but in winter it becomes
blackish-brown ; the rump being always more or less
whitish, and banded on either side by dark streaks.
The tail is dark above and white underneath. The
horns are palmated superiorly ; the flattened expansions
being bordered with short " tynes" or dentalations. The
fallow deer is now scattered all over Europe, but there
is reason to believe that it was originally brought from
the coast of Barbary. Black and even white varieties
are not uncommon.
THE AXIS (Cervus Axis) is a remarkably elegant
and permanently spotted form of deer. It commonly
goes by the name of the Spotted Stag-deer. It is an
inhabitant of Northern India, but freely breeds in
Europe ; and in its native haunts on the borders of the
Ganges it is much hunted. On such occasions it often
displays considerable resistance, and when brought to
bay charges the horsemen with great violence. The
Axis stands about two and a half feet at the shoulders ;
the fur having a fawn colour generally, passing into a
dark brown on the back, whilst the under parts are
quite white. The females are hornless.
THE ROEBUCK (Capreolus Dorcas) is a native of
the temperate parts of Europe, and though not so
abundant in this country as formerly, is still tolerably
plentiful in the wilder parts of Scotland. This species
is readily known by its horns, which divide into three
short branches or " tynes" (Plate 21, fig. 70). The
Roebuck is monogamous in its habits; the female
usually producing two fawns at a birth, her period of
gestation being five months. The venison of this deer
is of inferior quality.
With regard to other members of the cervine family,
we can only briefly notice the following : — -
THE MTJNTJAK (Cervus Muntjac), or KlDANG.
This is a very interesting species, inhabiting Hindostan,
Ceylon, Java, and most of the islands of the Indian
Archipelago. The distinguishing characteristics of this
animal consist in the possession of two large tusk-like
canines in the upper jaw, and in the columnar extension
of the cranial bones, forming elongated pedestals for the
support of the two-pronged horns (fig. 64). The fore-
head is likewise marked with three unusual foldings of
the skin (fig. 65). In general appearance the Muntjak
resembles the last-described species, but, whilst the
body is somewhat stouter, the limbs are, on the other
hand, more slender; it is also rather larger. Accor-
ding to Horsfield, the Muntjak " selects for its resort
certain districts, to which it forms a peculiar attach-
ment, and which it never voluntarily deserts. Many of
these are known as the favourite resort of this animal
for several generations. They consist of moderately ele-
vated grounds, diversified by ridges and valleys, tending
towards the acclivities of the more considerable moun-
tains, or approaching the confines of extensive forests."
Fig. 64.
Skull of the Muntjak.
The same authority states, that " the Kidang is impa-
tient of confinement, and is not fitted for the same
degree of domestication as the stag. It is, however,
Fig. 65.
Head of the M
occasionally found in the inclosures of natives and
Europeans, but requires a considerable range to live
176
CERVID.'
-MAMMALIA. CAMELID.E.
comfortably ; it is cleanly in its habits, and delicate in
the choice of food. The flesh affords an excellent
venison, which is often found on the tables of Euro-
peans. The natives eat the males, and always present
them in a conspicuous place in their feasts; but in
consequence of some peculiarities in the habits of the
females, they have an aversion to them as food." The
Muntjaks are monogamous, and when found in small
troops, the latter usually consist only of the members
of a single family.
THE MUSK-DEER (Moschus Moschiferus) is an inha-
bitant of the elevated plains of Central Asia, extending
as far as the eastern provinces of China. It is about
the size of the roebuck, but unlike that species, stands
much higher on the haunches than at the shoulder.
One of the most distinguishing peculiarities, however,
arises out of the presence of a pair of long canines in
the upper jaw, which hi the males project outwards
below the chin. Another still more distinctive feature
consists in the presence of a glandular pouch in the
immediate vicinity of the navel. This occurs only in
the male ; it is about the size of a hen's egg, and con-
tarns an unctuous brown secretion, which is the musk
of commerce. A single gram of this substance is suffi-
ciently odorous to impregnate the atmosphere of an
ordinary room for several years, without apparently
diminishing in quantity ! The fur of the Musk-deer
varies much in colour ; it is more or less brownish, the
throat being white, with light bands on the sides of the
neck; whitish grey spots also occur along the lateral
parts of the body. The ears are long and narrow. The
feet are furnished with largely-developed spurious hoofs.
The tail is very short. Respecting the habits of this
animal, Pennant states that it is naturally shy and timid.
It frequents the most inaccessible rocks, and often suc-
ceeds in evading the hunter's skill.
There are several other small kinds of Musk-deer,
such as the Napu (Tragulus Juvanicus} — Plate 23, fig.
76 — and the Peesoreh (Meminna Indica] ; these are
not furnished with the umbilical pouch.
FAMILY VI. — CAMELIDJE.
The Camels differ from the typical ruminants in many
important particulars. They are entirely hornless;
then- most distinctive feature, however, consisting in the
presence of incisor teeth in the upper jaw. Altogether
they have thirty teeth ; eight incisors, one on either side
above and six below ; four canines and eighteen molars,
of which latter six are spurious. Another peculiarity
in this family is seen in the beautiful provision of
water-cells in the walls of the paunch — of which full
particulars have already been given. The feet are
callous underneath, partially bisulcate, and furnished
with rudimentary hoofs, which only protect the upper
surface of the toes. Finally, from some other minor
characters, chiefly osteological, it is clearly evident that
the Camels make a decided approach towards the solid-
ungulate and pachydermatous types.
THE DROMEDARY (Camelus Dromedarius), or ONE-
HUMPED CAMEL — Plate 23, fig. 74 — has been celebrated
from the earliest historic times ; and though no longer
known in the wild state, is still abundant in the East,
forming an indispensable companion to the traveller as
he journeys over the wild sandy wastes of Egypt and
Arabia. Well may the Arabs call this creature the
" ship of the desert ; " for a more elegant or appropriate
title could not be devised. Bearing a heavy cargo of
goods to the extent of six hundred or even a thousand
pounds weight ; supporting a storehouse of noiirishment
in the form of a huge bundle of fatty matter on its back ;
supplied internally with an unfailing reservoir of thirst-
refreshing water ; armed with sole-protecting foot-pads,
hi the form of broad elastic cushions, which extend for
a considerable distance on either side of the toes ; the
camel, thus befittingly adapted for a toilsome journey,
moves at the bidding of his guide ; steers with unde-
viating course through the trackless paths of the sandy
plains, and sustains with ease and cheerfulness the
superabounding load! On rolls the blast with deso-
lating waves of scorching sand ; clouds of impalpable
dust rise high into the air, obliterating all trace of the
sunny sky; the suffocating wind threatens death to
man and beast ; the water-skins have parted with their
treasure, and dried under the effects of intolerable heat.
At length the storm has subsided, but the parched lips
only tell too truly that all must perish ! There is one
resource left — at least such is the testimony of history.
To save his earthly lord the burdened beast must die.
The friend hi need — who has pillowed his master's
head, and warmed his chilled frame at night— must, at
the hour of death, supply the life-restoring draught;
thus imitating, as it were, the example of that nobler
sacrifice which has conferred imperishable blessings
upon mortal man ! In some cases, indeed, a dire fatal-
ity carries off the whole company of the akkabah or
caravan, such as happened in the year 1805, when no
less than two thousand persons and eighteen hundred
camels perished from the overwhelming fury of a ter-
rible simoom. In regard to the characters by which
the Dromedary is distinguished we need say little, as
the solitary hump is sufficiently distinctive. For food
the camel is contented with the poorest and driest of
prickly herbs, but the amount taken is exceedingly
moderate for so bulky an animal. In Europe these
animals are little employed ; but at Pisa, in Tuscany, a
stud has been kept up ever since the middle of the
seventeenth century; and there they breed freely. The
hide, fur, flesh, &c., of the Dromedary are employed
for various economic purposes, upon which it is need-
less to dwell.
THE BACTRIAN CAMEL ( Camelus Badrianus) is an
inhabitant of Asiatic Turkey, Persia, and the elevated
plains to the north of the Himalaya mountains. It is
a comparatively rare species, but easily recognized by
its possessing two humps on the back. The Bactrian
camel is stout, thickset, and awkward-looking, and
varies very much hi colour, the fur being long and
shaggy, especially underneath the chin and throat. A
fine example is still living in the Zoological Society's
Menagerie, Regent's Park.
THE LLAMA (Auchenia glama) or GtTANACO —
Plate 23, fig. 75. — Much diversity of opinion exists as
to whether two or more species of this genus are known.
Some, who follow Dr. J. E. Gray, believe that there
are four species ; but we incline to the persuasion that
JO,
DUXGULA. MAMMALIA. EQUID.E.
177
this reckoning gives us at least one too many. These
animals are natives of Peru and Chili, and represent,
in the western hemisphere, the camels of the East.
They have no humps on the back, are a much smaller
species, and have a dense woolly fur, which, in the
wild state, exhibits a pale chestnut-brown colour. The
fur of the domesticated Llama is variously tinted. The
sole-pads, instead of being broad as in the camel, are
double and narrow, each division being limited to one
side of the cloven foot, whilst the nails, in lieu of
being weak, are powerfully developed and strongly
curved. The Llamas frequent rocky places ; and in
consequence, therefore, of the easy separation of the
toes, combined with the modifications of the pad and
hoof here referred to, it becomes at once evident that
such a condition of the foot is peculiarly adapted to an
animal whose life is destined to be spent — unlike that
of his desert-traversing congener — on the rugged slopes
and precipices of the Andes. As a beast of burden,
the Lkma is not capable of sustaining a load of more
than two hundred pounds weight, half that amount
being ordinarily considered sufficiently oppressive.
Attempts have recently been made to introduce the
Alpaca — the Llama Paws, of some authors — into Aus-
tralia, and the experiment has already been attended
with sufficient success to warrant the belief that ere
long they will become extremely useful and abundant
in the colony. The alpaca may, after all that has been
urged to the contrary, only constitute a well-marked
variety of the Guanaco. Though not employed as a
beast of burden, it is a much more valuable animal
than the Llama, the hair of the fur being much longer,
and of a soft, silky texture. Respecting the Vicugna
(Llama Vicugna}, which is by all authorities regarded
as a distinct species, we have only room to remark
that it possesses a fine fulvous woolly fur, which is
extensively employed in manufacture by the natives
of Peru.
ORDER X.— SOLIDUNGULA.
Ix the arrangement of Cuvier, the solidungulate quad-
rupeds form the third family of the order Pachyder-
mata ; but, by general consent, it is admitted that the
present group is worthy of being separately treated in
the manner here proposed. In Professor Owen's sys-
tem, the solidungulates constitute a subdivision of his
odd-toed ungulates or Perissodactyla. The members
of this order are at once characterized by the circum-
stance of their possessing, or rather appearing to
possess, only a single toe, which is incased in a solid
box-like hoof; there are, however, on either side of
this large central toe, rudimentary digits, in the con-
dition of two splint-like bones, corresponding to the
second and fourth metacarpal and metatarsal bones of
the human extremities. Another distinguishing feature
is seen in the dentition, which is made up of forty
teeth; twelve of these are incisors, equally divided
above and below ; four are canines, the upper being
almost invariably absent in the female ; the remaining
twenty-four being molars, whose crowns are flat and
Fig. 66.
Skull of the Horse.
square-shaped, and marked by four crescentic folds of
enamel — those of the upper jaw having a small addi-
tional fold at the inside. If the accompanying figure
be examined it will be noticed that a considerable inter-
space exists between the incisors and the anterior
grinders (fig. 66) ; it is through this vacuity that the
bit is introduced for the purpose of controlling and
VOL. I
directing the horse's speed. The stomach of the soli-
dungulates is simple and undivided; the ccecum and
large intestines being extremely capacious, and the gall-
bladder entirely wanting. Finally, it may be remarked
that fossil solidungulate remains have been found in
the tertiary deposits of various parts of the world, but
it is impossible to determine how many species of the
order may have roamed over the uncultivated plains of
geologic time.
FAMILY— EQUHLE.
All the members of the order may be associated toge-
ther under a single family title, as above, or they may
be considered as belonging to a single genus. The
family characters are the same as those of the order.
All existing species were originally inhabitants of the
eastern hemisphere — the mountain plains and wastes of
Asia and Africa constituting their native abode. In
the wild state tlu>y are gregarious ; their speed is swift,
and grass forms the principal element of their food.
THE HOESE (Equus Caballus}— Plate 24, fig. 77
— is of all animals the most highly esteemed, and
deservedly so. Although it does not prove such a
valuable source of food as certain of the ruminants ;
nevertheless, in an indirect manner, it supplies us
with the means of procuring sustenance from various
sources, proving absolutely indispensable to the agri-
culturist. To enter into a history of the uses to which
this matchless quadruped has been put, or to enumerate
the countless varieties of breed into which it has passed,
would lead us far beyond the limits assigned to our
description of the present family ; suffice it to say, that
all the well-known domesticated forms are only varieties
of an original wild stock, and that it is doubtful if this
original type exists in the condition of its native pro-
genitors. It is true that thoroughly wild breeds roam
at large over the wild steppes of Asia and the spacious
plains of South America; but all these are believed
178
EQUINE. MAMMALIA. EQUI
to have returned to this state from that of a more or
less complete form of domestication. Of the several
characters which specifically distinguish the horse from
its congeners, it is perhaps only necessary to particu-
larize the " flowing mane and flying long-haired tail,"
associated with a pair of moderately developed ears,
and callosities both on the fore and hind legs. In the
wild state the head is larger than in the finer domes-
ticated breeds. "The horse," says Mr. Rarey, "accord-
ing to the best accounts we can gather, has been the
constant servant of man for nearly four thousand years,
ever rewarding him with his labour, and adding to his
comfort in proportion to his skill and manner of using
him ; being to those who govern him by brute force,
and know nothing of the beauty and delight fa be gained
from the cultivation of his finer nature, a fretful, vicious,
and often dangerous servant ; whilst to the Arab, whose
horse is the pride of his life, and who governs him by
the law of kindness, we find him to be quite a different
animal. The manner in which he is treated from a
foal, gives him an affection and attachment for his
master, not known in any other country. The Arab
and his children, the mare and her foal, inhabit the
tent together; and although the colt and the mare's
neck are often pillows for the children to roll upon, no
accident ever occurs, the mare being as careful of the
children as of the colt. Such is the mutual attachment
between the horse and his master, that he will leave
his companions at his master's call, ever glad to obey
his voice. And when the Arab falls from his horse,
and is unable to rise again, he will stand by him and
neigh for assistance ; and if he lies down to sleep, as
fatigue sometimes compels him to do in the midst of
the desert, his faithful steed will watch over him, and
neigh to arouse him if man or beast approaches. The
Arabs frequently teach their horses secret signs or
signals, which they make use of on urgent occasions to
call forth their utmost exertions." These are the words
of the master and author of "The Modern Art of taming
wild Horses." Few men have done more to perfect
the method of treating this gifted animal than has Mr.
J. S. Rarey; but space compels us to desist from
enlarging on a subject, to which special Works are
necessarily devoted.
THE QTTAGGA (Hippotigris Quagga}.— If naturalists
are prepared to admit the propriety of generically
separating the horse from the ass, we may respect the
opinion of Colonel Hamilton Smith, who has considered
the zebras worthy of similar distinction. Their char-
acters are evidently osculant between the two above-
mentioned animals; and we are not prepared to accept
the opinion of those who believe that their asinine
features maintain the ascendancy. The Quagga is a
native of South Africa, and is especially abundant on
the open plains below the Vaal river, where it herds in
immense numbers. The ears and tail are decidedly
equine ; the neck is furnished with an erect mane, banded
alternately brown and white. The upper parts of the
Fig. 67.
The Qnagga (Hippotigris Quagga).
hide are rufous-brown ; the head, neck, and shoulders
being lined with dark stripes, which become fainter
as they approach the middle of the back. The chest,
belly, legs, and tail, except at the root, are quite white.
If there be preponderance on either side, surely these
characters lean rather to the equine than the asinine
group. All along naturalists have exhibited singular
discrepancies of opinion in regard to this animal. It is
now many years since the Zoological Society's Gardens
first displayed living examples of the Quagga ; but, as
MAMMALIA.-
-Kn,
179
Captain Harris justly remarks, the period is not remote
when confusion rode rampant on the question under
consideration ! " Disguised in a tail borrowed from
the rump of the domestic ass, the subject of the
annexed portrait (fig. 67) sat for its picture to M.
Buffon, and may be found in the voluminous works of
that eminent author, doing duty for a female zebra!
Even Baron Cuvier has fallen into the error of describ-
ing the Quagga to be the proprietor of an asinine tail —
a mistake which is the more surprising since it is stated
by the same author in his 'Eegne Animal,' that 'among
the equipages occasionally exhibited in the gay season
in Hyde Park, and other fashionable places of resort,
may be seen a curricle drawn by two couaggas, which
seem as subservient to the curb and whip as any well-
trained horses.' " The average height of the Quagga
is about four feet and four inches at the shoulder. In
its native haunts it is sociable and peaceable ; but if
roused by an enemy it exhibits great courage, and is
said to repel the attacks of large carnivora, on some
occasions at least, successfully. Its voice is not unlike
the bark of a dog.
THE ZEBRA (Hippotigris Zebra), or WILDE PAARD
of the Cape colonists — Plate 24, fig. 79 — occupies the
mountainous parts of Southern Africa. It is somewhat
less in height than the Quagga ; the mane being erect
and bushy, with alternating bands of black and white.
The entire body, head, and limbs are striped with
narrow black bands, the upper ones being united to
the central longitudinal streak on the back. The
general ground-colour of the hide is white. The hoofs
are narrow, and much hollowed out at the sole. Zebras
are very shy and gregarious in their habits, living in
troops sometimes numbering upwards of a hundred
individuals. In a domesticated state numerous hybrids
have been produced by association with the horse and
ass. The flesh of the zebra, though eatable, is coarse,
oily, and unpalatable. According to the testimony of Mr.
Andersson, the subdued neighings of the Zebra have a
very melancholy character when heard at a distance ;
and, on one occasion, this enterprising sportsman
mistook its moribund groanings for the gasping ejacu-
lations of a drowning man. The female is furnished
with two mammaB.
BTTRCHELL'S ZEBRA (Hippotigris Burchellii) is an
inhabitant of the plains of Southern Africa to the north
of Orange river. The Cape colonists call it Bonti
Quagga, and by the native Bechuana and Matabili it
is termed the Peechey. It stands about four feet six
inches high at the shoulder, and is a comparatively
stout-built species. The mane is erect, five inches in
depth, and more or less marked by alternating bands
of black and white. The muzzle is black ; the ears
and tail being thoroughly equine in character. The
head and upper parts of the body have a reddish-brown
ground colour, being beautifully streaked by irregularly
r -
Burchell's Zebra (Hippotigris Burchellii).
sinuous, broad, black bands, which do not unite with
the longitudinal dorsal line ; the latter widens towards
the croup. The tail, legs, and under parts of the chest
and belly are quite white (fig. 68). The female is
similarly marked, and is furnished with four mammse.
Like its congeners, Burchell's zebra admits of being
tamed-; but, under the most favourable circumstances,
it is considered unsafe, obstinate, and treacherous.
Eespecting its habits and appearance in the wild state,
none have so effectively written upon this subject as
Captain Harris : — " Fierce, strong, fleet, and surpass-
ingly beautiful, there is perhaps no quadruped in crea-
180
PACHYDERMATA. MAMMALIA. PACIIYDEBMATA.
tion, not even excepting the mountain zebra, more
splendidly attired, or presenting a picture of more
singularly attractive beauty, than this free-born of the
desert. It would be difficult to convey to the unini-
tiated a suitable idea of the sparkling effect produced
by their vivid and strikingly-contrasted colours, when
seen pawing the valley in all the pride of conscious
liberty, or flying in compact columns before the eques-
trian foe." Warming up with the vision of a mighty
herd bounding over the sandy main, our eloquent
author continues : — " Anon, a dark pillar of dust rises
from the plain, and undisturbed by any breath in
heaven, mounts upward to the clear azure sky like a
wreath of smoke— three ill-omened vultures soaring in
circles above it. Nearer and more near rolls on the
thickening column, until several dark living objects are
shortly perceived dancing beneath it. Emerging from
the obscurity, their glossy and exquisitely variegated
coats, glittering in the sun's rays, venire au terre, the
head of a column of Burchell's zebras next appears,
and instantly afterwards the serried horde sweep past
in gallant array; their hoofs clattering on the hard
ground like a regiment of dragoons. Tearing by at
racing speed, straining neck and neck with their shaggy
whimsical-looking bovine allies (i.e. Brindled Gnoos),
their own striped and proudly curved necks seem as if
they were clothed with thunder, and their snowy tails
are streaming behind them. Now the troop has
wheeled and halted for an instant to survey the foe.
A powerful stallion advances a few paces with distended
nostrils and stately gait ; his mane newly hogged, and
his ample tail switching his gaily checkered thighs.
Hastily reconnoitring the huntsman, he snorts wildly,
and instantly gallops back to his cohort. Away they
scour again, neighing and tossing their striped heads
aloft, switching their light mule-like tails in all the
pride of fleetness and freedom. Another halt and
another reconnaissance. Her small equine ears laid
viciously down, a skittish mare has now fallen out of
the ranks, and is in the act of delivering both her
active heels plump into the ribs of an admirer, whose
wantonness has prompted him to seize a tempting
opportunity for inflicting upon her sternum an amorous
bite ; and now, with a neigh of exultation and a vain-
glorious toss of her coquettish head, free and unfettered
as the wind, away she careers again, still waited upon
by her lover, who is nothing daunted by his rebuff;
and their forms are finally concealed by the cloud which
follows the heels of the again retreating squadron." A
gorgeous specimen of this truly beautiful species, may
now be seen in the Regent's Park menagerie.
THE ASS (Asinus wlgaris) has been genetically
separated by Dr. J. E. Gray, and is readily dis-
tinguished from the various kinds of horse by its
tail, which is clothed with short hair at the upper
part, and. only tufted at the extremity ; the hind legs
being likewise devoid of warty callosities. The fur
has a grey colour, and exhibits a dark streak along
the central line of the back, crossed by a similar band
running over the shoulders. The ears are of great
length ; the forehead being1 also slightly arched. Re-
specting the qualities of this animal, we need say little.
No unfortunate beast of burden is so much neglected
on the one hand, or maltreated on the other. As to
its origin, naturalists are divided in opinion; some
maintaining that it is a domesticated variety of the
Koulan, or wild ass of Persia (Asinus onager}, others
believing that the last-named is only the domestic ani-
mal which has returned to a wild state — the original
stock having altogether disappeared. Whichever view
is correct, we think there can be little doubt that the
two forms are specifically identical, and consequently
that they have descended from a common parent.
THE KIANG (Asinus Hemionus}, or TSCHIKITEI, is
another kind of wild ass, intermediate in character
between the above-described species and the horse.
The ears are of moderate length, the fur is smooth,
and of a bright rufous-bay tint ; the legs having a pale
straw colour. A dark broad streak runs along the
central line of the back, but it is not crossed by any
similar band over the shoulders. The Kiangs herd
together in small numbers, roaming over the sandy
steppes of Central Asia. The males are fine animals,
standing sometimes as much as fourteen hands high
at the shoulder ; and, moreover, they neigh like horses.
A noble specimen has been recently brought over
to this country, and may be seen in the Zoological
Society's Menagerie, Regent's Park.
ORDER XI.— PACHYDERMATA.
ALTHOUGH naturalists are divided in opinion as to the
best mode of classifying the non-ruminating hoofed
quadrupeds, all are agreed that the dissimilar groups,
collectively associated by Cuvier under the title of
Pachydermata, cannot fairly be regarded as zoologi-
cally equivalent to the Ruminantia. It is in this view
that we have adopted a somewhat modified outline of
the Cuvierian arrangement, while at the same time we
are prepared to recognize the more perfected idea
developed in the recent classification of the Mammalia
by Professor Owen. The Pachydermata, as here
retained, can scarcely be recognized as having any
special characteristic common to the entire order,
unless we are permitted to notify the more or less
hardened skin, which is to a considerable extent naked
or destitute of hair. In our opinion, too much stress
has been laid upon this dermal peculiarity, seeing that
it is shared by many other Mammalia, and is in no wise
distinctive ; the order has, however, derived its name
from this trivial circumstance. Hitherto we have
detailed the more remarkable features of the several
natural groups in a general introduction to each order;
but such is the variety of character presented by the
several families in the present instance, that it is
better to reserve these particulars for separate con-
sideration.
ELEPHANTID.E MAMMALIA. ELEPHAXTIDJJ.
181
FAMILY I.— ELEPHANTID^E.
Excluding the oceanic cetacea, the living represen-
tatives of this family are the most bulky of all existing
Mammalia. In the miocene and pleistocene deposits
of the tertiary epoch, the remains of extinct species are
extremely abundant ; some of them — such as the mas-
todon, Plate 32, fig. 100, and deinotherium— being
generically distinct. Probably the latter genus should
be regarded as the type of a separate family, seeing
that the lower jaw is supplied with enormous tusks, in a
manner altogether unique ; their crowns being directed
downwards and backwards, and the roots inserted
into a prolongation of the symphysis or anterior
central prominence of the inferior maxillary bone.
Whatever differences may have existed in these aber-
rant forms, the true elephants are distinguished by the
possession of a remarkable nasal appendage or proboscis,
commonly called the " trunk." This organ has a taper-
ing cornucopial outline ; it is pierced at the tip for the
two nostrils, and at the centre of the upper margin is
furnished with a finger-like process which, in con-
junction with a thumb-like thickening of the inferior
border, serves the purpose of a hand. The extra-
ordinary prehensile powers of the trunk are familiar
to every one ; but when it is considered how readily
the same instrument can detach a straw or uproot a
tree, our conceptions of its muscular and tactile powers
can scarcely be too highly exalted. Another pecu-
liarity in the organization of these proboscidean pachy-
derms has reference to the bulky aspect of the head.
This feature, however, is not due to any increased
development of the brain, but simply to a remarkable
extension of certain air sinuses in connection with the
cranial bones (fig. 69). The vertical elevation of the
forehead thus conferred upon the elephant, has led
many to ascribe to the animal an almost super-quad-
rupedal intelligence ; but if, in this case, their opinions
are based upon phrenological considerations, it is
our duty to inform such enthusiasts that the frontal
prominence and elevation of the cranial vertex bear no
relation whatever to the bulk of the brain contained
within the comparatively restricted cerebral cavity.
That elephants possess considerable sagacity, no one
will venture to deny ; but that they display this mental
quality in virtue of any corresponding enlargement
of the great nervous centre, is utterly inadmissible.
Another interesting peculiarity in this family consists
in the form and arrangement of the teeth. Ordinarily,
it is stated that the dentition comprises two incisors,
no canines, and three molars ; but in reality the grinders
are more numerous, no less than seven being conse-
cutively developed on each side of either jaw. This
apparent discrepancy results from the circumstance,
that only two molars are present on one side of either
jaw at the same time ; but, in the progress of growth
and age, those first employed give way to a succession
of similar teeth developed from behind. In like manner
the two large permanent incisors are preceded by a
similar pair, which, however, have never attained full
development. Histologically speaking, the tusks con-
sist entirely of dentine, which, on transverse section,
exhibits an elegant series of decussating curvilinear
striae. This appearance is peculiar to the ivory of
elephants, and considerably enhances its commercial
value. In a structural point .of view, the molars are
\-\K. 60.
Vertical Section of the Skull of the Elephant
still more remarkable. If reference be made to Plate
32, fig. 102, it will be observed that the grinding surface
marked by a number of parallel bars. These consist
of alternating plates of the three different substances
which ordinarily enter into the composition of the
mammalian tooth ; the white bands representing plates
of enamel, each inclosing a central lamina of ivory or
dentine, whilst the several outer spaces between these
formations are filled up with a special osseous devel-
opment termed cement. In the African elephant the
enamelled plates have a lozenge-shaped outline, as
seen in Plate 32, fig. 101 ; in the Siberian mammoth,
or Elephas primigenius, they are more numerous and
closely approximated ; and in the mastodon are elevated
into a series of tuberculated cones. In regard to the
skeleton, we may remark the general massiveness of all
the bony elements, the twenty pairs of ribs reaching
backwards almost to the pelvis, the remarkable breadth
of the scapula in proportion to its length, the prodigious
development of the external condyle of the humerus,
the simple form of the femur, the peculiar articulation
of the superior extremity of the radius, and the odd-
toed, pentadactylous feet. The digestive organs are
extremely bulky as in herbivorous quadrupeds gene-
rally. The gall-bladder is complicated by numerous
internal septa, and intimately connected with the walls
182
ELEPHAKTIDJE. MAMMALIA. ELEPHAXTID.E.
of the intestine. The mammae are two in number,
situated beneath the anterior part of the chest. Ele-
phants herd together in considerable numbers, subsist-
ing entirely on vegetable matters.
THE INDIAN ELEPHANT (ElepJias Indicus)—
see Frontispiece — is a native of the peninsula from
whence it derives its specific name ; and also of Cey-
lon, Sumatra, and Borneo. From the earliest times
it has been employed as a beast of burden ; and in
European menageries it has ever formed one of the
most attractive objects of amusement to natural history
loving people. It is distinguished from the African
species by its oblong head, which is concave anteriorly;
by the character of the enameled ridges on the crown
of the molar teeth already described ; by the compara-
tive smallness of the ears ; by the very short tusks of
the female ; by the paler colour of the hide ; and by
the circumstance of its having four nails on the hinder
feet. It is not our intention to dwell at any length
upon the habits of the elephant in a tame or semi-
domesticated state, otherwise we should be led to
record numerous anecdotes in which the sagacity of
this animal has been very unduly exaggerated and
embellished with erroneous statements. The follow-
ing particulars, however, will be found interesting : —
"Elephants," says Captain Williamson, "have a great
dislike to camels, though they will travel with them,
when laden, without showing it much. Nothing dis-
tresses this majestic animal more than being closely
followed by a horse, especially at a canter or other
quick pace. Probably the clattering of his hoofs
creates alarm. An elephant cannot bear the approach
of dogs, or other small quadrupeds; and if, in pro-
ceeding through a grass jungle, game should start near
him, he will frequently evince great uneasiness. In
heavy covers elephants are of infinite service, their
bulk, and the noise occasioned by their movements,
often rousing game which would else remain secreted,
and their height giving a commanding view to their
riders." Elephants have likewise a particular hatred
of the rhinoceros, and can scarcely be induced to
approach within sight or smell, even though the animal
be dead. Then* disposition is extremely capricious in
the tame state, and their mode of resenting real or
fancied insults is often attended with terrible destruc-
tion to life and property. Instances of this are too
well known to need illustration. For the capturing of
elephants in the wild state, various methods are adopted
in different parts of India. The most usual mode is
by driving them into a kedddh, or large inclosure
surrounded by a deep trench and external paling,
strongly built, and propped from without by large
wooden beams. Several thousand natives are em-
ployed in frightening and driving them into this decoy ;
but the operation is usually attended with much diffi-
culty. When once secured within the area, then*
subsequent submission and domestication is only a
work of time. Another mode of taking them is by
means of koomkies or decoy elephants; these are
females taught to simulate wanton wiles; and being
conducted by their drivers to the saun, or isolated male,
which they propose to take, the unsuspecting beast is
secured by the mahouts whilst engaged in the all-
absorbing pleasures of courtship and fancied secrecy.
Ropes being passed round his legs, and the hind pair
having been fastened to a tree, the drivers now steal
from beneath his body, and the koomkies leave the
beast to his fate. On detecting the snare, he becomes
perfectly furious, destroying whatever may be in his
way, "tearing up the tufts of grass by the roots,
rending from the tree such branches as may be within
his reach, and eventually straining to throw down the
tree itself by his weight, or to pull it up with his trunk.
In short, his whole powers are in action on this occa-
sion; and it is not until being completely overcome
with fatigue, and nearly dead from his natural thirst,
which is greatly augmented by constant roarings, that
he subsides into a sort of tranquillity." In a day or two
he takes food from the mahouts who constantly visit
him ; and at length he permits himself to be conducted
to the home of the successful proprietor. A third
mode of capturing the elephant is by means of the
phaun or slip knot. This consists of a stout rope, ten
or twelve yards long, and at least an inch in thickness,
with a sliding noose at the free extremity. A single
small-sized elephant being selected out of a herd, a
skilful mahout, mounted on a tame elephant, gives
chase ; and throwing the loop over the animal's head,
he soon moderates or checks its progress by tightening
the cord. The breathing becoming straightened, the
driver is not long in acquiring entire control over his
captive, which is ultimately conducted to a place of
security. A fourth plan consists in digging pits ; but
this method is highly objectionable, as the animal
sometimes sustains irremediable injury. Before con-
cluding we may remark that the Indian elephant rarely
exceeds nine feet in height ; the average stature being
about eight feet at the shoulder. The tallest specimen
ever known in Bengal measured, it is said, nearly twelve
feet, and was proportionately bulky. Mr. John Corse,
however, who kept a large establishment for the rearing
of elephants at Tipperah, has stated, in a memoir com-
municated to the Royal Society in 1799, that the largest
species he ever heard of did not exceed ten feet six
inches. The same authority states that the period of
gestation in the female, extends over a space of twenty-
two months; only one young being produced at each
birth.
THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT (Elephas Africanus]
occupies an extensive range in the interior plains and
forests of the continent from whence it derives its speci-
fic titie. As already hinted, it is at once distinguished
from the Asiatic species by the remarkable size and
expanse of the ears, by the presence of well-developed
tusks in the female, by the darker aspect of the skin,
by the lozenge-shaped ridges of enamel on the crowns
of the molar teeth, and by the presence of only three
nails on the hinder feet. The male attains a height of
twelve feet at the shoulder, and is on an average taller
than its Indian congener ; its tusks are much larger,
measuring between eight and nine feet in length, and
weighing upwards of a hundred pounds, those of the
female being four feet long. The weight of ivory of
various kinds annually brought over to this country is
said to amount to four hundred and sixty-eight tons,
which is equivalent to a sum of about £300,000 sterling;
ELEPHAXTIDJE. MAMMALIA. ELEPHAXTIDJE.
183
and as it also appears that at least fifty-two thousand
elephants1 tusks are imported, it necessarily follows that
twenty-six thousand of these gigantic animals are yearly
put to death to satisfy our demand for its valuable
incisor teeth ! If the present species, therefore, did
not occupy an extensive area of distribution, a very
few years would, at this ratio of destruction, suffice to
render it altogether extinct. The improvements in
fire-arms have rendered the slaughter ot this beast a
matter of comparative ease ; and looking back on the
page of history, it is not a little curious to observe the
ridicule cast upon the statements of those who first,
single-handed, undertook hunting expeditions into the
interior of Africa. We even find the distinguished
author of the " Oriental Field Sports" severely ques-
tioning the veracity of Monsieur Vaillant, who, at the
close of the last century, published an account of his
sporting successes in the plains of the great African
continent. " No native of Bengal, nor any European
resident there" says Captain Williamson, " would
undertake such a piece of rashness as to go out shoot-
ing wild elephants !" Time, however, silently works
progress, and our libraries now teem with records of
daring adventure with this most formidable probosci-
dean pachyderm. Dr. Livingstone has borne testimony
to the substantial accuracy of Mr. Gordon Cumming's
writings, and we are not aware that any one has
thought it necessary to doubt the no less remarkable
statements and experiences of Mr. Charles John An-
dersson. Some of Mr. Cumming's exploits appear to
have been accompanied with unnecessary cruelty, which
is the more to be regretted, as, under ordinary circum-
stances, the manifest sufferings of these huge mammals
in the agonies of death should be sufficient to excite
sympathy, and induce the sportsman to deprive them
of life in the swiftest manner possible. The behaviour
of the young when deprived of a parent is particularly
worthy of remark. Thus, Captain Harris having shot
a female elephant whilst hunting in Cashan mountains,
was much struck with the subsequent conduct of its
helpless calf. It was about three and a half feet high,
and emerged from a bush, uttering mournful notes.
"We had observed the unhappy little wretch," he
says, " hovering about its mother after she fell, and
having probably been unable to overtake the herd, it
had passed a dreary night in the wood. Entwining its
little proboscis about our legs, the sagacious creature,
after demonstrating its delight at our arrival by a thou-
sand ungainly antics, accompanied the party to the body
of its dam, which, swollen to an enormous size, was
surrounded by an inquest of vultures. Seated in gaunt
array, with their shoulders shrugged, these loathsome
fowls were awaiting its decomposition with forced
resignation ; the tough hide having defied all the efforts
of their beaks, with which the eyes and softer parts had
been vigorously assailed. The conduct of the quaint
little calf now became quite affecting, and elicited the
sympathy of every one. It ran round its mother's
corpse with touching demonstrations of grief, piping
sorrowfully, and vainly attempting to raise her with its
tiny trunk. I confess I had felt compunctions in
committing the murder the day before, and now half
resolved never to assist in another; for, in addition to
the moving behaviour of the young elephant, I had
been unable to divest myself of the idea that I was
firing at my old favourite, Mowla-Bukhsh, from whose
gallant back I had vanquished so many of my feline
foes in Guzerat." The captain, nevertheless, recovered
himself sufficiently to assist in hewing out the tusks, an
operation of no small difficulty even in the female.
The elephant calf was next conducted to the waggons,
but perished in the course of a few days, as did two
others much older, which they afterwards captured.
This also leads us to remark, that, notwithstanding
the anxiety which naturalists have displayed in regard
to the importation of a living African elephant, and
the care with which they have conducted the prelimi-
nary operations, all their efforts have as yet failed to
prove successful. In a very recent attempt, the young
proboscidean perished before it had left the shores
of its native country. With regard to the experiences
of other African adventurers, some of them possess a
thrilling interest, and to those whose conceptions of the
delights of hunting rise in proportion to the narrowness
of escapes encountered, we particularly commend the
following most extraordinary adventure : — On a magni-
ficent tropical moonlight night, Mr. Andersson, alone,
as usual, took up his position on a narrow neck of land
between two pools of water. He was protected by a
small skarm, built of stones, and had with him two or
three guns and a blanket. Presently a noise like the
passage of a train of artillery broke upon his ear, and an
immense elephant appeared, followed by others, to the
number of eighteen. " Their towering forms told me
at a glance," says Mr. Andersson, " that they were all
males. It was a splendid sight to behold so many huge
creatures approaching with a free, sweeping, unsuspect-
ing, and stately step. The somewhat elevated ground
whence they emerged, and which gradually sloped
towards the water, together with the misty night air,
gave an increased appearance of bulk and mightiness
to their naturally giant structures. Crouching down
as low as possible in the skarm, I waited, with beating
heart and ready rifle, the approach of the leading male,
who, unconscious of peril, was making straight for my
hiding-place. The position of his body, however, was
unfavourable for a shot ; and, knowing from experience
that I had little chance of obtaining more than a single
good one, I waited for an opportunity to fire at his
shoulder, which is preferable to any other part when
shooting at night. But this chance, unfortunately,
was not afforded till his enormous bulk towered
above my head. The consequence was, that while in
the act of raising the muzzle of my rifle over the
skarm, my body caught his eye, and, before I could
place the piece to my shoulder, he swung himself round,
and with trunk elevated and ears spread, desperately
charged me. It was now too 'late to think of flight,
much less of slaving the savage beast. My own life
was in imminent jeopardy ; and seeing that if I remained
partially erect he would inevitably seize me with his
proboscis, I threw myself on my back with some
violence, in which position, and without shouldering
the rifle, I fired upwards at random towards his chest,
uttering, at the same time, the most piercing shouts
and cries. The change of position in all human
184
MAMMALIA.
probability saved my life, for, at the same instant, the
trunk of the enraged animal descended precisely on
the spot where I had been previously couched, sweep-
ing away the stones, many of large size, that formed
the fore part of my skarm, like so many pebbles. In
another moment his broad fore-feet passed directly
over my face. I now expected nothing short of being
crushed to death ; but imagine my relief when, instead
of renewing the charge he swerved to the left, and
moved off with considerable rapidity — most happily
without my having received other injuries than a few
bruises, occasioned by the falling of the stones." Not-
withstanding all this, Mr. Andersson snatched up an-
other rifle, and, taking aim, pulled the trigger, when
the piece missed fire ; had this happened in the first
instance, nothing could have prevented his immediate
destruction !
FAMILY II.— RHINOCERIim
The Rhinoceroses are at once recognized, not only by
their peculiar solitary or double horns, but also by their
thick, scabrous, tuberculated skin, which, falling into
distinct folds over various regions of the body, resem-
bles an artificial defensive armature. The horns are
strictly integumentary, being composed, as it were,
of numerous bristles firmly bound and incorporated
together. The head is much elongated ; the jaws sup-
porting, in young individuals, thirty-six teeth, that is,
eight incisors and twenty-eight molars. Of the latter,
those in the upper division have subquadrate crowns,
surmounted by two transverse ridges ; whilst the
crowns of the lower series are narrower, more elon-
gated, and marked by curved lines, whose concavity
is turned inwards. The superior incisors are much
compressed, and directed obliquely forwards ; those of
the lower jaw being large and pointed. The outer
incisors above, and the two inner below, are very small
and concealed. Among the principal skeletal peculiari-
ties, we may mention the remarkably thick, rough,
elevated, and arched nasal bones, the general massive-
ness of all the osseous elements, the presence of
nineteen pairs of ribs, the complete development of the
ulna and fibula, the forked spine of the pelvis, and the
existence of only three series of digital phalanges. The
digestive canal is about eight times as long as the
entire body. Rhinoceroses feed upon coarse herbage,
and are natives of the warmer regions of the Eastern
hemisphere.
THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros Indicus)
is the species best known — Plate 25, fig. 80 — and was
formerly termed R. unicornis, in contradistinction to
R. bicornis; but, as Van der Hoeven has very justly
remarked, these terms ought no longer to be retained,
because we are now acquainted with six or seven dis-
tinct species, two of them being furnished with a single
horn each, and the others with two horns. The species
under consideration enjoys a pretty extensive range in
Eastern India, Siam, and Cochin China, being especially
abundant on the borders of the Ganges. It is chiefly
found in dense jungles and shady forests, far from the
haunts of man. It is remarkably savage, and attacks
elephants without the slightest compunction; and
seems to take a wanton delight in destroying every
living creature that comes within its reach. This ani-
mal has a singular habit of dunging in one spot ; and
these high dung-heaps, while they serve the purpose of
indicating to other animals that danger is nigh, also
afford to the native sportsman a means of guiding him
as to the best spot for erecting platforms from which he
secures his victim. The skin of the Indian Rhinoceros,
when dried, will take a high polish, and as it is more or
less capable of resisting the force of a leaden bullet,
fetches a high price ; the fat is also much used by the
native doctors as an unguent.
THE JAVANESE RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros son-
daicus) also possesses only a single horn. It is
distinguished from the preceding, however, by the
comparatively slender head, by the proportionally ele-
vated legs, by the character of the dermal armour, con-
sisting of numerous polygonal scutes, whose centres are
depressed and give origin to short bristly hairs, the ears
being also bordered by long, stiff, and closely-set bristles.
The tail is hairy underneath. By the Javanese this
animal is also called the Warak, and it is sometimes
described as Rhinoceros Javanus, a title given to it by
F. Cuvier; the one here adopted being that employed
by Baron Cuvier and Dr. Horsfield. According to the
latter, the Warak is gregarious in its habits, and forms
deeply excavated retreats along the declivities of moun-
tains and hills. It does not appear to possess the
ferocious character of its Indian congener ; but at night-
time it frequently causes serious damage to coffee and
pepper plantations.
THE STTMATRAN RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros Suma-
trensis) possesses two horns, and was formerly con-
founded with one or other of the African species. The
posterior horn is very short, conical, and placed a little
before the eyes. The hide is rough and slightly pro-
vided with hairs ; the foldings of the skin being quite
inconspicuous. It is shy in disposition, and is seldom
seen near the haunts of men.
BRTTCE'S RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros Africanus) is
the form most commonly known in Africa, and is
more frequently described under the vague titles of
the African and the Two-horned Rhinoceros. It is
the Gargatan, or Rhinaster of the Cape Colonists,
the Chukuroo of the Matabili, and the Borele of the
Bechuanas. Neither of the horns are of very great
length, the posterior one being comparatively short ;
both have a greenish-brown tint. The hide exhibits
a yellowish-brown colour, being fleshy underneath,
and not furnished with folds. The tail is about two
feet long, and bristly at the tip. The habits of Brace's
Rhinoceros closely resemble those of the Indian species.
It is remarkably savage and dangerous to approach
when wounded. Mr. Andersson mentions an instance
where some Namaquas had shot one of these animals
as it was rising from its sleep. One of the party,
imagining it to be dead, approached, mounted, and
stabbed the carcase. " The beast, however, had only
been stunned ; and as soon as he felt the cold steel
enter his body, he started to his feet and made off at
full speed. This action was so instantaneous as to
prevent the man from dismounting, whilst the other
Namaquas were paralyzed with fear. Fortunately,
RHINOCERID^E. MAMMALIA. EHINOCEEID^E.
185
however, after the beast had run forty or fifty
he suddenly stopped short, and looked round.
The
favourable opportunity was not lost; for one of the
party, more courageous than the rest, instantly fired,
and, as good luck would have it, brought the animal to
the ground with his terror-stricken rider clinging to
Fig. 70.
Burchell's Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros simus).
his back." The same distinguished traveller remarks,
that when the Rhinoceros is shot, it usually falls for-
ward on the knees, and not on its sides — a result which
seems explicable from the great breadth of the body
combined with shortness of the limbs. The Gargatan
feeds on the shoots, roots, and young branches of the
wait-a-bit thorn.
SLOAN'S RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros Keitloa) is better
known as the Keitloa, and easily distinguished by
its horns, which are nearly of equal length ; the anterior
horn being cylindrical, and curved backwards near
the tip; the other compressed and almost straight
throughout. The hide exhibits a brownish-yellow
colour, pretty closely resembling the above ; but there
is a black mark on the inside of the thigh. Both
these species are commonly termed "black," in contra-
distinction to the two succeeding white species. The
Keitloa is an extremely morose, sulky, and savage
beast, and when wounded becomes perfectly maddened
with rage. Mr. Andersson nearly lost his life by the
repeated attacks of a female, whose leg he had broken
by a shot. One of her horns ripped up his right thigh
from near the knee to the hip ; and having sustained
at the same time severe bruises and internal injury, his
ultimate recovery was only effected after prolonged
and painful suffering. The Keitloa is very swift of
foot. Notwithstanding their apparent ungainliness,
all the rhinoceroses possess the power of rapid pro-
gression to a greater or less extent.
BURCHELL'S RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros simus) is
known as the White Rhinoceros, or the Witte Rhin-
VOL. I.
aster of the Cape Colonists ; being also termed the
Chicore by the Matabili and Monoohoo by the Bechu-
anas (fig. 70). It is distinguished from the foregoing,
not merely by the pale whitish-brown colour of the
hide, but more particularly by the remarkable elonga-
tion of the head, which measuring about four feet from
the muzzle to the ears, nearly equals one-third of the
entire length of the body ! It is also further charac-
terized by a much greater bulk and size, as compared
with the above ; the nose being likewise square-shaped.
The full-grown anterior horn is three feet in length,
sharp at the point, and curved backwards. The dis-
position of this species is comparatively mild; and,
unlike that of its black congeners, its food consists
entirely of grasses.
OSWELL'S RHINOCEROS (Rhinoceros Oswellii) was,
in the first instance, scientifically indicated as a distinct
species by Dr. J. E. Gray of the British Museum. By
the Bechuanas it is termed the Koladba. In point
of size and general appearance, this animal closely
resembles the foregoing ; but, observes Mr. Andersson,
" it is with regard to then- horns that the two species
chiefly differ from each other ; for whilst the anterior
horn of the monoohoo has an average length of two or
three feet, curving backward, that of the Kobaaba not
unfrequently exceeds four feet, and is slightly pointed
forward, inclining from the snout at an angle of forty-
five degrees. This rhinoceros is also the rarer of the
two, and is only found in the more interior parts of
South Africa." The posterior horn is about a foot long,
short, conical, broad at the base, and narrow at the
2 A
186
HlPPOPOTAMID^.-
-MAMMALIA. HIPPOPOTAMI^.
tip ; the extremity of the anterior horn being sharp,
and worn away in front by friction on the ground.
FAMILY III.— HIPPOPOTAMUS.
The Hippopotamuses formerly occupied an extensive
area of distribution, as may be gathered from the
numerous fossil remains occurring in the tertiary beds
of Great Britain and Europe. At least five or six
distinct species have been indicated. Taking our
living African example as a type of the family, its prin-
cipal distinguishing characteristics may be described
as follows. The body is clothed with an almost naked
skin ; the abdomen nearly reaching to the ground.
The head is broad and flat, and furnished with thirty-
eight or forty teeth ; there being eight incisors, four
canines, and from twenty-four to twenty-eight molars,
according to the age of the animal. The inferior
incisors project horizontally forwards, the central pair
being the longer. The worn crowns of the large
canines are perfectly smooth and opposed vertically.
The posterior molars are large and complicated. The
ears are remarkably short; the head terminating
anteriorly in a broad, abrupt muzzle, whilst the nos-
trils are much elevated. The feet are tetradactylous,
the digits being armed with small hoofs. The tail is
short. Hippopotamuses are heavy, awkward-looking
animals on land ; but they display a singular agility and
gracefulness of motion in water. Aquatic plants, and
especially grasses, constitute the bulk of then- food.
THE HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hippopotamus amphibius) —
Plate 25, fig. 81 — is an animal which has always been
regarded with considerable interest, although its uses
to man are not of the highest order. It is familiarly
known as the River-horse ; and is the Barnick of the
Nubians, the Sea-cow or Zee-Koe of the Cape Colonists,
and the Imfooboo of the Cafires and Matabili ; it is
probably also the Behemoth of sacred history. A full -
grown male Hippopotamus sometimes attains a length
of nearly twelve feet, whilst the girth of its body mea-
sures scarcely less. The hide exhibits an inky-brown
colour generally, being at the same time more or less
tinged with a fleshy redness about the mouth and
inferior parts. The latter tint is very marked in young
individuals. The habits of this extraordinary creature
have been studied from the earliest times, and almost
every African traveller of modem date has contributed
something to our knowledge of its powers. Burchell,
Burckhardt, Harris, Smith, Gumming, Livingstone,
Andersson and others, have witnessed its sportive wiles
in the reedy streams of its native land ; whilst at home
naturalists have been amply rewarded by watching the
behaviour of the two fine examples preserved in the
Zoological Society's Gardens, Regent's Park. The
Parisians enjoy a similar advantage at the Jardin
des Plantes of the French capital, and they have
even witnessed the birth of two young ; but on
both occasions the jealous mother sacrificed her
much admired offspring ! The first was born in
May 1858, and its death resulted, perhaps, rather from
accident than intention ; for, we are informed, that
after swimming about a while it attempted to get on
dry ground ; but the descent from the sleeping apart-
ment into the bath not being sloped, it experienced
some difficulty in raising itself from the water ; and
whilst the mother was engaged in assisting it to clamber
up the steps, she bruised and otherwise injured the
body to such an extent that the poor little creature
died the same evening. The second juvenile behemoth
perished from injuries inflicted by the mother some days
after its birth. In the hope of rearing a young Hippo-
potamus in England, the Zoological Society has spared
neither pains nor expense to render the pair in their
menagerie comfortable in each other's society. It
is satisfactory to observe that the favoured couple
live amicably together; but whether it be owing to
the chilling influences of our changeable climate, or
to prudential motives resulting from hippopotamine
reasonings, or to other circumstances which invalidate
the procreative function — we believe we are correct
in stating that no reciprocations of affection have yet
appeared sufficiently demonstrative to afford a belief
that the authorities hi question are at present likely to
be rewarded for their trouble. In the wild state these
animals display extreme solicitude for their young,
which they carry on their necks while in the water;
and, as the calves cannot remain long submerged,
the mother rises more frequently to the surface when
her offspring is with her. Whilst tending her young
the female cannot be carelessly approached, and she
will vigorously defend her offspring. All who have
read Dr. Livingstone's " Travels " will remember the
partial capsize and wetting he and his Makololo com-
panions sustained from the infuriated rush of a female
Hippopotamus, "whose young one had been speared
the day before." Mr. Andersson and Captain Owen
record similar catastrophes. The former says — "An
immense Hippopotamus, with its calf, rushed out from
amongst the reeds where she had been concealed,
and, passing under our raft, almost immediately after-
wards made her appearance on the surface of the water.
Upon seeing this, I lost no time in firing ; but, though
to all appearance mortally wounded, we lost sight of
her at the time. A few minutes afterwards, however,
on coming to a bend of the river, we fell in with the
canoe that had been sent on bottom upwards; and
found, to our great consternation, that the wounded
beast in going down the stream had caught sight of
the canoe, and, instantly attacking it, had with one
blow of her head capsized it. The men saved them-
selves by swimming; but all the loose articles were
either lost or spoiled by the water." In the instance
mentioned by Captain Owen, the boat was completely
smashed, and sank ; but, as in Dr. Livingstone's case,
being close to the shore, all succeeded in landing
safely. The Hippopotamus is nocturnal and gregari-
ous in its habits. Large herds, to the number of
thirty or forty and upwards, are frequently seen at one
spot, some snoozing on the bank, and others noise-
lessly gliding through the limpid waters. They love
a still reach of the stream, " and prefer to remain by
day in a drowsy, yawning state ; and though their
eyes are open they take little notice of things at a dis-
tance." Dr. Livingstone adds, that " the males utter
a loud succession of snorting grunts, which may be
heard a mile off." Among the various modes of
TAPIRID*:. MAMMALIA. TAPIRID.E.
187
destroying this persecuted animal, that of shooting
them is of course the most effective; nevertheless, the
sport is attended with much difficulty, as, when in the
water, they are only vulnerable immediately behind
the ear. Like the Egyptians of old, the present
native Beyeye employ the harpoon, and our unhappy
behemoth is drawn out of the water in all the agonies
of a helpless resistance. On land the harpoon is also
employed as the principal part of a trap called the
' ' downfall . " The instrument, loaded with heavy weights,
is suspended from the bough of a tree, and is in connec-
tion with a string below, which being touched by the
beast causes the weapon to descend on its luckless pate.
The Hippopotamus is also taken in pitfalls. Its flesh
is palatable, and very highly esteemed. The hide is
extensively employed in the manufacture of whips or
sjamboks ; whilst the canine teeth are especially valuable
for making artificial teeth, the ivory fetching as much
as thirty shillings per pound. For these reasons,
multitudes of hippopotamuses are destroyed annually.
Some naturalists believe that a smaller kind of hippo-
potamus found in certain parts of Western Africa ought
to be regarded as a distinct species. This form was
first described by Dr. Morton under the title of Hippo-
potamus minor, and subsequently as Hippopotamus
liberiensis. One of its distinguishing peculiarities con-
sists in the presence of only two incisor teeth in the
lower jaw. Dr. Leidy has given a minute description
of its osteological characters in the second volume
of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences
of Philadelphia. It has even been regarded as the
type of a new genus.
FAMILY IV.— TAPIEID^J.
In their general appearance the Tapirs manifestly
approach the pigs, whilst in respect of conformity to type,
their considerable bulk, associated with a proboscidi-
form muzzle and more exalted stature, retain a cogency
of development sufficient to indicate their transitional
character. If the skull of an American Tapir be
Fig. 71.
Skull of the Tap:r.
examined, its form will be seen to represent a pyramid
having three facets, whereas that of the hog has four.
A more significant feature, however, obtains in the
elevated and arched character of the nasal bones, and
in the lofty interparietal ridge surmounting the vertex
of the cranium (fig. 71). The jaws are furnished
with forty-two teeth ; that is to say, twelve incisors
equally divided above and below, four canines, and
twenty-six molars, of which latter, seven occur on
either side in the upper series. A wide interval sepa-
rates the canines from the premolars. The spinal
column possesses only four lumbar vertebrae; but
there are twenty pair of ribs. The bladebone of the
shoulder exhibits a deep circular notch at its anterior
margin ; the homologically corresponding bone of the
hip, or ilium, being T-shaped. The anterior h'mbs are
furnished with four digits; but the hind feet are tri-
dactylous. The fossil genus PalcBotherium has three
toes on all the feet. The Tapirs are found inhabiting
the reedy forests of tropical Asia and America, where
they feed on grass and herbage.
THE COMMON TAPIB (Tapirus Americanus}— Plate
25, fig. 82 — is a native of South America, and, though
found in all parts of the continent, from the Straits of
Magellan to the Isthmus of Darien, is more particularly
abundant on the east coast of the continent. It stands
rather high on the legs, and frequently attains a length of
six feet from the extremity of the proboscidiform muzzle
to the root of the tail. The hide has a deep-brown colour
approaching to black, being scantily furnished with short
hairs closely applied to the surface of the skin. The
ears are of moderate size, the eyes small, and the
muzzle extremely attenuated and prolonged into a
proboscis, which is naked and flesh-coloured at the
tip. The neck is surmounted by a short, bristly, black
mane. The tail is insignificant. The Common Tapir
is monogamous and nocturnal in its habits. Selecting
the deepest recesses of the forest, it snoozes lazily
during the day, and when the shades of evening gather
darkness, it wanders forth to commit its nocturnal
depredations along the grassy and luxurious slopes of
a neighbouring stream. Herbs ot every sort seem to
be devoured without much selective care ; and, swine-
like, it occasionally swallows putrid vegetable matters,
as well as all kinds of garbage. A tame specimen in
the possession of D'Azara broke open and demolished
the contents of a silver snuff-box ! Even in the wild
state, their stomachs have been found to contain
various earthy products, besides pieces of wood and
pebbles. The Tapir is possessed of very considerable
strength ; it naturally exhibits a mild disposition, but
when attacked offers a stout resistance. It is easily
domesticated. The flesh is coarse and insipid.
EOULIN'S TAPIB (Tapirus villosus) is also an in-
habitant of South America. It is found, however,
on mountainous slopes upwards of four thousand feet
above the level of the sea. In some respects it is said
to approach more closely to the Malayan species.
The hide is of a dark black colour, and thickly clothed
with hair. The nasal bones are more elongated than
in other existing species — constituting a feature which
occurs more markedly in the extinct genus above
mentioned.
THE MALAYAN TAPIR (Tapirus Malayanus) or
BABI ALU, is a native of Sumatra, Borneo, and the
Malaccas. It is a comparatively rare and unknown
animal, and was first introduced to our notice by Major
Farquhar in 1816. Subsequently Sir T. Stamford
Raffles communicated a more detailed account of this
animal, which was published in the thirteenth volume
of the Linneean Society's Transactions for 1821. He
188
SUTDJE. MAMMALIA. String.
writes as follows — " The Malay Tapir resembles in
form the American, and has a similar flexible proboscis,
which is six or eight inches in length. Its general
appearance is heavy and massive, somewhat resembling
the hog. The eyes are small. The ears are rounded
and bordered with white. The skin is thick and firm,
thinly covered with short hair. There is no mane on
the neck, as in the American species. The tail is very
short, and almost destitute of hair. The legs are short
and stout, the fore-feet furnished with four toes, the
hind feet with three." The most characteristic feature,
however, has reference to the colour of the hide ;
which has a deep glossy black hue generally, but is
white on the rump, back, and sides of the belly, the
line of demarcation being clearly defined. In the
young state it is for the first three or four months more
uniformly blackish above and white underneath, being
at the same time "beautifully marked with spots
and stripes of a fawn colour." The young specimen
domesticated by Mr. Farquhar became so exceedingly
familiar, that it was wont to feed, like a petted dog, on
bread, cake, and all kinds of vegetables. A full-grown
female measures upwards of eight feet from the tip of
the nose to the base of the tail. The male is some-
what smaller.
FAMILY V.— SUHLE.
The various members of this family are familiarly
known as swine, and are with few exceptions charac-
terized by the possession of four toes on each foot, the
anterior digits being furnished with strong hoofs ; while
the posterior pair, which barely reach the ground, are
likewise ungulated (Plate 33, fig. 108). The number of
teeth varies ; but the canines of the male are usually
more or less conspicuous externally. The head is pro-
longed in front into a mobile truncate, snout. The tail,
on the other hand, is short, or only rudimentary. The
skull presents the form of a quadrangular pyramid,
whose apex is represented by the extended muzzle. In
the wild state swine are mostly found in low marshy
forests.
THE WILD BOAE (Sus Scrofa) is the progenitor of
all our common swine ; in form and general appear-
ance it does not differ very materially from our
domestic hog (fig. 72), which has the skull rather
more elevated. When provided with its full comple-
ment of teeth there are twelve incisors, equally divided
above and below; four exserted, prism-shaped, recurved
canines, and twenty-eight molars — in all, forty-four.
The premolars are more or less compressed; the
posterior grinders being tuberculated. The Wild Boar
is an inhabitant of the forests of Asia and Europe
generally; and although no longer known in this
country, it was formerly found in Great Britain, and
probably also in Sweden and Denmark. It is an
exceedingly fierce and vindictive animal, capable of
inflicting severe wounds on its enemies — be they men,
horses, or tigers. It is doubtful whether the hunter
experiences so much danger in pursuing the larger
Carnivora as he does in chasing the wild hog. In
India, however, this sport is much in vogue, and
attended with varied excitement. During the hunt,
" it is extremely common to see a party divide after
Fig. 72.
The Tame Boar (Sus Scrofa).
various hogs, either started at the first from the same
cover, or roused in the progress of chasing a single one.
Where it is known that two or more are in the bund,
cane, &c., which is beating, a portion of the horse-
men follow the horse that starts, leaving their comrades
to manage the remainder. Nothing can exceed the
interest created when, as sometimes occurs, two or
three parties are following each their respective game.
Some may be seen spurring on with the utmost
energy; others pulling hard to restrain then- frightened
or too impetuous steeds ; perhaps one or more in differ-
ent stages of falling ; others stopping to dismount and
recover spears which had missed their object; and
eventually a successful Nimrod triumphing over his
fallen victim." Captain Williamson also adds, that
" hunted hogs, and indeed sometimes as a matter of
caprice those not disturbed, will attack any object they
may chance to see, such as peasants, cattle, &c. They
-MAMMALIA.-
189
are greatly attracted thereto by any attempt which is
made to escape from them. Such as trust to their
speed are for the most part soon overtaken, and receive
a cut of the tusk in each thigh, the boar putting his
nose between their knees, and giving them a violent
toss!" For the greater part of the year the boar is
found alone, but during the spring hunters often
come upon a pair and their litter. At such times the
sow offers no inconsiderable resistance, and frequently
punishes her enemies with a remarkably severe bite.
One which attacked Captain Williamson seized him
by the foot, which, on being suddenly withdrawn by
the hunter, left part of the boot in her mouth ! During
the season of love, the boars display towards each
other the most ungovernable animosity. The period
of gestation extends over a space of one hundred and
twenty days, the domestic sow producing from ten
to fourteen pigs at a single litter. The voracity and
destructive habits of the hog are too well known to
require description. According to Vander Hoeven,
single-hoofed varieties exist hi the neighbourhood of
Upsal, and also, it is stated, in some parts of Hungary.
Into the merits of pork we do not enter ; nevertheless
it is fortunate that multitudes of people enjoy a food
which is so easily accessible. As to its ancient pro-
hibition in the East, one might almost be inclined to
believe that it was originally forbidden on account of
the pig's liability to be infested with young cystic larvae
or scolices of the common tape worm found in man ;
and yet it is perhaps necessary that the Tcenia solium
should dwell in its human host; and therefore meazled
pork is occasionally eaten ! We cannot here further
discuss this curious question.
THE MASKED BOAB, (Sus larvatus), or BOSCH-VARK
is an inhabitant of the plains and forests of South-
eastern Africa, the Cape, and the island of Madagascar.
It is a large animal, between five and six feet long, and
standing about two feet four inches in height at the
shoulder, presenting a truly formidable appearance.
Its hideousness is much increased by the presence of
two nipple-like warty excrescences on either side of the
muzzle near the tusks ; these are supported on bony
protuberances. The canines are large ; the superior
pair projecting horizontally. The hide exhibits a dirty
brown colour, and is furnished with bristles which
have a more marked development on the neck and
back. The tail is about a foot long and tufted at the
extremity.
THE PAPUAN BOAB (Sus Papuensis), or BENE, is a
smaller species, scarcely exceeding half the length of
the preceding, and of a much more slender build. It
is tolerably abundant in the forests of New Guinea.
The superior canines are comparatively feeble, resem-
bling the incisors. The hide is clothed with short,
stoutish bristles, which are ringed with black and
white, the skin of the young pig is brown, the back
being marked by five yellowish bands. In the young
state these animals are captured and reared by the
natives for food ; the pork being highly esteemed, not
only by themselves, but by European colonists also.
THE BABYHOTTSSA (Babirussa alfurus} is an in-
habitant of Celebes, Bourou, and other easterly islands
of the Indian Archipelago. By the natives it is
absurdly called the stag-hog, from its standing rather
high upon its legs ; and the erroneous figure given by Piso
in his edition of the " Natural History of East India,"
Fig. 73.
The Babyroussa (Babirussa alfurusj.
by Bontius, is calculated to give force to this palpable
misnomer. The jaws are furnished with thirty-two
teeth ; that is, eight incisors, four canines, and twenty
molars. The canines of the upper jaw are enormously
enlarged in the male; and, ascending from then: sockets,
which are also directed upwards, they arch over the
face, their crowns being directed backwards and down-
wards. The corresponding tusks of the lower jaw are
also very conspicuously developed (fig. 73). The canines
are not enlarged in the female, and she exhibits a more
190
SVIDJK. MAMMALIA.-
slender build generally. So far as we are aware, the
use of the large tusks in the male have not been satis-
factorily explained. Those of the lower jaw are doubt-
less intended as defensive and offensive weapons ; but
as the superior pair often recurve sufficiently to touch
the forehead, they cannot prove very formidable instru-
ments of attadk. It seems scarcely enough to say that
they are designed to protect the eyes from injury during
the animal's progress through thick bushes ; and there
seems more aptness in the old notion that they are
employed to support the head by suspension to a bough,
whilst the animal is sleeping in the standing posture.
This idea, however, rests more upon theory than upon
observation.
THE .ETHIOPIAN WART-HOG (Phacochcerus ^Elhio-
picus) AFRICAN BOAB, INGOOLOOB, or VALKE-VAEK,
is an inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope. In common
with its congeners, it is characterized by the possession
of a large skull, furnished with frightful-looking tusks ;
those of the upper jaw are enormously developed.
The teeth vary in number, the incisors being usually
absent in this species. The canines are directed
upwards and outwards. The molars of the perma-
nent series are twenty in number; that is, five on either
side above and below; but twelve of these become
deciduous, so that in the old animal only eight may be
present. The last grinder is remarkably elongated,
and consists of numerous cylindrical tubes of dentine
and enamel, cemented together. The Wart-hogs are
provided with thick, fleshy, wen-like lobes on the
cheeks, which, associated with the prominent warty
excrescences below the small, sinister-looking eyes,
impart additional hideousness to these animals. The
Valke-vark is about two feet six inches high at the
shoulder, and nearly five feet in length. The hide
exhibits a reddish-brown colour; the upper parts being
clothed with long stiff bristles— those on the crown of
the head radiating, as it were, from a common centre.
The muzzle is broad and truncated abruptly. The tail
is about twenty inches long, very narrow, and tufted
at the extremity. The Valke-vark is gregarious in its
habits.
.ELIAN'S WART-HOG (Phacochcerus ^Eliani) enjoys
a more extensive area of distribution over the African
continent than the above ; examples having been pro-
cured from Cape Verd, New Guinea, Abyssinia, and
the Mozambique. It is also called the Haruja, or
Hallup, and is readily distinguished from the foregoing
by the presence of incisor teeth in both jaws, of which
there are generally two above and six below ; the bones
of the forehead being also slightly depressed in this
animal, but convex in the valke-vark. The hide
exhibits an earth-brown colour, and is sparsely clothed
with bristly hairs, except along the central line of the
neck and back, where they form a well-developed
mane, whose individual bristles are eight or nine inches
in length. A single hair bulb commonly gives origin
to several bristles. The tail is nearly naked, but tufted
at the tip, as in the above. Both species live upon
roots and bulbs which they grub up with then- powerful
tusks, aided by a kneeling posture to facilitate the wedge
and lever-action of the snout.
THE COLLARED PECCARY (Dicotyles torqualus), or
TAJAZOU, is a small kind of hog, living in Mexico and
the southern districts of the United States, being at
the same time more extensively dispersed over the
Fig. 74.
The Collared Peccary (Dicotyles torquatus).
continent of South America. The members of this
genus differ from ordinary pigs in several interesting
particulars: — Firstly, the hind feet are tridactylous;
the outer toes being absent. Secondly, the metacarpal
and metatarsal bones of the large anterior digits are
closely united. Thirdly, the canine teeth, though wcH
developed, do not project from the mouth externally.
Fourthly, the loins support a peculiar gland which
exhales a fetid odour. Fifthly, there is no tail; its
place being occupied by a slight prominence or
MAMMALIA HYRACID.E.
191
tubercle. Some other minor peculiarities exist; am
Cuvier mentions that the aorta, or principal arteria
trunk of the body, is very commonly enlarged or aneu
rismal at different parts of its course. This, however
is clearly an abnormal state, for which it is not easj
to account, unless, as in the similar case of the ass, il
be owing to the presence of parasites in the blood of the
kind, belonging to the genus of Entozoa called Strongylus,
The habits of the Collared Peccary are similar to those
of swine in general ; its food consisting of roots, bulbs
acorns, and other fruits, earthworms, grubs, and insecl
larvae of all kinds, found in or upon the damp marshy
soils, where this animal delights to wallow. Although
the Tajazou has been domesticated, its flesh is not
sufficiently soft and palatable to be employed as a
substitute for common pork ; and were it more plea-
sant it could scarcely supplant the ordinary hog, as the
female only produces two young at a birth, and a
full-grown individual seldom exceeds fifty Ibs. in weight.
THE WHITE LIPPED PECCAEY (Dicotyleslabiatus),
or TAGNICATE, is a larger species, weighing almost
double that of the Tajazou, with which, however, it was
formerly confounded. It is readily distinguished by
the pale colour of the lips, the rest of the hide being
brown as usual ; it is also of a stouter build, the snout
being likewise more prolonged and expanded at the
tip. For an interesting account of the habits of this
animal we are indebted to Mr. Bennett, who observes
that the White-lipped Peccaries, unlike the former,
" congregate in numerous bands, sometimes amount-
ing, it is said, to more than a thousand individuals of
all ages. Thus united, they frequently traverse exten-
sive districts ; the whole troop occupying an extent of
a league in length, and directed hi their march, if the
accounts of the natives are to be credited, by a leader
who takes his station at the head of the foremost rank.
Should they be impeded in their progress by a river,
the chief stops for a moment, then plunges boldly into
the stream, and is followed by all the rest of the troop.
The breadth of the river and the rapidity of the current
appear to be but trifling obstacles in their way, and to
be overcome with the greatest facility. On reaching
the opposite bank, they proceed directly on their course,
and continue their march even through the plantations
which, unfortunately for the owners, may happen to lie
in their way, and which they sometimes completely
devastate by rooting in the ground for their favourite
food, or devouring such fruit as they find there. If
they meet anything unusual in their way, they make a
terrific clattering with their teeth, and stop and examine
the object of their alarm. "When they have ascer-
tained that there is no danger, they continue their route
without further delay ; but if a huntsman should ven-
ture to attack them, when they are thus assembled in
large numbers, he is sure to be surrounded by multi-
tudes, and torn to pieces by their tusks, if he is so
unwise as to neglect his only chance of escape, which
consists hi climbing a tree, and thus getting fairly out
of their reach. The smaller bands are by no means
equally courageous, and always take to flight at the
first attack." The White-lipped Peccary appears to
belong exclusively to South America, being very abund-
ant in the provinces of Guiana and Paraguay.
FAMILY VI.— HYRACID^.
The group of small quadrupeds associated under the
above title, constitute a distinct family, the members
of which, though insignificant in respect of bulk and
numl ' •
attention of the scientific naturalist. By those who
have not studied the subject, it will hardly be credited
that these little animals, formerly classed with the
Rodents on account of their marked resemblance to
that family, present a close approximation to the pachy-
derms, and more particularly to the rhinoceroses.
This alliance, however, is very obvious, when we
examine the condition and characters of the feet and
teeth — as was, in the first instance, pointed out by
Baron Cuvier, and subsequently insisted on by Wiede-
mann, Swainson, Lesson, Gray, and others. Regarding
only the anatomical peculiarities, it would be more
correct to place this family between the Tapiridae and
Rhinoceridse ; but as its external features present so
marked a deviation from those of the two families just
mentioned, we prefer to consider this aberrant group
in the present position — as furthest removed from the
ordinary pachydermal type. The Hyracidae are fur-
nished with thirty-eight or forty teeth, namely, six
incisors, two above and four below, and twenty-four or
twenty-eight molars. In the latter case, there are no
less than sixteen premolars or spurious grinders — the
canines being always absent. The incisors do not
exhibit a true rodent structure, but are conical and
similar to those of the hippopotamus. The molars, on
the other hand, are very like those of the rhinoceros ;
the crowns of the upper set being distinguished by twc
enamelled eminences, and connected by a ridge to the
outer margin, whilst those below display two semi-
circular ridges, whose convexity is directed outwards.
The anterior limbs are furnished with four toes, but
the hind feet are tridactylous. The digits are provided
with small flat hoofs ; a remarkable exception obtain-
ng to the inner toes of the hind feet, which terminate
m curved and sharply-pointed claws. Both as regards
lie skeleton and viscera, we find many other modifi-
cations of structure more or less conformable with the
true pachydermal type, amongst which may be specially
mentioned the existence of no less than twenty-one
>airs of ribs — a number far exceeding that of any
•odent, and giving a parr more than is found either
in the proboscidean tapirs or elephants. In the skull
he malar bone forms a complete orbital ring. The
lyracidae are also provided with a double ccecum;
and this, strangely enough, according to Professor Owen,
indicates an affinity to the sloths: which edentate
jroup, we may mention, contains an animal — the Unau
— possessing a still larger number of ribs, namely,
rwenty-three pairs. On this subject Professor Owen,
without referring to the ribs, and merely reflecting on
;he fact which an examination of the coacum had
uggested to his mind, very pithily remarks : — " It is
nteresting to find, that while the facies of Hyrax so
ar simulates that of a rodent as to have deceived the
Ider naturalists, and to have concealed from them
hose unerring indications of its alliance with the
'achydermata which the osseous system exhibits ; yet
192
HYRACID*:. MAMMALIA. HYRACIDJE.
that nature, as if in confirmation of her abhorrence to
the Baltus, had left in the internal structure of this
singular animal an impression borrowed from the type
of the Edentata." However agreeable to our taste, we
cannot pursue the subject further, and have only by
way of conclusion to observe, that the skin is thickly
clothed with hair, the face being well supplied with
stoutish bristles on the muzzle and immediately above
the eyes ; similar thick hairs are also here and there
interspersed throughout the fur at different parts of the
body. The ears of Hyracidse are short ; the tail being
represented externally by a mere tubercle. Herbage
and various kinds of grass constitute their food.
THE BASSE (Hyrax capensis), KLIPDAS or CAPE
HYRAX, is an inhabitant of the mountainous districts
of Southern Africa generally, both inland and along the
coast. It is about the size of a rabbit, and conceals
itself in the holes and crevices of rocks (fig. 75). It
lives in colonies, and feeds upon grasses, aromatic
herbs, and the young twigs of bushy shrubs. Should
any enemy approach while the colony are basking in
the sun, as they are frequently wont to do, an alarm
is immediately sounded by their sentinel, and away
they all scamper to their hiding-places ; the warning
cry being peculiarly shrill and prolonged. The Dasse
is readily tamed , and, according to Mr. Eudston Read,
two examples kept by a friend of his became very
agreeable companions. " They would find him out,"
he says, " when lying on the sofa or in bed, and, climb-
ing up, shelter themselves on his breast within hit;
waistcoat, or creep under the bed-clothes at his back,
and, lying quiet, enjoy the warmth." Another one,
" when allowed to run unconfined about the room, was
inclined to be sociable, but was restless and inquisitive,
climbing up and examining every person in the cabin,
and startling at any noise, which caused it instantly to
run and hide itself. But, from confinement, it became
savage and snarling, and tried to bite when anything
was put near its cage. Both wild and in restraint it is
remarkably clean in its habits, always frequenting and
depositing its dung in one place. From its faintly cry-
ing in its sleep we may conclude that it dreams.
Fig. 75.
1^
The Cape Hyrax (Hyrax capeusis
have also -heard it," adds Mr. Read, " chewing its food
by night when everything has been quiet. In its food
it was pleased with variety, eating first a few leaves of
one plant and then of another, and greedily licking salt
when given to it. In its passage home its food was
Indian corn bruised, bread, raw potato, and onion, with
a small quantity of water, which, in drinking, it partly
lapped and partly sucked up. It was very sensible of
cold; for when a candle was placed near the bars of its
cage, it readily acknowledged the little warmth given
out by turning its side, and sitting still to receive the
full benefit of the rays of heat. I am inclined to think
that the female does not produce more than two young
ones at a time, from having observed, in several
instances, but two following the old ones." The flesh
of the Cape Hyrax is stated to be excellent eating.
THE DAMAN (Hyrax Siriacus), or SYRIAN HYRAX,
is a distinct species, but appears to be identical with
the Abyssinian form described by Ehrenberg as the
TTyrax Alyssinicus, under which title it is also entered
in the catalogue of Mammalia preserved in the British
Museum. It is a native of Palestine and the moun-
tainous borders of the Red Sea generally; it is believed
to be the Shaphan of scripture history. The body is
about twelve inches long, possessing a similar measure-
ment in height. The fur exhibits a greyish-brown
colour above, being fulvous at the sides, and whitish
underneath; the individual hairs are annulated by these
several shades ; their relative amount varying accord-
ing to the region of the body in which they occur.
The Damans are gregarious, selecting for their habita-
tions those inaccessible caverns and clefts, which the
rocks of Syria so abundantly afford. Like the Cape
Hyrax, they deh'ght to bask in the sun near their snug
retreats, exhibiting the same natural caution and
timidity. The conies are, as Solomon aptly expresses
it, a " feeble folk," although they have " their dwellings
in the rocks."
CETACEA. -MAMMALIA. -CETACEA.
193
Two or three more species have been described. Of
these may be mentioned, Smith's Hyrax (Hyrax
arloreus) from South Africa; this form possessing
arboreal habits, and being distinguished by its longer
fur, which also displays a white spot on the back.
Another species, capable of climbing trees and feeding
on their fruits, is the Hyrax Sylvestris of Temminck.
This form inhabits New Guinea and other parts on the
west coast of Africa, and it is remarkable as possessing
only twenty-four grinding teeth ; that is, three pre-
molars and three true molars on each side of either
jaw, the orbital ring being at the same time more
complete than obtains in any other member of the
family.
ORDER XII.— CETACEA.
ALTHOUGH scientific naturalists have uniformly insisted
on the mammiferous character of the cetacea — at least
since the days of Cuvier, and also, >n some degree,
from the time of Linnseus — the majority of
people still class them with fishes; but the only
grounds on which these animals can with any
propriety be said to resemble the finny tribe,
are those which refer to their form and the
conversion of the anterior limbs into finlike
paddles. Even here, however, a close inspec-
tion of the leathery hide, of the modified limbs,
and of the horizontal tail, is sufficient to indicate
a wide departure from the fishes properly so
called, in which the tail is vertical, the fins
composed of numerous rays, and the integu-
ments more or less converted into separable
scales; and what is still more distinctive, we
also find conspicuous indications of the repro-
ductive organs externally, as well as mammary
glands in the female. Anatomical investi-
gation has likewise shown that these gigantic denizens
of the deep breathe by means of lungs, and that
they have a pulmonic and systemic circulation, as
obtains in other mammals. Taking the skeleton of
the common Greenland whale— Plate 32, fig. 90— as a
type of zoophagous cetacea, it is extremely interesting
to observe how its several osseous elements have
become modified in form, and altered in bulk, in order
to meet the exigencies of a creature destined to live hi a
medium so different from that generally enjoyed by the
mass of mammalian vertebrates. Commencing with
the head, the first thing that strikes us is the remark-
able extension of the bones qf the face, the inter-max-
illary and superior maxillary bones arching forwards to
form a kind of rostrum, whilst the lateral divisions of
the lower jaw converge towards the tip of the snout,
forming a curve on either side scarcely less conspicuous.
The cranial bones are not less altered ; the nasals are
short, the temporals square-shaped, the frontals remark-
ably narrowed and directed obliquely outwards and
backwards, the vertex of the skull being almost entirely
occupied by the upper flattened portion of the occipital
bone. All these characters are well displayed in the
accompanying woodcut (fig. 76). If our attention be
next directed to the vertebral column, we find on the
one hand an almost complete abrogation of the cervical
region, and a striking augmentation of the caudal ele-
ments on the other; taken as a whole, however, the
bone-chain is massive and well developed. The most
interesting feature in connection with this part of the
YQI* I
skeleton has reference to the vertebrae of the neck,
which in all cases maintain then* typical number,
although, in the true whales, they are completely ossified
Fig. 76.
Skull of the Greenland Whale (Balama Mysticetus),
seen from above.
together so as to form a single mass, more or less
fissured by deep clefts, which serve to indicate the
original existence of seven distinct vertebrae hi the
embryonic condition. But this is only true of the
whalebone whales, for in other members of the order
the several segments are more or less free ; there being
six anchylosed together hi the spermaceti, and two
only hi the piked-whales, the dolphins, and the por-
poises ; in the latter the first and second vertebrae are
conjoined; but hi the Balanopterse the union takes
place between the second and third cervical segments.
In the herbivorous cetacea all the bones are perma-
nently free, and this is also the case hi the sou-sou or
dolphin of the Ganges. In regard to the dorsal and
lumbar vertebrae, all that we need remark is, that both
series vary hi number, hi different genera, while their
spinous and transverse processes become more and
more conspicuous as they approach the caudal series.
One, two, or three vertebrae have been assigned to the
sacral or pelvic region, but these do not differ in
structure from the previous group; and but for the
existence of rudimentary pelvic bones, it would be
scarcely fair to say that any should be classed hi this
category. The vertebrae of the tail are extremely
numerous, upwards of thirty being present hi the
Rorqual ; structurally they vary quantitively and mor-
phologically, gradually diminishing hi bulk and com-
plexity of outline from before backwards, until we
ultimately find them reduced to a simple compressed
nodule at the free extremity of the organ. Of the rudi-
2B
194
CETACEA.-
-MAMMALIA. CETACEA.
mentary character of the pelvic bones we have already
spoken, their attenuated form bearing no resemblance
to the ilia of those quadrupeds in which the posterior
limbs are present. The ribs are chiefly noticeable in
respect of their mode of articulation to the dorsal ver-
tebrae and the great degree of curvature, which is
necessary to make room for the bulky thoracic viscera;
a few of the anterior ribs are articulated by their
heads to the bodies of the vertebrae and by a tubercle
to the transverse processes, but the remainder have
only a single mode of connection and have no true
articular facets at their attached ends. The paddles or
anterior extremities are worthy of particular considera-
tion. In them, as has been already hinted, are to be
found evidences of conformity to type, having a signi-
ficance not less forcible than that enunciated when
treating of the bones of the neck. Viewing the limb
from without, there is nothing to indicate the parts
severally denominated arm, fore-arm, and shoulders;
but upon dissection we find all the osseous elements
ordinarily entering into the constitution of these seg-
ments fully represented and easily recognized. With
the exception of the humero-scapulur articulation, all
the bones are firmly invested and packed together by
fibrous tissue, so as to prevent motion upon one
another; and what is more noticeable, is, that they
have all become shortened lengthwise, whilst their
breadth has somewhat increased, as it were, by com-
pression within the tightly investing teguments. In
some species, as in the common mysticete, the digital
phalanges are more numerous than usually obtains in
the feet of pentadactyle quadrupeds. If we turn our
attention to the skeleton of any of the herbivorous
cetacea — such, for example, as that of the Dugong, Plate
34, fig. 109— not only do we observe a less consider-
able departure from the ordinary mammalian type, as
instanced by a comparison of the bones of the hand,
arm, fore-arm, and shoulder; but in contemplating the
structure of the head and neck, it is evident that we
have moved a step higher in the scale of organization.
The seven cervical vertebrae are distinct, though still
remarkably compressed from before backwards, and
the skull, whilst visibly contracted in the same direc-
tion, presents, nevertheless, several peculiarities suffi-
ciently cogent to demand special notice ; these will be
immediately considered when describing the general
characteristics of the Manatidae. Meanwhile we pass
on to notice very briefly, some of the more striking
modifications of the viscera, as well as other internal
and external arrangements equally suggestive. And,
firstly, as respects the organs of respiration — which are
chiefly to be noted on account of their singular com-
munication with the air by means of two nostrils
situated at the top of the head in the true whales, and
by a single opening similarly placed in the dolphins;
in the herbivorous species these passages terminate in
front of the muzzle, as in mammalia generally. Hav-
ing, on several occasions, dissected the common porpoise
with very great care, we are in a position to testify to
the accuracy of Baron Cuvier's account of the singular
manner in which the windpipe terminates, especially
within a vertical extension of the pharynx, which is
commonly designated the spouting apparatus, the exter-
nal openings above being vulgarly called the blow-holes.
"If we trace the oesophagus upwards," says Cuvier,
" we find that when it arrives opposite the pharynx, it
appears to divide into two passages, of which one is
continued onwards to the mouth, while the other
mounts to the nose; this latter passage being sur-
rounded with mucous glands and fleshy muscular
bundles. Some of these are longitudinal, arising from
the circumference of the posterior orifice of the bony
nostrils, and descending along that canal to the pharynx,
and its lateral path. The others are annular and
appear to be a continuation of the proper muscle of the
pharynx, and as the larynx rises into this passage in
the form of an obelisk or pyramid, these annular fibres
have the power of grasping it by their contractions.
Mucous follicles which empty their secretion by conspi-
cuous excretive orifices are abundant at this part. The
lining membrane of the nasal passage having reached
the vomer, assumes a peculiar texture; becoming thin,
smooth, very dry, of a black colour, and apparently
destitute of nerves and vessels. The two osseous
nasal canals are closed at the superior or external ori-
fice by a fleshy valve in the form of two semicircles,
attached to the anterior margin of that opening, which
it closes by means of a very strong muscle lodged above
the intermaxillary bones. In order to open it some foreign
body must press against it from below. When this
valve is closed, it cuts off all communication between
the nasal passages and the cavities above them. These
cavities consist of two large membranous pouches
formed by a dark-coloured mucous skin, which is much
wrinkled when they are empty; but assuming, when
distended, an oval figure, which in the porpoise equals
the size of a common wine-glass. These two pouches
are lodged beneath the integuments, in front of the
nostrils ; they communicate with an intermediate space
immediately above the nostrils, the latter opening
externally by a transverse semilunar slip. Very strong
muscular fibres form an expansion, which closes in the
upper surface of this apparatus; these fibres radiate
from the whole circumference of the cranium to unite
above the two pouches, being adapted to compress
them forcibly. Let us suppose the Cetacean has
taken into its mouth some water which it wishes to
eject ; it moves the tongue and jaws as if about to
swallow it; but closing the pharynx, the water is forced
up into the nasal passages, where its progress is acce-
lerated by annular fibres, until it raises the valve and
distends the membranous pouches above. Once in
these sacs, the water can be retained there until the
animal wishes to spout. For that purpose, it closes the
valve to prevent the descent of the water into the nasal
passages, and it forcibly compresses the sacs by means
of the muscular expansions which cover them ; and the
fluid, thus compelled to escape by the narrow crescentic
aperture, is projected to a height corresponding to the
force of the pressure." Intimately connected with
respiration — or rather, we should say, with the power
of remaining under water for a considerable length of
time without respiring — we find a special reservoir for
arterialized blood ; not formed however, by any unusual
enlargement of the arterial, trunks, but by a remarkable
extension of certain small arteries which are twisted upon
CETACEA. MAMMALIA.-
195
themselves in various directions. Often have we gazed
upon this rete mirabile, as it is called, with astonishment ;
and although it has been figured by several authors, and
especially by Breschet, from whose memoir the an-
nexed cut is given, none of these representations
fully portray the singularly complicated appearance
produced by these vascular tortuosities (fig. 77). This
structure was first accurately described and explained
by the celebrated John Hunter, who observes that
" the intercostal arteries divide into a vast number of
branches, which run in a serpentine course between the
pleura, ribs, and their muscles, making a thick substance,
somewhat similar to the spermatic artery in the bull.
These vessels everywhere lining the sides of the thorax,
pass in between the ribs near their articulation, and also
behind the ligamentous attachment of the ribs, and
anastomose with each other. The medulla spinalis is
surrounded with a network of arteries in the same man-
Intercostal arterial plexus or ' rete mirabile
(Phocsena communis).
ner, more especially where it comes out from the brain,
while a thick substance is formed by their ramifica-
tions and convolutions ; and these vessels most probably
anastomose with those of the thorax. The subclavian
artery in the Piked whale, before it passes over the
first rib, sends down into the chest arteries which assist
in forming the plexus on the inside of the ribs. I am
not certain but the internal mammary arteries contri-
bute to form the anterior part of this plexus. The
motion of the blood in such cases must be very slow."
He also adds: — " The descending aorta sends off the
intercostals which are very large, and gives branches to
this plexus ; and when it has reached the abdomen, it
sends off, as in the quadruped, the different branches to
the viscera and the lumbar arteries, which are likewise
very large, for the supply of that vast mass of muscles
which moves the tail." As regards the function ot
this vascular apparatus, it is evidently connected with
the power which whales have of remaining under water
for a long period without coming to the surface, some
species having been known, when harpooned, to be
submerged for an hour and a half at a time. Co-ordi-
nating with the habits of these animals, we also find
peculiar modifications of the digestive organs. In the
true whales, numerous plates of baleen are developed
from the upper jaw. These laminae of horny substance,
or whalebone, as it is commonly termed, are essentially
developments of the cuticular layer of the skin. As
their special function is to entangle within their layers
various medusae and small molluscous animals, the
lower or depending end of each plate is split up into a
multitude of fibres, which, acting like a sieve, render
their chance of escape the more hopeless; upwards of
three hundred such baleen plates occurring on either
side of the upper jaw in the common mysticete. The
throat of the whale is comparatively small, and conse-
quently adapted only for the passage of minute animals;
in order, therefore, to obtain sufficient food to nourish
its bulky frame, it is evident that millions of creatures
must be hourly swallowed. The whale having come
upon a swarm of molluscs, or pteropods such as the
little Clio borealis, multitudes are immediately en-
tangled in the baleen ; and when a sufficient number
have accumulated, the enormous tongue is raised for-
wards and upwards, and thus by one fell swoop of this
organ, the unsuspecting mass are hurled backwards
towards the gullet, the water strained from them at the
same time escaping upwards through the blow-hole in
the form of a conspicuous jet cTeau. Although the full-
grown mysticetes are supplied with these horny plates
for the prehension of their peculiar food, it is not true
to say that they have no teeth at any stage of their
existence; for, in the foetal condition, as the indepen-
dent researches of Geoffrey St. Hilaire, Eschricht, and
Goodsir have shown, and as we have had an opportunity
of witnessing, the lower jaw is furnished with numerous
distinct dental sacs, each of which contains the rudi-
ments of a separate tooth.' Here again, therefore, we
observe a remarkable conformity to type, in the rudi-
mental development of organs, which, as they can never
be required in after life, are consequently never brought
to a state of perfection! Consistently with other
peculiarities of their organisation, the stomachs of the
Cetacea are all more or less complicated. Differences
of opinion exist as to the degree of complexity in
various species, but on the whole they do not depart
materially from that which has often been described,
aud which we have ourselves observed to obtain in the
common porpoise. In this species — as also in the
white whale, from which the annexed cut (fig. 78) is
taken — the organ consists of lour distinct cavities; but
in respect of relative bulk and function, it cannot in
any measure be said to correspond with the multiple
stomach of the ruminating quadrupeds. These com-
partments communicate with each other continuously,
and are not supplied with special reservoirs, reticula-
tions, or laminae, such as are observable in the ruminant
196
CETACEA. MAMMALIA.-
stomach, neither is there any inter-communicating
channel common to the three first cavities, by which
the aforesaid function could be maintained. In the
accompanying figure A represents the oesophagus, B, C,
D, and E the four stomachal compartments, P the
duodenum. The only approach to any unusual exten-
sion of the internal secreting membrane, is such as
is gained by the presence of numerous rugae or foldings,
which are more or less irregularly disposed throughout
the entire compartments. Of the other circumstances
in connection with the alimentary canal which call for
particular attention, are those which refer to the great
length of the intestinal tube, and to the presence or
absence of a ccecum. Most of the spouting whales
Fig 78.
Compound stomach of the White Whale (Beluga Catodon).
have no coecum, but this appendage is present in
the mysticete and in the piked whale. The chylo-
poietic viscera exhibit several peculiarities of form
which need uot be dwelt upon ; but we may remark,
in passing, the entire absence of any gall-bladder
in the zoophagous species, whilst it is present in
the herbivorous forms. The reproductive organs are
largely developed, the mammae of the female being
placed in the inguinal region in the true whales and
dolphins, and in the pectoral region in the phytopha-
gous manatees and dugongs. The circulatory system
has already, in part, engaged our attention, but the
contemplation of such a marvellous machinery in these
bulky creatures deserves some further comment. The
amount of muscular pressure required to propel the life
stream from the voluminous cavities of the heart of a
rorqual is something well calculated to excite the
astonishment of any one possessing the slightest ac-
quaintance with the principles of hydraulic power.
The main arterial trunk of the spermaceti whale has a
circumferential measurement of at least three feet, "and
when," says the illustrious John Hunter, " we consider
these as applied to the circulation, and figure to our-
selves that probably ten or fifteen gallons of blood are
thrown out at one stroke, and move with an immense
velocity through a tube of a foot diameter, the whole
idea fills the mind with wonder." Generally speaking,
the form of the heart is precisely similar to that of
other mammals, but in the phytophagous dugong the
apex of the heart is deeply cleft, so that the ventricles
are partly detached from one another. In regard to
the venous system, it should also be noted that its
arrangements, in some parts, are even more plexiform
than obtains in the arteries. This is particularly seen
in the branches of the great anterior vena cava, and
more especially in the veins which surround the spinal
cord; whilst another still more interesting peculiarity
connected with this system, is, that scarcely any of the
veins are furnished with valves internally.
All these conditions are admirably adapted to
the suboceanic habits of the cetaceans, and
taken in connection with other structures yet to
be described, manifestly indicate evidences ot
harmonious design. We allude here principally
to the character of the dermal and subcutaneous
investment of the body. This consists essen-
tially of the same elements which enter into the
composition of the hide of ordinary quadrupeds ;
but nearly all trace of hares or bristles have
disappeared in the zoophagous species, these
structures being represented only in the embry-
onic condition of dolphins and in adult whales,
by a few bristles attached to the anterior part
of the upper or lower jaws. In some species
the cuticle is rather thin, but in others it
attains a remarkable development, and we have
observed it to be upwards of an inch in thick-
ness in the great rorqual. In like manner the
corium acquires remarkable density and strength,
passing gradually into a fatty tissue, which is
commonly called the blubber, and which varies
in quantity in different species, being in some
found only a few inches thick, and in others
surrounding the muscles to the depth of a foot and
a half or even two feet below the cuticular surface.
The larger kinds of whale are capable of yielding
upwards of twenty tons of oil, and as the oil is
worth about £30 per ton, the "whale fishery," as
it is erroneously termed, proves a very lucrative
trade. Upwards of twenty thousand tons are annually
brought to this country by British whalers, notwith-
standing the Americans and other nations have vastly
increased the competition of late years. "In 1821,"
says the late Professor Edward Forbes, " the British
whale fishery employed one hundred and fifty-nine
ships, but the decline of the northern fisheries has
reduced their number to the half. We are compen-
sated for this, however, in the energy and success with
which our Australian colonies are joining in the busi-
ness; and the rich source of blubbery wealth which
the north once was, the south now promises to be. At
present we are beaten in whaling by our American
cousins; but the great advantages presented by the
proximity of Australia and the Auckland Isles to the
southern whaling grounds, are giving us a fresh start, of
which we will not be slow to avail ourselves. In 1844
the American whaling fleet numbered no fewer than
CETACEA. MAMMALIA.
197
six hundred and fifty vessels, tonnage two hundred
thousand tons, and manned by seventeen thousand five
hundred men. In 1848 the number was slightly under
this estimate, though including one-tenth of the entire
shipping of the United States. The social importance
of this fishery will be at once appreciated, when it is
stated that, about twenty years ago, it was estimated
that as many as seventy thousand persons in the United
States derived their chief employment and subsistence,
in one way or another, from the whale fisheries ; and
the number so deeply interested in them must be even
greater at present. Other countries, besides Britain
and America, have but a small share of these profits :
some sixty or seventy vessels from French, German,
and Danish ports, make up the number of whalers. It
must not be forgotten, however, that the indefatigable
Hollanders had at one time a lion's share of the whole
fishery to themselves— as long ago as 1680 there were
fully two hundred and sixty ships, and fourteen thou-
sand Dutchmen employed in the trade — nor that the
first professional whalemen and original harpooners
were Biscayans."
We have thus diverted somewhat from the im-
mediate subject-matter of our description, in order
to convey some adequate idea of the immense quan-
tities of oil yielded by the Cetacea, which in pro-
portion to the blubber itself, is as three to four. Most
of the oil is derived from this source, but it should
also be mentioned that the cellular tissue of the tongue
and the interior of the large bones, especially those of
the lower jaw, likewise contain a large quantity of oil.
The fatty matter termed spermaceti, which is found
only in a particular group of whales, is derived chiefly
from the head of these animals. According to John
Hunter, " the purest spermaceti is in the smallest and
least ligamentous cells ; it lies above the nostril, all along
the upper part of the head, immediately under the skin
and adipose membrane. These cells resemble those
which contain the common fat in the other parts of the
body nearest the skin. That which lies above the roof
of the mouth, or between it and the nostril, is more
intermixed with a ligamentous cellular membrane, and
lies in chambers whose partitions are perpendicular.
These chambers are smaller the nearer to the nose,
becoming larger and larger towards the back part of the
head, where the spermaceti is more pure. This sper-
maceti, when extracted cold, had a good deal the
appearance of the internal structure of a water melon,
and is found in rather solid lumps." Chemically speak-
ing, it closely resembles the substance termed choles-
terine, and like it, after being melted, concretes into
thin crystalline laminte of a silvery hue and peculiar
greasy feel. In addition to these matters there is yet
another substance found in the intestines of Cetacea,
which, though not much sought after, is nevertheless
of considerable value. This is ambergris. It is a
concretionary formation, of a mottled, greyish colour ;
and when split open, it is found to contain a large num-
ber of the horny beak-like processes of cuttle-fishes,
derived from the cephalopodous molluscs, on which the
spermaceti whales delight to feed. It has a peculiar
strong, diffusible odour, and when pure is soft and
waxy on section ; chemically speaking, it consists of a
fatty substance or principle termed ambreine. Amber-
gris is used to impart an agreeable flavour to certain
wines, and one or two grains, mixed and triturated with
sugar, is sufficient to flavour a hogshead of claret.
The special organs of sense in Cetacea are constructed
on the same plan as those of terrestrial quadrupeds,
but, nevertheless, exhibit several peculiarities adapted
to their aquatic habits. These are particularly notice-
able in the organs of hearing and vision. Externally
there is no auricular appendage, and the meatus audi-
torius is only represented by a very small aperture,
scarcely large enough to admit the introduction of a
small crow-quill. Internally, the essential part of
the auditory apparatus, including the ossicles, are
invested by an osseous framework distinct from the
ordinary bones of the cranium which inclose the
organs of hearing in other Mammalia. The osseous
capsule consists of two distinct portions inclosing the
labyrinth and tympanum. The tympanic bone is
particularly hard, and very largely developed, having
commonly a more or less kidney-shaped outline. This
part is usually called the ear-bone, and owing to its
density and power of resisting decay and disintegration,
we find it very perfectly preserved in the tertiary
marine deposits along the Suffolk coast, where multi-
tudes of them are found associated with other water-
worn osseous fragments in the phosphatic pseudo-
coprolitic beds. Some specimens in our possession,
evidently belonging to a species of porpoise, are very
highly silicified, the petrous or labyrinthic bone remain-
ing in situ, and displaying very clearly the spiral
groove of the cochlea and the semicircular canals. As
to the capacity of hearing enjoyed by Cetacea, much
difference of opinion exists — the excellent authority,
Scoresby, averring that they are not roused even by
the report of a cannon; whilst others, who have also
been engaged in whale-fishery expeditions, state that
their powers both of hearing and vision are sufficiently
acute to render the approach of the harpoonerb at all
times difficult and sometimes unsuccessful. The eye
is chiefly remarkable for the great thickness of its
external or sclerotic coat, an arrangement calculated to
maintain in its integrity the ellipsoid form of the crys-
talline lens and vitreous humour, which would otherwise
yield to the pressure of the aqueous medium in which
the animal swims. Ordinary whales have no true
lachrymal glands, but these organs are present in the
herbivorous cetacea, which latter are also furnished
with a third eyelid or nictitating membrane. The brain
of all the Cetacea is well formed, and provided with
numerous convolutions. Though of large size in itself,
it is remarkably small as compared with the bulk of the
body, representing by weight in the common mysticete
only the. one three-thousandth part of the entire ani-
mal. The cerebellum is comparatively bulky ; whilst,
of the nerves which proceed from the base of the
brain, the most remarkable are those which pass to the
organ of hearing — their conspicuity being especially
manifested in the dolphins.
198
BAL.ENID.E. MAMMALIA.
5AL.EXID.E.
FAMILY I.— BALDENED M.
This family consists of the true whales, which are
distinguished from the cachalots, the dolphins, and the
herbivorous cetacea, by the possession of plates of
whalebone, or more properly baleen, depending from
the palatal region of the upper jaw. They have no true
teeth, although, as we have seen, there are tooth-sacs
developed in the lower jaw of the embryonic mysticete.
The true whales are further recognized by their prepos-
terously large heads, which in some of the species
extend to one-third of the entire length of the body.
The nostrils are distinct and longitudinally disposed on
the crown of the head. The mammary glands are
placed in the inguinal region— an arrangement which
also obtains in the cachalots and dolphins. The
intestine is furnished with a coecum.
THE MYSTICETE (Balcena mysticetus), or common
Whalebone whale— Plate 28, fig. 89— is also known as
the Greenland whale, and in Dr. Gray's catalogue of
the Cetacea preserved in the British Museum it is called
the Right whale — this term being also applied to the
Cape whale (Balcena australis) by the South Sea
whalers. Our best accounts of the Greenland whale are
all more or less derived from the Rev. Dr. Scoresby's
" Journal of a Voyage to the Northern Whale-fishery,"
and from a paper in the first volume of the Wernerian
Society's Transactions, from which the following de-
scription is abridged. When full grown this species is
from fifty to sixty-five feet in length, and from thirty to
forty in circumference, immediately before the fins. It
is thickest a little behind the fins, and from thence gra-
dually tapers towards the tail, and slightly towards the
neck. It is cylindrical from the neck, until near
about the junction of the tail and the body, where it
becomes ridged. The head has a triangular shape.
The bones of the head are very porous, and full of a
fine kind of oil. When the oil is drained out, the bone
is so light as to swim hi water. The jaw-bones are
from twenty to twenty-five feet in length, and the space
between them is about ten feet from side to side. The
tongue is of great size, and yields upwards of a ton
of oil ; and the h'ps, which are placed at right angles to
the flat part of the base of the head, yield fully double
that amount. The palatal laminae of baleen are not
of equal length; neither are the largest exactly in
the middle of the series, but somewhat nearer the
throat ; from this point they become gradually shorter
each way. On each side of the mouth are about two
hundred laminae of whalebone. They are not perfectly
flat; for, besides the longitudinal curvature, they are
curved transversely. The largest laminae are from ten
to fourteen feet in length, very rarely fifteen feet. The
breadth of the largest at the thick ends, or where they
are attached to the jaw, is about a foot. The Green-
laud fishers estimate the size of the whale by the length
of the whalebone; and when the baleen is six feet
long, then the whale is said to be a size fish. In
suckers, or young whales still under the protection of
the mother, the whalebone is only a few inches long.
It is immediately covered by the under h'ps, the edge
of which, when the mouth is shut, overlap the upper
part. The colour of the hide is black, grey, and white,
with a tinge of yellow about the lower part of the head.
The back, upper region of the head, most of the belly,
the fins, tail, and part of the under jaw, are deep velvet-
black. The anterior aspect of the lower jaw, and a
portion of the abdomen are white ; the narrow portion
near the junction of the tail being greyish. The skin
of suckers has a pale bluish tint. The cuticle or scarf-
skin is only as thick as ordinary parchment, whilst the
true skin is from three-fourths to an inch in thickness
all over the body. The Greenland whale is not pro-
vided with a dorsal fin. The flippers, which are situated
about two feet behind the angle of the jaws, measure
nine feet in length, and rather more than half the same
amount in breadth. The tail is compressed, semilunate,
notched at the centre, and sometimes as much as
twenty feet in breadth.
Notwithstanding the many exaggerated statements to
the contrary, the Greenland whale seldom or ever exceeds
fifty-eight or sixty feet in length. It is a slow swimmer,
going at the rate of four miles an hour, though when har-
pooned, it is said to dive perpendicularly downwards at a
speed of seven knots an hour. It occasionally ascends
with sufficient force to throw itself entirely out of the
water. It seldom remains submerged longer than
twenty or thirty minutes, and when it rises again to the
surface, it will remain there about the same time if not
disturbed. In calm weather it is wont to sleep in this
situation. One of the most moving and painful sights
which can be imagined, is witnessed when the whale-
fisher strikes a sucker, in order to secure its dam ;
whilst to say nothing of the unnecessary cruelty, it is
more than probable that this inhuman practice entails
serious injury to the fishery business, by greatly dimin-
ishing the chances of future success. According to the
testimony of Scoresby, " the young is frequently struck
for the sake of its mother, which will soon come up close
by it, encourage it to swim off, assist it by taking it under
its fin, and seldom deserts it while life remains. It is
then very dangerous to approach, as she loses all
regard for her own safety in anxiety for the preserva-
tion of her cub, dashing about most violently, and not
dreading to rise even amidst the boats. Except,
however, when the whale has young to protect, the
male is in general more active and dangerous than
the female." The period of gestation is believed to
extend over a space of about ten months. In addition
to its powerful and relentless human adversary, the
Mysticete has to contend with other enemies, such as
the shark, the thrasher, and the sword-fish. It is itself,
however, a great destroyer of life ; its principal food
consisting of shoals of a small pteropodous mollusc, spe-
cifically known as the Clio borealis. Although the
aperture of the throat is scarcely sufficient to admit the
introduction of an ordinary hen's egg, yet to satisfy so
prodigious a bulk of body, it is evident that myriads of
these little creatures must go to form a single meal —
and if so, what must be the annual consumption of this
huge monster of the deep? Well may Mr. Darwin
argue that for every animal which passes through a full
cycle of its life, ten thousand perish ere they have
reached maturity! Into details respecting the perils
encountered by those embarked in the whale fishery,
MAMMALIA.-
./ATODONTID.f:.
199
we cannot here enter. Full particulars are given in
Dr. Scoresby's work. Let it suffice us to observe that
between the years 1669 and 1778 the Dutch sent
14,167 ships to the shores of Greenland, and of these
561 were wrecked, no less than 73 having been lost
in a single season.
The Greenland whale has occasionally strayed to
the northern shores of Scotland and the Zetland Isles;
those that have run aground being always found in a
very impoverished condition. Even in this state, the
monster was in olden times deemed a " Royal fish,"
and according to Pennant, or the still more authorita-
tive Commentaries of Blackstone, when the whale was
accidentally cast ashore the reigning monarchs divided
the spoil — " the king asserting his right to the head,
her majesty to the tail !"
Of other whales belonging to the genus Balsena, we
have only space to particularize the following : — The
western Australian whale (B. marginata) which is fur-
nished with very long and slender baleen; the New
Zealand whale, or Tuku Peru (B. antarctica) which
attains a length of sixty feet; the Cape whale (B.
"ustralis] which is also an inhabitant of the southern
ocean and of a uniformly deep black colour ; the Japa-
nese whale (B. japonica) which is very imperfectly
known; and the Scrag whale (E. gibbosa) an Atlantic
species, which is characterized by the possession of a
series of knob-like protuberances along the middle line
of the hinder region of the back, forming a sort of tran-
sition to the fin-backed whales. The genus Megaptera
is, indeed, closely allied to the above species, and follow-
ing the classification and nomenclature adopted by Dr.
J. E. Gray in his synopsis of the cetacean families
contained in the British Museum, we have further to
indicate the principal members of the hump-backed
genus, there specified, as follows : — Johnston's Hump-
backed whale (Megaptera longimana) which is a com-
mon inhabitant of the northern seas — Dr. Johnston of
Berwick described it from a specimen accidentally
thrown ashore at Newcastle ; the Bermuda Hump-
back (M. Americana), whose head is covered with
tubercles or nodulations, the hide being black above
and whitish underneath; the Cape Hump -back or
Poeskop (M. Poxkop); and the Kuzira (M. Kuzira\
the latter being found off the coasts of Japan. The
genus Balcenoptera is represented by a single species
commonly known as the Pike whale (Balcenoptera
rostrata}. A great deal of confusion, however, still
exists in reference to this species and until the
points are more satisfactorily cleared up, we are
scarcely in a position to describe it with confidence.
According to Dr. Gray, it is identical with the Ror-
qualus Boops of F. Cuvier. It is an inhabitant of
the northern seas, and has a black colour above,
being reddish-white underneath the belly. A speci-
men is said to have been captured in the Thames near
Deptford, but this example has been considered, by
several authorities, only as a young example of the
Great Northern Rorqual. Dr. Collingwood in his
admirable little " Fauna of Blackheath and its vicinity,"
has recorded the circumstance as follows : — " On Sun-
day, October 23, 1842, a "whale was observed in the
Thames opposite Deptford Creek. Five men put off in
a boat, and attacked it with a large bearded spear; and
having pushed it immediately under Deptford Pier they
overcame and despatched it. Having by mechanical
appliances raised it upon the pier, its dimensions were
ascertained to be — total length 14 feet 6 inches; length
from nose to angle of mouth, 3 feet 10 inches; tail
from fork to fork, 3 feet 10 inches. A full account of
this whale is to be found in the Zoologist for 1842,
with a figure; also an account of its capture, with a
sketch of the animal, is to be seen in the Illustrated
London News, vol. i. p. 388." Similar difficulties
exist in regard to the determination of the specific
characters of the Great Northern Rorqual of Dr. Knox,
which, according to Dr. Gray, is identical with —
THE BAZOB-BACZ (Physalus Antiquorum) ; and
knowing the careful research which this eminent mam-
malogist has bestowed upon the subject, we shall assume
his determinations in this respect to be correct. We
have ourselves frequently examined the skeleton of Dr.
Knox's celebrated specimen, so satisfactorily preserved
and exhibited in the elephant-house of the Edinburgh
Zoological Gardens, and we can therefore testify to the
accuracy of the details given by the three eminent
authorities on comparative anatomy who dissected it.
Those who are interested in the details should consult
Dr. Knox's original description published in the Trans-
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1827, or
his more recent memoir— entitled "Contributions to
the Anatomy and Natural History of the Cetacea"—
recorded in the 3rd volume of the Journal of the Proceed
ings of the Linnsean Society. If Dr. Gray's views are
right, it would appear that the whale taken at Black
Gang Chine, Isle of Wight, in 1842, is also referable to
this species ; whilst the same may be said of specimens
taken both at Berwick and at Plymouth in 1831.
Another example was taken off the coast of Ostend in
the early part of the present century, and the skeleton
subsequently exhibited in London, near the King's
Mews, Charing Cross. The hide of the Razor-back
has a slarish - grey colour, being whitish underneath ;
the under border of the baleen, which is short, is
blackish, the inner edge .being pale-streaked. It is an
inhabitant of the northern ocean. Respecting its habits,
Mr. Bell remarks, that they "are different from those of
the common whale. It is less quiet and tranquil in its
general movements, seldom lying motionless on the
surface of the water whilst blowing, but making way at
the rate of about five miles an hour. When struck,
the velocity of its descent is such as very frequently to
break the line, of which Captain Scoresby mentions
several instances." It is very doubtful if this species
ever attains a length of upwards an hundred feet,
though examples have been recorded which were only
few feet short of this measurement.
Dr. Gray has given the scientific appellation of
Physalus Boops to a form which he considers quite dis-
tinct from the above, and which we may therefore
more simply particularize as Gray's Fin-back whale.
A specimen of this whale was captured off the Welsh
coast in the year 1846, and it is now preserved in the
British Museum under the above title. It is thirty-
eight feet in length, has sixty vertebra, and fifteen pairs
of ribs. The head alone measures nine feet in length.
200
CATODONTID.E.-
-MAMMALIA.
JATODONTID.E.
Several other species of the genus Physalus are indi-
cated in the Museum catalogue.
FAMILY II.— CATODONTDXaE.
The members of this family are sometimes described
under the synonymous and equally distinctive title of
Physeteridae, which includes the cachalot or sperma-
cetes, and the short-headed whales. These animals have
the nostrils separate and longitudinally disposed ; their
palate is smooth and destitute of baleen ; whilst a still
more characteristic feature is seen in the presence of
numerous large conical teeth in the lower jaw (fig. 79),
the upper jaw being edentulous, or furnished with mere
rudiments of teeth beneath the gums. The head,
though comparatively short in some, is enormously
developed. The intestine has no coacum.
THE NORTHERN SPERM WHALE (Catodon macro-
cephalus), or COMMON CACHALOT — Plate 27, fig. 87 — is
also known as the Blunt-headed Cachalot, and the Sper-
maceti whale ; generically, it is at once recognized by its
elongated head, which is abruptly truncated anteriorly,
the blowers being placed near the extremity of the snout,
and the dorsal hump is rounded. In its native haunts,'
this huge monster is found in the northern seas, but
Fig- 79
Jaw-bone of the Cachalot (Catodon macrocephalus).
it occasionally visits our own shores. An example was
cast ashore on Cramond island, in the Frith of Forth,
on the 22d of December, 1796 ; its length was fifty-
four feet, and the greatest circumference, at a point
immediately beyond the eyes, thirty feet ; the upper
jaw being ascertained to be five feet longer than the
lower, which measured ten feet, and was provided with
twenty-three teeth on either side. The largest tooth
was eight inches long, its circumferential measurement
being the same. It was described and accurately
figured by Mr. James Robertson, in the 60th volume of
the Philosophical Transactions. The occurrence of
the Cachalot on the shores of the Orkney and Zetland
islands is by no means a rare circumstance, but it is
very seldom taken on the English coasts. That it does
occasionally visit our shores, has been satisfactorily
shown by Dr. Collingwood, to whom naturalists are
indebted — to use his own words — for resuscitating " a
still-bom record of the Spermaceti whale," which he
found in a document contained in Sir Joseph Banks'
copy of the Philosophical Transactions in the British
Museum. It is entitled an " Extract from a letter
from Walberswick, on the coast of Suffolk, dated
March 7, 1788," and runs as follows : — " A whale
appearing on our coast ie a rare phenomenon. The
most extraordinary instance that ever happened of this
sort was in February, 1763, after a hard gale of wind
northerly, when no lesa than twelve whales, which
undoubtedly came out of the Northern Ocean, were
towed and driven on shore at the following places, all
of them dead, and in a high state of putrefaction,
excepting one." This notable exception was " one at
Hope Point, in the River Thames. This was the only
one seen alive. He ran aground and smothered him-
self in the mud, and was afterwards made a show of in
the Greenland Docks. These were all of the sperma-
ceti kind, and of the male gender ;" "and it is remark-
able," adds Dr. Collingwood, " that out of the twelve,
(or rather ten, for two stranded on the Dutch coast,)
six were found upon the coast of Kent. From an old
engraving of the above specimen in my possession, to
which a scale is attached, it appears to have been near
sixty feet long. Within a much more recent period,
a small Cachalot was captured in the Thames, near
Gravesend, but I am not in possession of any particu-
lars of the event." The Cachalot is gregarious in its
habits, large multitudes of them herding together. By
the South Sea whalers they are termed "schools;" some-
times all consisting of females, and at other of males
not fully grown. One or two large " bulls," or " school-
masters," as they are ridiculously termed, usually
accompany the female herds, and Mr. Beale reckons
that he has seen as many as six hundred individuals of
the southern species in a single school ! The female
is comparatively small, and produces one, and some-
times two young, at a birth. The two recorded by
M. F. Cuvier, which were brought forth by a whale
stranded on the French coast, near D'Audierne, were
each about ten feet in length. The young are of a
deep black colour, and mottled with whitish spots.
THE SOUTHERN SPERM WHALE (Catodon poly-
cyphus) very closely resembles the northern species,
both in respect of its size and habits. It has the same
large head and characteristic jaws, the lower being
lodged in a groove of the upper, whilst the crowns of
the teeth fit into corresponding socket-like cavities, so
as to be entirely concealed when the mouth is closed.
The southern Sperm whale, or Cachalot, occasionally
attains a length of seventy or eighty feet, and a specimen
has been minutely described by Mr. Beale which mea-
sured eighty-four feet. The skin is usually smooth and
dark coloured, almost black ; but piebald varieties occur,
as well as other differences in the depth of shading. " Old
bulls," says Mr. Beale in his work on the Sperm whale,
" have generally a portion of grey on the nose, imme-
diately above the fore-part of the upper jaw, when they
are said to be grey-headed." The same authority
observes that the head — which we stated in our introduc-
tory observations to contain a large quantity of oil — is
" specifically lighter than any other part of the body,
and will always have a tendency to rise at least so far
above the surface as to elevate the nostril or blow-hole
sufficiently for all purposes of respiration ; and, more
than this, a very slight effort on the part of the whale
would only be necessary to raise the whole of the
anterior flat surface of the nose out of the water. At
very regular intervals of time, the snout emerges, and
from the extremity of the nose the spout is thrown up,
and at a distance appears thick, low, bushy, and white.
It is formed of the expired air, forcibly ejected through
the blow-hole, and acquires its white colour from
1
CATODOXTID.E MAMMALIA. DELPHIXID.E.
201
minute particles of water previously lodged in the chink
or fissure of the nostril, and also from the condensation
of the aqueous vapour thrown off by the lungs. The
spout is projected at an angle of 136°, in a slow and
continuous manner, for about three minutes, and may
be seen from the mast-head in favourable weather at
the distance of four or five miles. When the whale is
alarmed or " gallied," the spout is thrown much higher
with great rapidity, and differs much from its usual
appearance. Immediately after each spout the nose
sinks beneath the water, scarcely a second intervening
for the act of inspiration, which must consequently be
performed very quickly, the air rushing into the chest
with astonishing velocity. There is, however, no sound
caused by inspiration, and very little by expiration, in
this species ; in short, nothing of that loud noise called
the "draw-back" in the finback and other whales. Ten
seconds is occupied by a large bull sperm whale in
making one inspiration and one expiration ; during six
of these the nostril is beneath the water. At each
breathing time the whale makes from sixty to seventy
expirations, and remains, therefore, at the surface ten
or eleven minutes. When the breathing time is over,
or, as the whalers term it, he has his " spoutings out,"
the head sinks slowly; the " small," or the part between
the " hump" and the " flukes," appears above the water,
curved with the convexity upwards ; the flukes are then
lifted high into the a,ir, and the animal having assumed
a straight position, descends perpendicularly to an un-
known depth. This last act is called "pecking the
flukes," and those who are on the look-out call loudly
when they see it — " There goes flukes." The whale
continues thus hidden beneath the surface for one
hour and ten minutes ; some will remain an hour and
twenty minutes, and others only for one hour ; but
these are rare exceptions. Mr. Beale gives us very
graphic accounts of the mode of capturing the Sperm
whale, which, when excited, seems to be a truly
formidable antagonist. Perhaps, however, the most
stirring incident, amongst the many daring encounters
which have from time to time been recorded, is that
given by the Eev. Henry T. Cheever, in his little work
entitled " The Whaleman's Adventures in the Southern
Ocean," which is edited by that distinguished naviga-
tor and cetaceologist, the Rev. Dr. Scoresby. Thus
runs the terrible story : — " The most dreadful display
of the whale's strength and prow'ess yet authentically
recorded, was that made upon the American whale ship
Essex, Captain Pollard, which sailed from Nantucket
for the Pacific Ocean in August, 1819. Late in the
fall of the same year, when in latitude 40° of the South
Pacific, a school of sperm whales was discovered, and
three boats were manned and sent in pursuit. The
mate's boat was struck by one of them, and he was
obliged to return to the ship, in order to repair the
damage. While he was engaged in that work, a Sperm
whale, judged to be eighty-five feet long, broke water
about twenty rods from the ship, on her weather bow.
He was going at the rate of about three knots an hour,
and the ship at nearly the same rate, when he struck
the bows of the vessel, just forward of her chains. At
the shock produced by the collision of two such mighty
masses of matter in motion, the ship shook like a leaf.
Vol.. I
The seemingly malicious whale dived and passed under
the ship, grazing her keel, and then appeared at about
the distance of a ship's length, lashing the sea with fins
and tail, as if suffering the most horrible agony. He
was evidently hurt by the collision, and blindly frantic
with instinctive rage. In a few minutes he seemed to
recover himself, and started with great speed directly
across the vessel's course to windward. Meanwhile the
hands on board discovered the ship to be gradually
settling down at the bows, and the pumps were ordered
to be rigged. While working at them, one of the men
cried out—" God have mercy ! he comes again !" The
whale had turned at about one hundred rods from the
ship, and was making for her with double his former
speed ; his pathway white with foam. Rushing head
on, he struck her again at the bow, and the tremendous
blow stove her in. The whale dived under again and
disappeared, and the ship filled and fell over on her
broadside, in ten minutes from the first collision. After
incredible hardships and sufferings in their open boats,
on the 20th December the survivors of this catastrophe
reached the low island called Ducies, in latitude 24° 40'
south, longitude 124° 40' west. It was a mere sand-
bank, nearly barren, which supplied them only with
water and, very scantily, sea-fowl. On this uninhabited
island, dreary as it was, three of the men chose to
remain, rather than again commit themselves to the
uncertainties of the sea. They have never since been
heard from, the island being seldom visited. On the
27th of December the three boats, with the remainder
of the men, put away together for the island of Juan
Fernandez, at a distance of two thousand miles. The
mate's boat was taken up by the Indian of London, on
the 19th of February, ninety-three days from the time
of the catastrophe, with only three survivors. The
captain's boat was fallen in with by the Dauphin of
Nantucket, on the 23rd of the same month, having only
two men living, -whose lives had been eked out only
through that last resort of hunger in the wretched, ,
which words shudder to relate ! Out of a crew of j
twenty, five only survived to make the ear of the world
tingle at their strange eventful story."
Several other forms of Cachalot exist, which are consi-
dered by Dr. Gray and others as entirely distinct species.
These are the Mexican Sperm Whale ( Catodon Colueti) ; j
the Short-headed Whale (Kogia breviceps) , which occurs
in the neighbourhood of the Cape ; and the Black-fish,
or High-finned Cachalot (PJiyseter Tursio), which is
undoubtedly distinct. This latter species, according to
the testimony of Mr. Barclay, communicated to Mr.
Bell, is frequently seen off the coasts of Zetland in sum-
mer. It was first described by Sir Robert Sibbald,
who compared its long perpendicular dorsal fin to the
mizen-mast of a ship. The specimen from which his
description was taken was cast ashore on the Orkney
isles in the year 1687.
FAMILY III.— DELPHINID^E.
Under this head naturalists have included a great
number and variety of cetacean species, which are col-
lectively recognized by their double rows of teeth, or, in
other words, by teeth in both jaws. They have smooth
2 C
202
DELPHIXID.E. MAMMALIA.-
-DEI.PI
palates, and the nostrils are united into a single, lunate,
transversely disposed blow-bole. In some species
the teeth are deciduous; in all they are simple in
structure, and of a more or less conical form ; the head
is likewise of moderate size. The intestinal canal is
not furnished with a coccum.
THE BOTTLE-HEAD (Hyperoodon Butzlcopf) is an
inhabitant of the north sea, and occasionally makes its
appearance on our shores. It is readily distinguished
by the attenuated character of the fore-part of the
muzzle, which is prolonged so as to resemble a beak,
and was, in consequence, termed the Beaked whale by
Pennant. The earliest account we have of its occur-
rence, is that given by Dale in his "History of Harwich,"
from a specimen taken off the coast, near Maldon, in
the year 1717. Its length was fourteen feet, the cir-
cumferenca of the body seven and a half; the flippers
being seventeen inches, and the dorsal fin a foot in
length. On this subject Dr. Collingwood makes the
following remark in his brochure previously cited: —
"In the Philosophical Trans, for 1737, in the paper by
Hunter ' On the structure and economy of whales,' is a
meagre account of bottle-nosed whales with two teeth,
with a figure of the animal. Hunter adds, that ' it was
caught above London bridge in the year 1783, and
became the property of the late Mr. Alderman Pugh,
who very politely allowed me to examine the structure,
and take away the bones. It was twenty-one feet
long.' Mr. Bell's figure is a reduced copy of our
whale as ; ven by John Hunter. Hunter was doubtful
of its speJ.:S, saying, that it resembled Delphinus Tur-
sio (the U 'tile-nosed dolphin), but was of a different
genus, 1 r ing only two teeth in the lower jaw, con-
cealed by the gum. The belly was white, shaded off
to the dark colour of the back. He, however, rightly
conjectured that it. was the species described by Dale
("Harwich," 411, pi. 14), viz. Hyperoodon Butzkopf,
and supposes it to have been a young one, as he men-
tions a skull which must have belonged to one thirty or
forty feet long." Dr. Collingwood has, we fear, in
the remaining part of his "note" confounded Dale's
and Hunter's specimens, and has called the editor of
Pennant to account for a discrepancy in respect of
measurement — himself altogether overlooking the cir-
cumstance, that Dale's specimen was stranded seventy
years before Hunter's example appeared in the Thames.
In our edition of Pennant (1776) the length of the
Maldon specimen is correctly given as fourteen feet,
and thus corresponds with the original description ; in
the edition to which Dr. Collingwood refers, it is given
as eleven feet, which is probably a misprint. In con-
clusion, we may observe, that a series of careful
dissections of another example of this rare and inter-
esting cetacean may be seen in the Anatomical Museum
of the University of Edinburgh.
THE NARWHAL (Monodon monosccros) — Plate 27,
fig. 86 — or Unicorn-whale, is readily distinguished by
its remarkable tusk-like tooth which projects several
feet in a horizontal direction from the left side of the
upper jaw ; the tooth of the opposite side being imper-
fectly developed, and remaining permanently concealed
within the alveolus. It is not certain whether these
teeth should be regarded as incisors or canines, as
their sockets are placed between the maxillary and
intermaxillary bones ; yet, from the circumstance of
the base of their roots being somewhat in front of the
inciso-maxillary suture, we incline to the persuasion
that they are incisors. The left nostril is smaller than
the right. The colour of the adult Narwhal is dark
above, whitish and marbled at the sides, underneath ;
in young individuals the hide is uniformly black. The
Narwhal is a swift swimmer, and gregarious in its
habits; and as it feeds chiefly upon small molluscous
animals, it is difficult to say what is the express pur-
pose of the large tusk. According to Dr. Scoresby, it
is employed to destroy large fishes, such as skates and
turbot, specimens of this whale having been found to
contain the remains of such fishes in then* stomachs.
The Greenland missionary, Mr. Egede, a translation
of whose work was published in London in 1745,
stated that the tusk is used in piercing ice for the
purpose of enabling the creatures to obtain fresh air,
without always seeking the open water. Others regard it
simply as a weapon of offence and defence, and many
exaggerated accounts of its powers in this respect have
been recorded by Lacepede and others. The ivory
of the tusk is very white and dense, and capable of
yielding a high polish. Lacepede, in his "Histoire
Naturelle des Cetacees," gives a figure of the head
of a Narwhal in which both of the teeth were devel-
oped to nearly equal length. The quality of the oil
obtained from the blubber is superior, and the flesh is
much prized by the Greenlanders. Several instances
have been recorded of this animal's appearance on our
shores. The first is that described by Tulpius in 1648,
the specimen being twenty-two feet long. Another was
thrown on the Lincolnshire coast, near Boston, in 1800,
and a third was found close by the shore, at the entrance
of the sound of AVeesdale in Zetland, on the morning
of the 27th of September, 1808. The last specimen Avas
most carefully anatomized by Dr. Fleming of Edinburgh,
who was then minister of Bressay, and who afterwards
communicated a minute description to the "Wernerian
Society, which is published in the first volume of the
Transactions, p. 131, with three accompanying figures.
The animal measured only twelve feet from the snout
to the notch which divides the tail. The flippers were
fifteen inches in length ; the tusk measured only
thirty-nine inches; and, as in others, was spirally
grooved or twisted, and striated externally from right
to left, tapering to a blunt and solid point. The oil
yielded by this example was of inferior quality. Dr.
Fleming expressed an opinion that there might be
two species of Narwhals, viz., the common and the
small-headed — referring the example in question to the
latter. Respecting the Lincolnshire specimen which
was taken at the village of Frieston, near Boston, Sir
Joseph Banks, in a letter to Dr. Fleming, observes :
— " The animal when found, had buried the whole
of its body in the mud of which the beach is there
composed, and seemed safely and securely waiting the
return of the tide. A fisherman going to his boat saw
the horn, which was covered up, and trying to pull it
out of the mud, raised the animal, who stirred himself
hastily to 'secure his horn from the attack " Although
Sir Joseph Banks communicated similar particulars to
DELPIIIXID.K. MAMMALIA.
203
Lacepede, the French naturalist afterwards carelessly
stated in his well-known work that the specimen was
captured at Boston in America ; and Mr. Shaw in his
" British Miscellany," actually represented this cele-
brated Lincolnshire specimen, with two fully developed
teeth ! Strange errors !
THE NOBTHEBN BELUGA (Beluga Catodoii) or
White whale, derives its name from the uniformly
white colour of the skin. It is an inhabitant of the
northern seas generally, being especially numerous off
the coast of Greenland, in Hudson's Bay and Davis
Strait. The Northern Beluga forms a very striking
object, and is remarkable for its elegant symmetry and
activity. According to Scoresby it is not at all shy,
but often follows ships, herding in numbers to the
extent of forty or fifty individuals, which are seen
gracefully tumbling above and below the ocean's sur-
face. Two examples have been captured off the
British coast. One of these was seen in the Medway
as recently as 1846, and it was subsequently shot near
Upnor castle. It measured rather more than thirteen
feet in length. The other was killed in the Frith of
Forth, near Stirling, on the 6th June 1815. A full
account of this specimen (fig. 80) is given by Dr. Bar-
clay and Mr. Xeil in the third volume of the "Wernerian
Society's Transactions, and the skin may be seen, beau-
tifully preserved, in the Natural History Museum of the
Edinburgh University. On the authority of Mr. Bald
of Alloa, Mr. Neill informs us, " that the animal gene-
rally passed upwards when the tide was flowing, and
returned down the frith with the ebb ; this sometimes
happened every day, and sometimes once in two or
three days; it came frequently to the surface, and was
well known for about three months by the nar e of the
white whale. It was supposed to run up tb 3 river in
pursuit of salmon, and it was at last killed " / the sal-
mon-fishers, near the Abbey of Cambuskenn .h. The
animal had been attacked both with fire-arms and
spears," and Dr. Barclay found one of the mu.sket balls
in the lungs. It was a male specimen, and measured
thirteen feet four inches in length. The flesh of the
Beluga is considered good eating by the Greenlanders,
whilst the oil is still more highly extolled. Neither the
male nor the female exhibit any dorsal fin. The clam
usually produces two young at a birth, the suckers
having at first a bluish-grey colour. The example shot
in the Medway was furnished with thirty-six teeth;
twenty in the upper, and sixteen in the lower jaw; but
The Northern Belnga (Belug* Catodon)
it would seem that the teeth of the upper jaw are deci-
duous in old individuals. In the Edinburgh specimen
there were thirty teeth, eighteen above and twelve
below.
THE COMMON PORPOISE (Phoccena communis) or
PORPESSE, is well known to the inhabitants of the
shores of our sea-girt islands. It is the most abundant
of all the Cetacea which visit our coasts. The hide
exhibits a uniformly deep -black colour, except along the
central line of the belly where it is whitish. A full-
grown Porpoise varies in length from five to eight feet.
In dissecting several examples, we have been particu-
larly struck with the immense length of the intestines,
and in one example, shot in the Frith of Forth, we found
five intestinal cestode worms, four of which measured
about ten feet each in length, besides others, parasites
in the lungs and li ver. These entozoa are described in
the 22nd volume of the Linnsean Society's Transac-
tions. Porpoises frequently travel some distance up
our rivers, and it is very interesting to watch their
playful antics as they tumble to and fro on the light fan-
tastic wave. They visit the Thames nearly every year,
and sometimes venture as far as London Bridge. Mr.
Bell records an interesting note of then- appearance
many years ago in the river Wareham, in Dorsetshire.
On one occasion, at the close of the year, two that were
taken in this river yielded sixteen gallons of oil. " One
of them was found to have milk, which some gentle-
men tasted, and pronounced to be salt and fishy. About
the same season, three years afterwards, three others
were driven up the river to the town of Wareham;
they were full-grown animals, all about the same size.
A fence was put across the river above and below
them, in order to retain them for exhibition ; but they
plunged so violently, and their cries — which they con-
tinued during the night as well as the day— were so
I 204
DELPHIXID.E MAMMALIA DELPHINID.E.
distressing, that after the third day of their captivity,
they were, like the former ones, taken from the water
and cut up." Porpoises sometimes herd in very large
numbers, and on these occasions commit terrible
havoc amongst shoals of herrings, mackerel, salmon,
&c. Our conception of their destructive powers is by
no means lessened when we consider the number and
form of their teeth (fig. 81) ; there being usually from
ninety to a hundred of these organs, from twenty to
twenty-five occurring on either side of each jaw, above
Fig. 81.
Skull of the Porpoise (Phocaena communis).
and below. They are somewhat flattened in form, their
crowns being also more or less knobed. The flesh is
esteemed a delicacy by the Greenlanders, and also by
the inhabitants of our western isles. In the time of
Henry VIII. and Elizabeth, it was considered a royal
fish, and appeared to be much relished by the courtiers
of then- day.
THE CAAING WHALE (Globiocephalus deductor).
— This species is also known as the BOUND-HEADED
PORPOISE, BOTTLE-HEAD, SOCIAL WHALE, HOWLING
WHALE, BLACK WHALE, and in the catalogue of the
British Museum is given as the PILOT WHALE (G.
Soineval). As the generic name implies, the upper
aspect of the head is globular; the species is fur-
ther distinguished by its long pectoral flippers and
black skin, the belly and throat being white along the
central line. The jaws are seldom furnished with
more than fifty teeth. The Caaing Whales herd in
large numbers. Mr. Bell states, that an entire shoal
of seven hundred and eighty individuals was once
captured at Sumburgh in Zetland ; and between the
years 1809 and 1810 another shoal came on shore at
Hvalfiord hi Iceland, consisting of no less than one
thousand one hundred and ten examples, all of which
were taken. Their appearance off the coasts of Orkney,
Zetland, and the Faroe Isles, is by no means infrequent,
and they prove a source of wealth to the inhabitants.
" On the appearance of a shoal," says Mr. Bell, " the
sailors endeavour to get to seaward of then- victims,
and gradually closing upon them, drive them onwards
like a flock of sheep, and urge them by shouts and
missiles towards the shore ; when one of them, some
say a leader, being forced on the beach, a curious
scene of self-immolation is acted by the whole herd.
They are then attacked by the entire population, who
despatch them by various means; and the cries and
dying struggles of the poor animals, some in and some
out of the water, the shouts and exertions of the men,
and the troubled and bloody sea, combine to form a
scene of no trifling interest and excitement." Accord-
ing to Dr. Traill, they blindly follow a single leader,
which if driven on shore, guarantees the destruction of
the entire herd, as their mutual attachment will not
allow them to forsake the first victims. Their favourite
food appears to be various species of cuttle-fish, though
they also take ordinary fish. They yield excellent oil.
THE GRAMPTTS (Grampus orca) is a large, stoutish-
built species of whale, measuring upwards of thirty feet
in length, and having a girth of fourteen feet, or more
The anterior part of the head terminates less abrupt!)
than in any of the preceding members of this family, and
the animal is further recognized by its pectoral and
dorsal fins — the former being broad and rounded, the
latter long and elevated. It is an inhabitant of the nor-
thern seas generally, and very frequently appears upon
our coasts. The largest which has been taken on these '
shores is that recorded by Lacepede, from notes com-
municated to him by Sir Joseph Banks. In the words
! of Mr. Bell, this specimen " occurred in the Thames
in 1793. Struck by three harpoons, he rushed off
with the boat in which were the persons who had
struck him, towed it twice to Greenwich, and once as
far as Deptford, against a strong tide running eight
miles an hour, notwithstanding the repeated pike
wounds which he received whenever he appeared
above water. It was killed opposite Greenwich Hos-
pital, and its expiring straggles were so violent that
no boat dared to approach it. It was a very large one,
being no less than thirty-one feet in length, and twelve
in circumference." A specimen taken in Lynn harbour
on the 19th November, 1830, weighed three tons and
a hah*. They pretty frequently visit the friths of the
Tay and Forth ; a large number appeared in the latter
bay during July and August, 1793. The Grampus
proves very destructive to salmon.
THE COMMON DOLPHIN (DelphimisDelpkis)— Plate
28, fig. 88— seldom exceeds seven or eight feet in length,
though individuals have been occasionally found to mea-
sure as much as ten feet. It is readily distinguished
from the foregoing species by its almost straight back,
and by its attenuated, compressed, and prolonged muzzle,
which bears some resemblance to a beak. The jaws
are of equal length, and furnished with a very numer-
ous series of teeth, upwards of a hundred and eighty
having been counted in some specimens; their form is
slender, and slightly curved inwards, and they interlock
during the closed state of the jaw. The Dolphin is an
inhabitant of the northern seas and the Atlantic Ocean,
occasionally making its appearance off our coasts. It
is a remarkably active species ; and, notwithstanding
its voracious and gluttonous habits, was formerly highly
esteemed for its flesh. Pennant records, on the autho-
rity of the celebrated Dr. Caius, that one which was
taken in his time was presented to the Duke of Nor-
folk, who distributed portions of it amongst his friends.
"It was roasted and dressed with porpesse sauce, made
of crumbs of fine white bread, mixed with vinegar and
sugar." The Common Dolphin feeds principally on
fish.
THE BOTTLE-NOSE DOLPHIN (De.phinus Tursio)
is another North Sea species which has occasionally
made its appearance on the British shores. Diffi-
[ culties exist respecting its identification. It is dis-
MAMMALIA. MAXATID.E.
205
tinguished from the common dolphin chiefly by the
projection of the lower jaw beyond the upper. There
is some reason to believe that the dolphin (D. trunca-
tus) described by Mr. G. Montague in the third volume
of the Wernerian Society's Transactions, is referable to
this species. This specimen was captured off Totness
in Devonshire, in the summer of 1814. After the
animal had been exhibited, the bones were regarded
as rejectamenta, and thrown into the river Dart.
Mr. James Cornish, however, subsequently succeeded
in recovering the skull, the length of which was twenty
inches and a half. "On each side of the upper jaw,"
says Mr. Montague, "there are sockets for twenty
teeth, besides a long depression behind the posterior
socket." The under jaw was somewhat longer, and
contained twenty-three sockets on either side. Such
of the teeth as were discovered were for the most part
worn and flat on their crowns. The others, it seems,
were knocked out, and freely distributed amongst the
curiosity-loving people of Totness !
SOWERBTS DOLPHIN (Diodon Sowerbcei), of which
only a single example has yet appeared, is character-
ized chiefly by the possession of a single pair of teeth,
occupying the lower jaw. It was cast ashore near
Brodie House, Elginshire, and is thus described by
Mr. Sowerby, in the first volume of his well-known
" British Miscellany": — "The animal is oblong ; black
above, nearly white below; sixteen feet long, eleven
in circumference at the thickest part, with one fin on
the back; head acuminated; lower jaw blunt, longer
than the upper, with two short lateral bony teeth;
upper jaw sharp, let into the lower one by two lateral
impressions corresponding with the teeth ; opening of
the mouth, one foot six inches. Under the throat are
found two diverging furrows, terminating below the
eyes, which are small, and placed six inches behind
the mouth. Spiracles lunate, the ends pointing for-
wards." The specimen was a male.
Amongst the many other numerous and interesting
members of the present family known to exist, we can
only particularize the following : —
PERON'S VQWBIX (DelphinapterusPeranii), RIGHT-
WHALE PORPOISE, or AVHITE-BEAKED DOLPHIN. This
species is found on the southern side of the equator, off
and between the opposite coasts of Africa and Brazil.
It is gregarious in its habits, and readily distinguished
by the lustrous white beak, abdomen, and pectoral
fins, the other parts being quite black. The head is
pointed and slightly convex, ; the jaws, in different
examples, are furnished with from thirty - eight to
forty-two on each side, above and below.
THE INIA (Inia Geo/royii), or BOLIVIAN DOLPHIN,
is a very singular animal, having the breathing aper-
ture placed far backward on a line with the pectoral
fins. The dorsal fin is small. The lips are deeply
cleft to beneath the eye; the auditory meatus being
likewise unusually large. Mr. Blyth observes that the
species is also remarkable as " occurring thousands of
miles from the sea, appearing to inhabit only the
remote tributaries of the Amazon, and the elevated
lakes of Peru. The singular character of possessing
bristly hairs on the snout has also been observed in
them /when very young. This species has large swim-
ming paws, and thirty-four teeth on each side, above
and below, all of them rough, marked with deep and
interrupted furrows, and of an irregular, mammillary
shape behind, which is very peculiar. A female speci-
men measured seven feet long, and the males are
stated to be double that size ; colour variable, com-
monly pale blue above, passing into a roseate hue
beneath. It comes more frequently to the surface than
the marine species, and is generally met with in troops
of three or four individuals."
THE SOU-SOTT (Platanista Gangetica) or Dolphin
of the Ganges, is another cetacean of considerable
interest, frequenting the mouths, and ascending some-
times high up the rivers. It is readily distinguished
by its elongated and laterally compressed snout, swollen
at the extremity from enlargement of the jaws, which
latter support in front numerous long, conical teeth ;
there being thirty of these organs on each side, above
and below. The breathing opening has the form of a
longitudinal fissure, whilst the upper borders of the
maxillary bones are prolonged upwards in a singular
manner. The eyes are very small, and at first sight
scarcely discernible. The pectoral flippers are sub-
triangular, the dorsal fin being placed far back. The
Sou- Sou attains a length of seven feet. It was origi-
nally described by Pliny, under the generic title here
employed.
FAMILY IV.— MANATUXffi.
It is a matter of opinion whether it be more correct
to associate this family with the present order, or with
the Pachydermata ; for whilst its members appear,
by external characters and habits, more intimately
allied with the Cetacea, their internal structure, on
the other hand, plainly demonstrates a close alliance
with the latter group. Some have suggested, not
without reason, that they might almost be treated as a
separate order ; but, all things considered, it is perhaps
better, and certainly more convenient, to adopt our
present allocation. All the members of this family
are vegetable feeders, and, in consequence, most com-
monly styled Herbivorous or Phytophagous cetacea.
In conformity with their algous diet, we find the teeth
modified so as to secure due mastication of the coarst
fuci, the molars, when present, being more or less
flattened on the crown. The intestinal canal attains a
prodigious length, and in the Rytina is said to measure
upwards of twenty times the entire length of the animal.
The stomach is constricted near the centre, and more
or less complicated by coeca and follicles in the differ-
ent species. The skin is rather hairy, and the face
furnished with bristle-like whiskers; but the tail is
flattened out transversely as in ordinary cetaceans — a
circumstance very strongly insisted on by those who,
with ourselves, prefer to retain these animals in the
present order. The limbs or paddles are furnished
with claws ; but there is no trace of posterior extremi-
ties. The nostrils are quite separate, placed in front
of the abrupt snout, opening near the upper lip.
The front of the jaws is covered with horny plates.
The mammae are two in number, and situated below
the thorax ; and there are from fifteen to nineteen pairs
•206
MAXATIDJE. MAMMALIA. MANATID.E.
of ribs. One of the most interesting visceral modifica-
tions is that of the heart (fig. 82), which may be said
to have two apices, seeing that the ventricles are par-
tially separated from one another, and independent at
then: lower ends. In the annexed cut the letters of
reference indicate as follows : — a, right auricle, b right
ventricle, e, pulmonary artery, d, left auricle, e, left
ventricle, f, the aorta. In most particulars the skeleton
strictly conforms to the cetacean type ; but in the head
and neck we notice several departures, the cervical
I
Heart of the Dugong (llalicore Dugong).
vertebrae remaining quite distinct, whilst the head is
shortened and comparatively massive in some species.
In the Dugong— Plate 34, fig. 139 —the intermaxillary
bones are enormously developed for the implantation
of its incisive tusks, whilst the lower jaw is remarkably
broad and deep. These cranial peculiarities are not
present in other allied genera. The several bony
elements of the fore-limbs are more perfectly formed
than in the zoophagous cetaceans, the would-be posi-
tion of the hinder extremities being indicated by an
attenuated V-shaped bone, constituting a rudimentary
pelvis. True V-shaped bones also exist along the
hoamal aspect of the caudal vertebrae. In conclusion,
we have only to observe that all the Manatidse are
found near the sea-coast, and near estuaries and mouths
of' rivers, up which they occasionally wander to a con-
siderable distance, feeding on marine fuci and other
kinds of aquatic vegetation.
THE MANATEE (Manatus australis)— Plate 36,
fig. 84 — is an inhabitant of the shores and great open
rivers of the South American continent, being particu-
larly abundant off the coasts of Guyana and Brazil,
where it is commonly known as the Sea-cow. The
term Lamantin is sometimes applied to it as well as
to another species. The Manatees are gregarious in
their habits, and like other Cetacea are devotedly
attached to their young, which they defend with great
vigour. In the adult state the skin presents a greyish-
black colour, whilst, in common with other species of
the same genus, the flippers are each provided with
four flattish nails, that of the thumb being wanting.
They have thirty-two molar teeth, that is, eight on
either side above and below, their crowns being irregu-
iarly flat, square-shaped, and' divided transversely by
ti central groove. There are no canines or incisors
except in extremely young individuals. Under ordi-
nary circumstances the habits of the Manatee are mild
and inoffensive. It is readily taken with the harpoon,
and is chiefly valued on account of its flesh, which is
stated to be excellent eating. Though formerly very
plentiful, the Sea-cow hunters have greatly reduced
their numbers. When these animals raise the anterior
half of the body out of the water, they display a fanci-
ful resemblance to a human figure, and this circum-
stance induced our ancient navigators to believe in the
existence of sirens, mermen, and mermaids.
Two other species of the genus Manatus are also
known— the Lamantin, properly so called (M. Sencgal-
ensia of Adanson), which is a native of the western
coasts of tropical Africa, and the Mexican Sea-cow (M .
latirostris), a very large species, upwards of fifteen
feet in length, found on the shores of Florida, Mexico,
Surinam, and some of the West Indian islands.
THE INDIAN DFGONG (Halicore Dugong)— Plate 26,
fig. 85 — is a species of very considerable interest, though
much smaller than the foregoing, seldom measuring more
than seven or eight feet from the tip of the abrupt and
flattened snout to the end of the broad crescentic tail.
On turning to the drawing given at Plate 26, fig. 85,
it will be seen that the flippers are not furnished with
nails, but then- margins are thickened and tuberculated.
One of the most characteristic features of this animal
arises out of the presence of two large incisors or tusks
in the upper jaw, a ( fig. 83), the molars being flat, and
varying numerically from eight or ten to twenty, ac-
cording to age and other circumstances. " In the female
Dugong," says Professor Owen, " the growth of the per-
manent incisive tusks of the upper jaw is arrested before
they cut the gum, and they remain through life con-
cealed in the premaxillaries. The tusk is solid, is
about an inch shorter, and less bent than that of the
male; it is also irregularly cylindrical, longitudinally
Fig. 83.
Skull of the Indian Dugong (Halicore Dngong).
indented, and it gradually diminishes to an obtuse
rugged point. The base is suddenly expanded, bent
obliquely outwards, and presents a shallow exca-
vation." Speaking of other peculiarities, the samo
authority also observes that the external form of the
Dugong is " not so well calculated for moving rapidly
through the water as that of the dolphin and other
carnivorous cetacea, which subsist by a perpetual pur-
MAXATID.E. MAMMALIA. MARSUPIAI.TA.
207
suit of living animals. In these the snout is conical '
and peculiarly elongated, and in some, as in Delphinus
Gangeticus, the jaws are produced to an extreme
length, so as to give them every advantage in seizing
their swift and slippery prey ; whilst in the herbivorous
Dugong the snout is as remarkable for its obtuse, trun-
cate character — a form, however, which is equally
advantageous to it, and well adapted to its habits of
browsing upon the algae and fuci which grow upon the
submarine rocks of the Indian seas. As, from the fixed
nature of the Dugong's food, the motions of the animal
during the time of feeding must relate more immediately
to the necessity of coming to the surface to respire ;
its tail, the principal organ of locomotive ascent and
descent, is proportionally greater than in the true
Cetacea, its breadth being rather more than one-third
the length of the whole body." The Dugong enjoys a
pretty wide geographical distribution, being found not
only in the Indian seas generally, but also in the Red
Sea; formerly large numbers inhabited the shores of
the Isle of France. According to Sir Stamford Raffles,
and others, they usually feed at two, three, or four
fathoms' depth of water. They are abundant off the
Malayan coast, and especially at the mouth of the
Johore river. The native Malays spear them at night-
time ; their presence being indicated by a snuffing noise.
When caught, the tail is raised up out of the water, as
the animal is quite powerless in this position. The
habits of the Dugong are gregarious, herding, says
Leguat, to the extent of three or four hundred indi-
viduals at a single spot. Like other cetaceans, they
display extraordinary attachment to their young, de-
fending them to the death ; on being taken the suckers
utter a short and sharp cry. All accounts agree in
considering the flesh to be delicate and pleasant eating.
One or two other Dugongs have been described.
Ruppell considers the form inhabiting the Red Sea as a
separate species ; and this opinion is shared by several
naturalists. It was called by him Halicore Taberna-
culi, from a notion that the skin was employed by
the Jews in veiling the tabernacle. The Australian
Dugong (//. cntstralis) is generally admitted to be
distinct.
STELLER'S RHYTINA (Pihytina Stelleri)— Plate 26,
fig. 86 — is one of those interesting mammalian forms
whose extinction is only of very recent date, yet so com-
plete as to have left scarce a wreck behind. Discovered
in 1741, after a few short years it entirely succumbed to
the rapacity of our greedy race, who, without even
affording naturalists a fair opportunity of unravelling its
curious structure, have swept it from its native shores,
and well-nigh obliterated all trace of its existence. It
is well for science, that Steller, whose worthy name
it bears, was among the number of those unfortunate
voyagers who were wrecked on the inhospitable shores
of the dreary island where this animal was first dis-
covered ; and it is still more fortunate that he left an
authentic record of his discovery, which was published
subsequent to his death by the Academy of St. Peters-
burg in 1749, and afterwards at Halle in 1753, in a
separate treatise entitled " Ausfiihrliche Beschreibung
von sonderbaren Meerthieren." At the time of its
discovery on Behring's Island, it does not appear to
have been particularly abundant, and since the year
1768 no trace of its presence in a living state has ever
been recorded. There can be no doubt, however, that
considerable numbers previously existed,, and these, it
appears, have ah1 fallen a prey to the Aleutian sea-
otter hunters, whose exploits have been so graphically
described by the Russian explorer Von Kotzebue, and
others. Steller's Rhytina attained a length of upwards
of twenty-four feet, its greatest circumferential girth
being about twenty feet. According to Steller the
pectoral flippers contained no digits, which, if correct,
is very remarkable ; and what is equally singular, there
were no teeth either above or below, their absence
being amply compensated by the presence of hard
undulating lamellae — partly made up of horny tubes and
partly calcareous— which covered the jaws internally,
and performed all the necessary functions of bruising,
masticating, and detaching the sea-weeds, on which
these animals lived. Another peculiarity is mentioned
as affecting the skin ; the epidermis being fully an inch
in thickness, and composed of thick cylindrical fibres,
which were curiously folded or fissured, so as to present
a very rugged uneven surface ; the true dermis remain-
ing comparatively thin. The surface of the hide ex-
hibited a deep brown or purplish -black tint. The head
was small when compared with the bulk of the body ;
the tail, on the contrary, extensively developed and
of an oval figure. The stomach is described by
Steller as small. In the catalogue of Cetacea, preserved
in the British Museum, this species is alluded to under
the title of the Morskaia Korova or Rhytina gig as. It
has also been described under the generic appellations
of Stelleras, Mauatus, and even Trichechus.
ORDER XIII.— MARSUPIALIA.
As indicated in the general introduction to the class
Mammalia, the present order exhibits several characters
widely differing from those displayed by any of the
foregoing, the distinctive features having especial refer-
ence to the parts concerned in the reproduction and
the rearing of their young. It is almost superfluous,
therefore, to recapitulate the facts — succinctly stated at
page 8 — which have led naturalists to acquiesce in the
arrangement of Cuvier, who first grouped the marsupials
together under the ordinal title above retained ; never-
theless it may be weh1 to observe, in brief, that the
external and internal characters by which these ani-
mals are at once recognized depend upon the presence
of abdominal pouches or foldings of the skin, which are
inverted in the females for the purpose of concealing,
protecting, and nourishing the young, and everted in
the males for the lodgment of the reproductive glands.
The young are born in an imperfectly developed
MARSUPIALIA. MAMMALIA MARSUPIALIA.
state, and transferred by the mother into her marsu-
pium, there to be nurtured through the final stages of
their foetal condition, in a manner to be immediately
described. Intimately associated with this external
specialization of integument, we find the bones of the
pelvis, supplemented by two styliform elements, or
marsupial trochlear bones, as they are more properly
called. Both in the male and female important muscles
are attached to these osseous appendages, which are
firmly articulated to the anterior border of the pelvis by
a broad connecting surface, bound down by interarticu-
lar fibrous bands, like those observable in other pelvic
synchondroses or ligamentous joints. The marsupial
bones vary considerably in different species, being
elongated, flattened, and curved in the wombat, and
comparatively straight and narrow in Perameles. In
the koala they are very large and scimitar-shaped, a
(fig. 84) ; but only one inch and a half in length in
Myrmecobius. The ordinary abdominal muscles con-
Fig. 84.
Pelvis and marsupial bones of Koala (Phascolarctos cinereuS).
nected with these bones aid them in supporting the
marsupium and its contents, but a special muscle
— analagous to the so-called " cremaster" of the male
— is developed in the female, whose function it is to
expel the milk-secretion of the mammary glands when
the young have become located in the pouch and duly
attached to the teats. The mode of their connection
with the long nipples is very curious ; as, in order to
allow of respiratory action being carried on by the
foetus in marsupio, it is clearly necessary that the milk
should be conveyed directly into the stomach, without
the chance of its blocking up the air passages ; and as
yet— to take an example— the little kangaroo can
hardly display any involuntary functions, such as
might regulate the flow of milk, and thereby, in con-
nection with the ordinary reflex action of the larynx,
obviate the necessity of any special modification of the
pharyngeal organs. To prevent choking, therefore, the
windpipe is extended upwards to the soft palatal mem-
brane, which, acting like a sphincter, embraces its
patent outlet, bringing it into immediate contact, and
also in continuation with the nasal passages. At the
same time the teat of the mother is thrust far back in
the mouth, and the injected milk flows freely down to
the stomach, precisely in the same manner as the food
of the porpoise, in the first instance, passes the pharynx
by two passages into the gullet! One can hardly
refrain from comment on so remarkable a modification
of structure destined to meet the exigencies of these
interesting species ; and as, perhaps, our sentiments on
this score may derive additional cogency when expressed
in the language of an authority — who has contributed
more than any other individual to the unravelling of
the intricacies and significance of the marsupial struc-
ture— we have little hesitation in inviting attention to
Professor Owen's comment, including additional details
respecting this organization, as it occurs in the kan-
garoo : — " Thus aided and protected by modifications
of" structure, both in the system of the mother and its
own, designed with especial reference to each others1
peculiar condition, and affording, therefore, the most
irrefragable evidence of creative foresight, the small
offspring of the kangaroo continues to increase, from
sustenance exclusively derived from the mother, for a
period of about eight months. During this period the
hind legs and tail assume a great part of their adult
proportions ; the muzzle elongates ; the external ears
and eyelids are completed; the hair begins to be
developed at about the sixth month. At the eighth
month the young kangaroo may be seen frequently to
protrude its head from the mouth of the pouch, and to
crop the grass at the same time that the mother is
browsing. Having thus acquired additional strength,
it quits the pouch, and hops at first with a feeble and
vacillating gait, but continues to return to the pouch
for occasional shelter and supplies of food till it has
attained the weight of ten pounds. After this it will
occasionally insert its head for the purpose of sucking,
notwithstanding another foetus may have been deposited
in the pouch ; for the latter attaches itself to a different
nipple from the one which had been previously in use."
Having advanced thus much concerning the most
important features of the order, it only remains for us to
notice very briefly some other minor characteristics.
Speaking generally, it may be said that the numerous
species which are thus linked together into one group,
present very striking differences in their structure, and
consequently also in their habits of living. These are
for the most part indicated in the union of the skull and
in the form of the teeth, of the two clavicles into a
single furcular bone, and in the condition of the cranio-
dental peculiarities bearing a strict relation to their
carnivorous and insectivorous propensities on the one
hand, and to the mixed nature of their food and purely
phytivorous habits on the other. In this respect alone,
therefore, three or four, more or less, natural groups are
presented to us. But it is not alone in the skeleton
that such correlative peculiarities exist, as many scarcely
less interesting deviations affect the brain, the circula-
tory organs, the digestive organs, and its associated
chylo-poietic viscera. Into these, however, it is not our
province to enter ; and it must, therefore, suffice us to
PHASCOLOMYIVE. MAMMALIA.
209
observe in conclusion, that the varied members of this
order are for the most part met with on the great
Australian continent and its adjacent islands. Some
few inhabit the warmer regions of America, and, what
is still more interesting, fossil remains of others have
been found in Europe, in the tertiary gypsum beds of
Paris, and in the Stonesfield slate of the great oolite
formation in England.
FAMILY I.— PHASCOLOMYD^.
This family is probably represented by a single living
species only, but the fossil genus, Diprotodon, estab-
lished by Professor Owen, is also included in it, or in
his rhizophagous tribe of marsupials, which is the same
thing. This small group is characterized by the posses-
sion of two incisor teeth in either jaw, above and below ;
there are no canines, and a large interspace separates the
incisives from the molars, which are twenty in number,
the anterior four being spurious ; they have indistinct
roots and flattened crowns. All the feet are penta-
dactylous, but the thumb of the hind feet is rudimen-
tary and clawless. The tail is extremely short. The
stomach is provided with a special gland ; the ccecum
being small, broad, and furnished with a vermiform
appendage.
THE WOMBAT (Phascolomys Wombat) — Plate 28,
fig. 93 — is a short thick-set animal, from two to three
feet in length, and weighing about thirty pounds.
The head is large, and furnished with small ears, the
tail measuring only half an inch. In the skeleton,
however — if three of the outer-iliac vertebral segments
be reckoned as belonging to the category of sacral
elements— there are no less than thirteen or fourteen
caudal vertebra?. Another peculiarity in the skeleton
arises out of the presence of fifteen or sixteen pairs of
ribs— a number considerably exceeding that of other
marsupials. The fur is thick, and of a sandy brown
colour below and at the sides, being darker along the
line of the back. The eyes are small, and not at all
prominent. One of the best accounts of the Wombat's
habits is that furnished by Colonel Collins at the early
part of the present century. " This animal," he
savs, possesses no claim to swiftness, as most
men could run it down. Its pace is hobbling or
shuffling, something like the awkward gait of a
bear. In disposition it is mild and gentle, as
becomes a grass-eater ; but it bites hard and is
furious when provoked." His friend, Mr. Bass,
he adds, " never heard its voice but at that time.
It was a low cry between a hissing and a whizzing,
which could not be heard at a distance of more than
thirty or forty yards. He chased one, and with his hands
suddenly lifted it off the .ground without hurting it, and
laid it upon its back along his arm like a child. It
made no noise nor any effort to escape, not even a
struggle." Subsequently, however, the little animal
shrieked and made its escape, whilst Mr. Bass was
preparing to tie it up. Colonel Collins further on
observes, that besides living in Furneaux's island, the
Wombat inhabits the hills to the west of Port-Jackson.
"In both these places its habitation is underground,
the animal being admirably formed for burrowing; but
to what depth it descends does not seem to be ascer-
tained. According to the account given of it by the
natives, the Wombat of the mountains is never seen
during the day, but lives retired in its hole, feeding
only in the night ; that inhabiting the islands is seen
to feed all times of the day." Its food consists chiefly
of coarse grass and roots. The flesh is said to be
delicate and excellent eating. The female produces
three or four young at a single birth.
From the examination of a skull brought from South
Australia, Professor Owen has expressed his belief in
the existence of a second species of Wombat, which he
has provisionally named Phascolomys latifrons. The
fossil genus Diprotodon attained gigantic proportions,
being nearly as large as the hippopotamus.
FAMILY II.— MACROPIIXffi.
The Kangaroos are readily distinguished by the dis-
proportionate bulk of the hinder parts of the body as
compared with those in front, this feature being more
particularly noticeable in the development of the tail
and hinder extremities. The feet are greatly elongated
by an extension of the metatarsal bones and digital
phalanges, their soles being applied to the ground
during progression. The powerful tail acts as a fifth
limb during the slower movements of the body, and
forms, in conjunction with the hind legs, a firm tripodal
basis of support during the state of rest. The fore
limbs are short, pentadactylous, attenuated, and fur-
nished with compressed curved claws, the nails of the
hind feet being straight and tetradactylous. Speaking
generally, the body presents a conical outline, tapering
from below upwards. The ears are largely developed
and oval in shape ; but a more important character is
Fig. 85.
Skull of the Great Kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).
seen in the teeth— (fig. 85.) According to Professor
Owen, there are in tb.3 normal condition of the perma-
nent dental series six superior and two inferior incisors,
no canines, four premolars equally divided above and
below, and sixteen true molars, that is, four on either
side of the upper and lower jaws. In the genus of
Kangaroo Rats or Potoroos (Hypsiprymnus) canines
are present in the upper jaw. In the true Kangaroos
the central incisors of the upper are not longer than
2D
210
MACROPID.E. MAMMALIA. M.vcRorm.*:.
the others, the outer pair being at the same time com-
paratively broad. In the Potoroos the middle incisors
are of considerable length. In all the members of this
family the head is rather small, and the upper lip is
cleft. These animals possess complicated stomachs,
and they display great powers of leaping ; only using
their anterior limbs when feeding. They are found
almost exclusively in Austrah'a, some few occurring
in New Guinea and Van Diemen's Land.
THE GREAT KANGAEOO (Macropus giganteus) —
Plate 29, fig. 92 — is an animal of very considerable
interest, not only on account of its amazing powers of
leaping and marsupial peculiarities, but on account of
the circumstance of its being the largest living and
indigenous quadruped inhabiting the great Australian
continent. An adult specimen measures upwards of
four feet in length, not including the tail, which would
give us an additional three feet ; its weight occasion-
ally exceeding one hundred and forty pounds. The
capture of the Great Kangaroo in its native haunts is
attended with great and varied excitement ; and when
it was discovered by the sailors under Captain Cook,
during one of his ever-memorable voyages, they were
not slow to extol and exaggerate its leaping propen-
sities. It is now very commonly hunted with dogs ;
but the natives have a peculiar method of their
own. According to Captain Grey, as quoted by Mr.
Dallas in his excellent little manual entitled " A
Natural History of the Animal Kingdom," — "the
native advances quietly in the direction where he
expects to find his game, with every sense on the alert
to give him notice of its approach. When the animal
is near him he is seen to assume an attitude of intense
attention, and, at a given signal, his wives and chil-
dren, who accompany him, drop immediately upon the
ground. When the savage is thus occupied, you will
see at about a hundred yards from him, a kangaroo
erect upon its hind legs, and supported by its tail. It
is reared to its utmost height, so that its head is
between five and six feet above the ground, its short
paws hang by its side, its ears are pointed — it is listen-
ing as carefully as the native, and you see a little head
peering out from its pouch to inquire what has alarmed
its mother. But the native moves not: you cannot
tell whether it is a human being or the charred trunk
of a burned tree which is before you, and for several
minutes the whole group preserve their relative posi-
tion. At length the kangaroo becomes reassured,
drops upon its fore paws, gives an awkward leap or
two, and goes on feeding ; the little inhabitant of its
pouch stretching its head further out, testing the grass
its mother is eating, and evidently debating .whether
or not it is safe to venture out of its resting-place,
and gambol about amongst the green dewy herbage.
Meantime the native moves not until the kangaroo,
having two or three times resumed the attitude of
listening, and having like a monkey scratched its side
with its fore paw, at length once more abandons itself
in perfect security to its feeding, and playfully smells and
rubs its little one. Now the watchful savage, keeping
his body unmoved, fixes the spear first in the throwing
stick, and then raises his arms in the attitude of throw-
ing, from which they are never again moved until the
kangaroo dies or runs away. His spear being properly
secured, he advances slowly and stealthily, no part
moving but his legs. Whenever the kangaroo looks
round, he stands motionless in the position he is in
when it first raises its head, until the animal, again
assured of its safety, gives a skip or two, and goes on
feeding. Again the native advances, and this scene is
repeated many times, until the whistling spear pene-
trates the devoted animal." The Great Kangaroo and
others of its kindred, breed freely in this country, many
British-born individuals existing in the Zoological
Society's Gardens and in private collections. The
flesh is said to be good eating, and not unlike venison
in flavour.
The so-called SOOTY KANGAROO (Macropus fuligi-
nosus of Desmarest), as well as two other large species
described by Mr. Gould in his attractive folio " Mono-
graph on Kangaroos," as M. ocydromusandM. melanops,
are, in Mr. Waterhouse's view, only probable varieties
of the Great Kangaroo. Very many other species,
however, are known to exist, of which we can only
specify the following : — The BED KANGAROO (M. lani-
ger of Gould) is a large species occupying the interior
of the Australian continent, and frequenting the banks
of the river Darling and the Murrumbidgee. The
GREAT ROCK KANGAROO (M. robustus of Waterhouse),
or Black Wallaroo of the natives, is found in hilly
localities. The female has a silvery or grey colour,
and is much less than the male ; the fur of the latter
exhibiting a rich black tint. Amongst the smaller
species may be mentioned the BLACK-GLOVED KAN-
GAROO (M. Irma), which is about thirty inches in
length and found in Western Australia. Desmarest's
RED-NECKED KANGAROO (M. ruficullis], a species
well-known in this country, inhabits New South Wales
and King's Island. A very tiny species, called the
PANDEMELON WALLABY (M. T/ietides), is only twenty
inches long, excluding the tail, and is much sought after
for the sake of its flesh. The RED-BELLIED WAL-
LABY (M. Billardierii) is a gregarious species, as is
also the BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO (M. penicil-
latus). LE BRUN'S KANGAROO (Halmaturus Asiati-
cm of Gray) is an inhabitant of New Guinea; it
possesses a very long narrow head with shortish ears,
the fore-legs being comparatively strong. The fur
exhibits a greyish colour generally, more or less tinged
with yellow, especially underneath. Respecting the
small HARE KANGAROO (Lagorchestes leporidcs), Mr.
Gould records the following amusing little incident : —
" While out on the plains," he says, " I started a hare
kangaroo before two fleet dogs; after running to the
distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly doubled and
came back upon me, the dogs following at its heels.
I stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within
twenty feet before it observed me, when, to my aston-
ishment, instead of branching off to the right or the
left, it bounded clear over my head, and on descending
to the ground I was enabled to make a successful shot,
by which it was procured." Mr. Gould specifically
distinguishes several other closely allied forms, and
gives beautiful figures of them in his large work.
In the Tree-Kangaroos the anterior and posterior
limbs have nearly the same length, whilst the tail is
MACKOPID.E. MAMMALIA. PJ
[ALAN'GISTI I >.T'.
211
longer than the body. The strongly-curved and power-
ful claws are also rendered subservient to their arboreal
climbing habits. Two species have been described by
M. Salomon Miiller, which he respectively denominates
The Tree-Kangaroo ^.Dendrologus inustus).
Dcndrolofjus ursinus and D. inustus — Fig. 86. Both
have moderately well developed ears, whilst the two
superior central incisor teeth are scarcely longer than
the outer pair.
THE POTOEOO (Hypsiprimnus minor), or KANGAROO
EAT— Plate 29, fig. 91— is a gentle, timid, little animal,
about the size of our common rabbit. It is a native of
New South Wales, and tolerably abundant in the neigh-
bourhood of the river Weragambia. The fur exhibits
a greyish-brown colour generally, being reddish above
and white underneath the belly. The ears are of large
size ; the tail being also conspicuously developed ;
more uniform in thickness than obtains in kangaroos
proper, very flexible, and slightly tufted at the extre-
mity. The fore-limbs still display much disparity when
compared with the stout posterior pair ; the same rela-
tion holds good in regard to the feet, the three central
claws of the pentadactylous fore-feet being strikingly
developed. The muzzle is so considerably attenuated
and produced, that in the skull the nasals are seen to
extend beyond the level of the upper jaw. This animal
is further distinguished by the remarkable length of its
anterior grinding teeth, or premolars, which are also
sculptured by vertical groves externally ; these dental
characteristics are also present in congeneric forms,
several of which have been described as distinct spe-
cies by Ogilby, Gould, and others.
FAMILY III.— PHALANGISTID^.
The marsupials associated under this head are com-
monly called Phalangers, and although only some of
them exhibit highly exalted leaping powers — in virtue
of assistance derived from a membranous expansion of
the skin at the sides of the body — yet, on the whole,
they form a tolerably distinct group. Among the more
distinguishing peculiarities are those which have refer-
ence to their partially carnivorous diet and arboreal
habits. The disparity between the hind and fore legs
no longer exists, whilst the posterior feet have become
pentadactylous, the thumb remaining unarmed, and
the second and third toes conjoined as far forward as
the base of the claws. The teeth vary considerably in
different genera ; thus, in the true Phalangers there are
only eight incisors, disposed as in the kangaroos, and
sixteen constant true molars — although occasionally we
212
PHALANGISTID^
-MAMMALIA. PHALAXGISTIDJE.
find also two or four canines. In all cases the upper
central incisors are comparatively large, the lower being
conspicuous and procumbent as in the Kangaroos. In
the Pigmy Petaurist, or Flying Phalanger, there are
twenty-four permanent molars in addition to the four
canines, whilst other members of the genus Petaurus
display twenty-eight molars, the anterior twelve coming
under the category of spurious grinders. In the genus
Phascolarctos, on the other hand, there are only two
canines occupying the upper jaw, and twenty molars,
the anterior four being false. All the Phalangers are
provided with a simple stomach and a long coecum.
In most cases the tail is extensively developed, but in
the aberrant genus Phascolarctos it is merely rudimen-
tary. In some, the tails are prehensile. The habits of
the family are arboreal and nocturnal ; they feed partly
upon fruits and leaves, and on small birds.
THE VULPINE OPOSSUM (Phalangista vulpina} is
a very common species in Australia, and is much
hunted by the natives, who are particularly fond of its
flesh. It is called in their strange language the Wha-
tapooroo. Although somewhat fox-like in appearance,
it is a much smaller animal, measuring about twenty-
six inches in length, exclusive of the tail, which would
give us some additional fifteen inches. The fur exhi-
bits a ruddy buff colour generally, inclining to a ferru-
ginous tint at the lower part of the throat ; the tail is
black, except at the root. The ears are about one inch
and a half long; the limbs being also comparatively
short. Similar characters likewise exist in another
form inhabiting Van Diemen's Land; this is a larger
and darker coloured animal, being considered by Messrs.
Gould and Ogilby to be distinct ; they have accordingly
imparted to it the combined generic and specific title
P. fuliginosa.
THE SPOTTED PHALANGER (Cuscus maculata),
or SCHAM-SCHAM, has been genetically separated by
Lacdpede and Temminck on what appears to be very
satisfactory grounds ; for we find no less than twelve
incisors, six above and the like number below — the
total number of all the teeth together amounting to
forty. In this animal the tail is prehensile and naked
at the narrowed extremity, where it is also marked with
rugosities. The Scham-Scham is an inhabitant of
New Guinea and the Moluccas, being also called Coes-
coes by the natives of the latter island — hence the
generic title adopted by the French naturalist. The
fur has a thick woolly texture, having a whitish ground
colour, which is spotted by large, more or less isolated
deep brown patches, some of the macula? occasionally
running into one another. The body is stoutish through-
out; the ears being remarkably short. It appears to
be slothful in its movements ; at least such is the char-
acter given to it by M. Lesson.
THE MOUSE-LIKE PHALANGES (Phalangista gli-
riformis)— Plate 30, fig. 94— has been elevated by Dr.
J. E. Gray into a subgeneric rank, under the title of
Dromicia, on account of certain dental peculiarities ;
but, " as these modifications of the teeth are unaccom-
panied by any change of general structure or of habit,
whilst those teeth which most influence the diet are
constant, it is obvious," says Professor Owen, "that
these differences of dentition are unimportant, and
afford no just grounds for subgeneric distinctions."
The particular tooth-characters here adverted to, have
reference more particularly to the presence of only
three true molars on each side of either jaw ; but apart
from this feature the Mouse-like Phalanger possesses
many points of interest. It is remarkably small, the
body measuring only four inches in length, excluding
the tail, which would give us upwards of three inches
and three quarters more. This organ is black at the
root, and clothed with short stoutish hairs, except at
the tip, where it is naked. The ears are large and
almost destitute of hair. This little marsupial is only
found in Van Diemen's Land. Excellent figures of it
are given by Watcrhouse and Gould, and by Mr. Bell
in the sixteenth volume of the Linnsean Society's
Transactions.
THE SCIURINE PETAURIST (Petaurus sciureus), or
SUGAR SQUIRREL. — The distinguished naturalist Shaw
separated the flying Phalangers into a distinct genus —
Petaurus — on account of the peculiar membranous
expansion of the skin existing between the anterior
and posterior limbs, associated with a non-prehensile
hairy tail. Five or six species have been described.
These are — P. taguanoides, the largest, with a brown
fur, whitish -grey underneath, and hairy ears (fig.
87); P. Australis, or the Hopoona-Roo, with long
and naked ears, the fur being fulvous below and
marked by dark-coloured bands along the central
line of the back ; P. breviceps, P. sciureus, P.
Ariel, P. breviceps, and P. pygm&us. As has been
already indicated, the last-named species presents some
trifling departure from the other Petaurists as regards
the teeth, which led Desmarest to give it the generic
title of Acrobates. Respecting the habits of the Sugar
Squirrel — which are very similar in all the species —
Mr. Bennett has supplied the following interesting
account — "During the day the animal generally remains
quietly nestled in the hollows of trees, but becomes
animated as night advances, and skims through the
air supported by its lateral expansions, half leaping,
half flying from branch to branch, feeding upon leaves
and insects. This peculiar mode of locomotion can
scarcely be considered a true flight, inasmuch as the
cutaneous folds, which serve the purposes of wings,
seem rather destined for the mere support of the ani-
mal in its long and apparently desperate leaps, than
for raising it in the air, and directing its course towards
any given object. For this latter purpose they are
indeed but little fitted by then- structure, the want of
proper muscles in a great measure incapacitating them
from performing such offices as are dependent on
volition. It may be doubted, however, whether these
animals are entirely destitute of the power of exercising
their will in their flight-like leaps. For the following
anecdote bearing upon this subject, we are indebted
to our friend Mr. Broderip, who related it to us on
unquestionable authority — ' On board a vessel sailing
off the coast of New Holland was a squirrel — Petaurus —
which was permitted to roam about the ship. On one
occasion it reached the mast-head, and, as the sailor
who was despatched to bring it down approached, made
a spring from aloft to avoid him. At this moment
the ship gave a heavy lurch, which, if the original
PHALANGISTID.E. MAMMALIA. PHALAXGISTIDJE.
213
!
direction of the little creature's course had been con-
tinued, must have plunged it into the sea. All who
witnessed the scene were in pain for its safety ; but it
suddenly appeared to check itself and so to modify its
career that it alighted safely on the deck.' " All the
species are natives of New South Wales. The Sciurine
Fig. 87.
The large Petanrist, or Flying Squirrel (Petaurus taguanoides).
j Petaurist is also found in New Guinea and its adjacent
islands. It is sometimes called the Norfolk Island
Flying Squirrel, having been originally described as
inhabiting the outlying and isolated spot of land which
bears that name. The fur is ash-coloured above and
whitish underneath. A brownish line extends from
the muzzle to the root of the tail, the latter organ
being tufted and black at the tip. In the little mouse-
like Pigmy Petaurist the hairs of the tail are regularly
disposed in two rows, one on either side, like the barbs
of a feather.
THE KOALA (Phascolarctos cinereus). — Although
this animal has been generically separated from the
Petaurists and true Phalangers, yet there is no reason to
place it outside the family limits of Phalangistidse.
The most striking differences have reference to the thick-
set body, and more particularly to the extreme shortness
and rudimentary condition of the tail (fig. 88). Its
dentition for the most part corresponds with those of the
Phalangers ; but it never displays canines in the lower
jaw, and is only furnished with four premolars, one on
either side above and below. All the molars are pro-
vided with four pyramidal tubercles. To the penta-
dactylous character of the feet, the very large crecum,
and other essential features of the family, it is entirely
conformed. The digits of the anterior feet separate
214
PERAMKLID.E. MAMMALIA. DASYURID.E.
into two groups, the pollex and index fingers antagoniz-
ing tne outer three, so as to afford a strong prehensile
action. The Koala is a native of various parts of
Australia. It is about the size of a small dog, measur-
ing nearly two feet in length. The fur is coarse,
thick, and long, possessing a peculiar ashy-brown
colour. It is eminently arboreal in its habits, feeding
only upon leaves and buds, but partly residing in small
burrows excavated beneath the roots of trees. The
female is wont to carry her offspring on her back for a
considerable period Its movements, however, are
comparatively sluggish under ordinary circumstances.
FAMILY IV.— PEKAMELID^E.
Looking at the dental peculiarities displayed by the
members of this family — commonly called Bandicoot
Rats— it will be at once evident that we have passed
on to a group of marsupials far less phytivorous in
their habits than any of the preceding. In short, we
have taken up a carnivorous type, and find, accordingly,
well-developed canines, numerous incisors — ten above
and six below — and, in addition, there is a full comple-
ment of molars — twelve false and sixteen true ; but
the characters of the latter conform more closely to
the insectivorous than' to the carnivorous mammals,
properly so called. Co-ordinating with the multiple
arrangement of the teeth, we find a marked extension
of the jaws, combined with a corresponding attenua-
tion of the muzzle. The hind feet are much longer
and stouter than the anterior pair, whereby their
leaping powers are increased, the second and third
toes of the posterior limbs being also conjoined as far
as the base of the claws, whilst the digit equivalent to
the thumb is perfectly developed in the fore-feet. The
outer toes are very short and placed far back — almost
concealed. The other toes are all furnished with
powerful claws, enabling then- possessors to dig and
burrow with facility. Bandicoots are found only in
Australia and Van Diemen's Land.
THE LONG-NOSED BANDICOOT (Peramdes nasutus} .
—Four or five species are referable to the present genus;
for in addition to the one here named, naturalists have
recognized P. Lagotis, P. Gunnii, and P. obesula as
specifically distinct. The first of these three had been
genetically separated by Professor Owen, under the
title of Thalaconus. It is also commonly known as
the Philander, and is furnished with long ears and an
extensive bushy tail ; the muzzle being very much pro-
duced and abruptly attenuated. The outer incisor of
the upper is not separated widely from its fellows. P.
Gunnii of Dr. J. E. Gray is an inhabitant of Van
Diemen's Land, and is distinguished by its possession
of a very short, white tail ; the haunches being also
marked by several pale-coloured bands. In addition
to insects, it appears to be very fond of bulbous roots.
P. obesula is commonly termed the Spring Bandicoot —
Plate 30, fig. 95. In the Long-Nosed Bandicoot the
ears are moderate and pointed, the fur having a
brownish-grey tint above, passing into white beneath ;
the nose is prolonged beyond the jaw. In all, the
ccecum is of moderate size. According to Professor
Owen, the marsupial pouch, " at least in the full-grown
females of P. nasuta, P. obesula, and P. Lagotis, has
its orifice directed downwards or towards the cloaca,
contrariwise to its ordinary position in the marsupials ;
this direction of the pouch evidently relates to the pro-
cumbent position of the trunk when supported on the
short fore and long liind legs." During progression,
the Bandicoots move the hind-feet together alternately
with the fore-feet, after the saltatory manner of rabbits.
Their flesh is said to be good eating.
OGHBY'S BANDICOOT (Cheer opus castanotis), or the
PIG-FOOTED BANDICOOT, is a remarkable species, ap-
parently possessing only two toes on the fore-feet ; the
pollex of the hinder feet is also absent, the outer pair
of digits being very conspicuously developed. The
claws of the latter, as well as of the didactyle fore-feet,
are particularly strong and adapted for burrowing.
This species carries forty-six teeth — eight incisors
above and six below, four canines, twelve spurious, and
sixteen true molars. The ears are long, elliptical, and
nearly naked ; but the tail is altogether wanting.
Another aberrantform of Bandicoot hasbeen described
by Gervais, and subsequently by Waterhouse and Gould,
under the title of Tarsipes rostral us. It is a native of
Western Australia, arboreal and insectivorous in its
habits, furnished with moderate ears, pentadactylous
feet — the thumb of the hinder pair being clawless — and
a long prehensile tail. It possesses only two procum-
bent incisors in the lower jaw, four canines, and a
variable number of molars, only twelve remaining con-
stant. This anomalous species has no coecum.
FAMILY V.— DASYUBIDJ3.
The Dasyures constitute a highly carnivorous group
of marsupials, clearly representing the true Garni vora of
the placental mammals. The typical forms have eight
incisors above and six below, four well-developed
canines, eight pre-molars, and sixteen true molars— in
all, forty-two teeth. According to Professor Owen,
" the spurious molars have a pointed, compressed, tri-
angular crown, -with a rudimental tubercle at the
anterior and posterior part of its base. The grinding
surface of the true molars in the upper jaw is triangular ;
the first presents four sharp cusps ; the second and third
each five ; the fourth, which is the smallest, only three.
In the lower jaw the last molar is nearly of equal size
with the penultimate one, and is bristled with four
cusps, the external one being the longest." In other
respects the lower grinders correspond with those
opposed above. The anterior limbs are pentadacty-
lous, but the posterior pan- have usually only four digits,
the pollex being occasionally represented by a small,
clawless, warty tubercle. Some of the species are
strong and powerfully-built animals. In all, the tail is
moderately long, non-prehensile, and generally hairy
throughout. The various species are natives of Aus-
tralia and Van Diemen's Land.
THE TJESINE OPOSSUM (Dasyurus Ursinus), or
" Native Devil," as the Tasmanian colonists term it,
is a truly formidable species. It is about the size of
our common badger, being furnished with a coarse
black fur, which is here and there irregularly marked
with whitish spots. The tail is rather bare under-
PASYURID.E. MAMMALIA. DASYVRID.E.
215
neath. By all accounts these ursine opossums are
perfect pests, and prove terribly destructive to poultry,
sheep, &c., hardly anything coming amiss to them.
According to Mr. Harris, they were extremely nume-
rous when the first attempts were made to settle at
Hobart Town; but they appeared to have done good
sendee in affording supplies of fresh food to the con-
victs sent thither ; their flesh is said to eat like veal.
As the settlement increased, their numbers diminished,
and they were driven into the forest, where they are
still pursued and secured by traps. They are ex-
tremely rapacious and savage, both in the wild and
semi-domesticated state. They utter a hollow barking
noise, something like that of a dog ; and judging from
their resentful persecuting behaviour, appear to have
well earned the colonial appellation by which they are
so significantly characterized.
Several other species are known to exist; and of
these we may mention — The Longtailed Dasyure (D.
macrourus), having a rudimentary hallucinar wart, by
which it is distinguished from the two following — •
Mange's (D. Mangii), a smaller species of an olive
ground colour; and Shaw's Dasyure (D. viverrinus),
or Wild Cat of the Tasmanians— Plate 31, fig. 97—
which has a black fur. All three are marked by large
white spots on the body, and in the two first the tail is
similarly distinguished.
THE THYLACINE (Thylacinus Harrisii) is a native
of Van Diemen's Land, and is variously termed by the
colonists " pouched wolf," hyaena, tiger, zebra, opos-
sum, and so forth. It enjoys the distinction of being
the largest of all the carnivorous marsupials, and is
about the size of an ordinary fox-hound, but stouter
built, and standing lower on the legs. The fur exhibits
a dusky brown color, the crupper being barred trans-
versely by sixteen deep black bands running parallel
from side to side (fig. 89). The Thylacines are highly
carnivorous, and prove terribly destructive to the flocks
of sheep, which they seem to prefer to any other kind
of animal food, though formerly they must have sub-
Fig. 89.
The Pouched Wolf or Thylacine (Thylacinus Ida
sisted, almost entirely, on phalangers and kangaroos.
They are seldom captured alive, and appear to be very
wary animals. The Thylacine is nocturnal in its habits.
It is furnished with forty-six teeth; but the circum-
stances most worthy of note are seen in the strongly
carnassial character of the molar teeth, and in the
great size of the canines, as compared with other non-
placental mammals. No other living species exists ; but
a fossil Thylacine has been discovered in the tertiary
gypsum beds of Paris — a fact of extreme interest, taken
in connection with other extinct marsupial remains
elsewhere found in Europe, and demonstrating the wide
geographical distribution these creatures maintained in
former times.
THE COMMON PHASCOGALE (Phascogale penicil-
latus.) — The present genus embraces three or four
very small marsupials, whose dental formula is pre-
cisely the same as that of Ihylacinus ; whilst the only
differences appertain to the less carnassial character of
the molars — serving to approximate them more closely
to the insectivorous type — and to an elongation of the
central incisives, which is more particularly manifest
in the upper series. All the species are remarkably
minute; one of them — the Antechimis minutissimus
of Gould— being the smallest living marsupial, and
measuring less than two inches and a half long, ex-
clusive of the tail. In 'many particulars these animals
resemble the entomophagous opossums. The common
Phascogale is about the size of our common rat. The
fur is short, thick, and woolly, and of a uniform ashy
color above, passing into white beneath. The tail is
well developed, and very bushy towards the tip. Its
216
MAMMALIA. DIDELPHID.E.
habits are arboreo-nocturnal, and in common with its
rongeners it preys chiefly on insects and small birds.
This species is a native of Australia generally, but has
not, we believe, been found in Van Diemen's Land.
THE BANDED MYRMECOBE (Myrmecobius fascia-
tus) is an inhabitant of South-western Australia, having
been originally discovered and procured by Lieutenant
Fig
Dale, at about ninety miles to the south-east of the
mouth of the Swan River. The Myrmecobe (fig. 90)
is at once distinguished from its insectivorous con-
geners, and also from all other marsupials, by the large
number of teeth, of which there are fourteen incisors —
eight above and six below— four canines, twelve pre
molars, and no less than twenty-four true molars ; in
90.
The Banded Mynnecobe (ilyrmecobius fasciatus).
all, fifty-four. The dental formula thus approaches
very closely to that of the extinct — and probably mar-
supial—genus Thylacotherium. Professor Owen also
observes, that it is to a certain extent comparable to
the dentition of the armadillos " in the small size of the
molar teeth, their separation from each other by slight
interspaces, and their implantation in sockets, which
are not formed upon a well-developed ridge or process.
The molars, however, present a distinct multicuspidate
structure, and both the true and false ones possess two
separate fangs as in other marsupials." There does
not appear to be any necessity to consider this animal
as the type of a distinct family. It is about the size of
a rat, measuring ten inches from the nose to the root
of the tail. The fur exhibits a rufous ground tint
generally, the feet being more decidedly red, the back
dark brown and banded over the crupper by whitish
hairs, similar to those of the thylacine. The head dis-
plays a sharply-acuminated muzzle and short pointed
ears. The tail is seven inches long and bushy, the
anterior feet pentadactylous, and the hind pah- four-
toed, all the digits being armed with strong, compressed,
curved claws. Its habits are arboreal, and it burrows
under the roots of trees in search of insects.
FAMILY VI. — DIDELPHIDJE.
Under this head are collected together all the Ame-
rican marsupials or opossums, properly so called. The
species are extremely numerous, for the most part
confined to Brazil and the neighbouring provinces of
Guyana, Paraguay, and Peru; a few being found in
Mexico and California, and one in the United States.
A single species only occurs in Chili. The opossums
are comparatively small, seldom exceeding the size of
our domestic cat ; the jaws are furnished with eighteen
incisors — ten above and eight below — four canines,
and twenty-eight molars, the anterior twelve being
spurious (fig. 91). The head is pointed, the ears large
Fir 91.
Skull of the Virginian Opossum (Didelphis Virginiana).
and naked, the gape of the mouth very wide, the pro-
duced muzzle being furnished with a few long bristles.
The tail is prehensile, more or less semi-nude or scaly.
The feet are all pentadactylous, but the pollex of the
hinder pair is opposable to the other digits, and clawless.
The opossums are arboreal and nocturnal in their habits,
preying chiefly upon birds, eggs, insects, and even fruit.
Their movements, however, are rather sluggish than
otherwise, and their presence is recognizable by the
peculiar fetid odour of their skin. They have a simple
stomach and moderately capacious ccecum.
THE VIRGINIAN OPOSSUM (Didelphis Virginiana).
or COMMON POSSUM — Plate 30, fig. 96— enjoys the
distinction of being the first known to naturalists. It
DIDELPHID.E. MAMMALIA. DIDELPHID.K.
217
is widely distributed throughout the United States, and
is especially abundant towards the south. A full-grown
specimen measures twenty inches in length, exclusive of
the tail, for which other fourteen inches must be allowed.
The fur has a dusky-brown colour, the individual
hairs being whitish, with brown tips. The legs are
nearly black, the digits being lighter coloured or whitish.
The head is fulvous-white, with a dusky suffusion round
the eye ; the ears are black, with a yellow patch at the
upper border ; the root of the tail is also dark coloured.
The Possum is very destructive to poultry, and proves
a troublesome pest. The female produces sometimes
as many as sixteen young at a birth, which, when at
first transferred to the marsupial pouch, are extremely
minute. The eyes of the young open about the fiftieth
day, when the cubs are as large as ordinary mice.
The flesh is said to be good eating.
Among the more interesting or noticeable of the
other species, we may mention the following: — The
TEXAS POSSUM (Didelphis Californica). which is dis-
tinguished by its smaller size, its less rounded and
more pointed ears ; the hairy or basal portion of the
tail being also shorter. According to Mr. J. H. Clarke
of the United States expedition, this species is parti-
cularly fond of the black persimmon, an abundant fruit
on the borders of the Rio Grande. The D. Murina
is found in Mexico, Guyana, Peru, and Brazil ; the D.
dorsigera in Surinam. " These species," as Van der
Hoeven observes, " carry their young on the back when
they are sufficiently developed to leave the teat, to
which at first they were attached, whilst they throw
their tails like tendrils round the caudal appendage of
their parent." In both the tail is fully as long as the
body, and the ears are largely developed. AZARA'S
POSSUM (D. AzarcR) pretty closely resembles the Texas
form. According to Mr. Spencer F. Baird, it is distin-
guished by its white head and neck, with a central dark
stripe along the forehead to the dusky part of the nape.
The ears and toes are flesh-coloured. The CRAB-
EATING OPOSSUM (D. cancrivora)—so called from its
propensity for eating these Crustacea — is a large spe-
cies, possessing no well-defined markings on the head ;
the generically distinctive, long, and sparsely scattered
hairs of the short fur existing more or less abundantly
in all the opossums. The fur exhibits a deep black
colour.
THE YAPOCK (Cheironectes variegalus), or PETITE
LOUTRE of Biiffon, is an aquatic form of opossum
inhabiting the river banks of Brazil and Guyana (fig.
92). The only point in which it appears to differ
The Yapock ^lieironectes variegatus)
materially from the ordinary opossums, has reference
to the palmated character of the feet, which are
supplied with interdigital membranes. In all other
particulars it conforms to the genus Didelphis. The
Yapock is little more than a foot in length, exclusive
of the tail, which is scaly and prehensile, and nearly
as long as the body. It is an expert swimmer, and
feeds upon fishes, Crustacea, and other aquatic animals.
OEDER XIV.— MOXOTREMATA.
IT is not a little significant of the universality of plan
pervading all vertebrate formations, that we should
find on examining the skeleton and viscera of the
monotremes, a decided approximation to certain of
VOL. I
the distinguishing characteristics of birds and reptiles.
At first sight there is little to suggest this relationship,
except in so far as the bill-like jaws of Ornithorynchus
are admitted to resemble a duck's beak ; but on closer
2E
218
MONOTKEMATA. MAMMALIA. OKXITHORHYXCHID.E.
examination, several oviparine features will be imme-
diately discovered. M. Geoffrey St. Hilaire first gave
the name of Monotremata to the small group of non-
placental marsupial mammals here associated together,
thereby indicating the termination of the urino-genital
and intestinal passages by a single cloacal outlet — an
arrangement also found in birds and reptiles. Equally
striking peculiarities affect the skeleton, these being
more especially manifest in the presence of two clavicles
nearly conjoined, and applied against the upper surface
of a single furcular bone ; there are also well-developed
coracoid bones, which are articulated to the sternum.
In addition to this there are special osseous elements,
termed epicoracoids, which are connected to the sternal
and furcular bones, the scapulae being likewise attached
to the breastbone. In the accompanying woodcut
(fig. 93), the furcular bone or episternum presents a
Sternal apparatus of the Duck-bill (OraitUorhj-nchiis paradoxusj.
T-shaped outline, with the lateral free ends directed
towards the shoulder-blades. It conceals the clavicles,
which are slender bones and not united at the mesial
line. The epicoracoids are seen interposed on either
side of the stem of the furcular bone, resting laterally
on the thick coracoids, which latter are articulated to
the episternum and manubrial bone of the sternum
below and to the scapular above. Another circum-
stance worthy of remark is that the bones of the skull
become very early consolidated; those of the face
being much prolonged forwards and flattened out into
-the form of a beak, which is covered by a smooth,
naked integument. The jaws are not furnished with
teeth ; but their place is supplied by numerous rows of
horny dentelations, having their spinous points directed
towards the throat, as obtains in the analogous buc-
cal papilla? in the mouths of ruminants. They also
exist on the tongue in the form of conical papillae.
The feet are short, particularly strong, and pentadac-
tylous. The Monotremes have small eyes, no external
ears, and very short tails. In the male Duck-bill the
hind feet are armed with a perforated spur, its channel
containing an excretory duct belonging to a special
glandular structure placed at the back part of the
thigh. This remarkable organ was formerly supposed
to be a poison gland ; but there is no good ground for
such an opinion. Neither is it merely a weapon of
offence and defence ; for then we should probably not
have the gland hi connection with the spur, and the
females would probably also be similarly armed. We
have no doubt in our own mind that it is analogous to
those supernumerary organs often found in the males
of the lower as well as in the higher animals. " Since
then," says Professor Owen, " this apparatus forms a
sexual character, it may be presumed that its function
is connected with that of generation. "Whether the
spur be a weapon for combat among the males, or —
like the spiculum amoris of the snail — be used to
excite the female, the injected secretion being an addi-
tional stimulus ; or whether the spur be mechanically
useful in retaining the female during the coitus, are
conjectures which must be verified or disproved by
actual observation." The females are furnished with
mammary glands ; but there are no external teats.
The manner in which the function of lactation is per-
formed, and many other facts bearing upon the question
as to how the offspring are reared, still remain to be
explained.
FAMILY I.— ORNITHORHYNCHID^B
This family is represented by a single species, which
is readily distinguished from the members of the suc-
ceeding family by its non-fossorial, palmate feet. It is
also furnished with eight horny, tooth-like formations
regularly disposed, two on either side above and below.
The crowns of the anterior pairs are long and thin,
those of the posterior set being broader and oval. The
snout is prolonged, compressed, broad, and covered
by a naked coriaceous integument ; the lower jaw is
shorter and narrower than the upper, and marked
posteriorly by transverse lines. The tongue is very
peculiar; the anterior half or narrow portion being
covered with coarse papilla;, whilst the posterior division
is broad, slightly overlapping the former, and armed
in front by two prominent horny spines. The ornitho-
rhynchus is furnished with cheek-pouches. The fur is
hairy throughout ; the tail being flattened, broad, and
conspicuous.
THE DUCK-BILL (OnrithorJn/ncfiwi paradoxus), or
AUSTRALIAN WATER MOLE— Plate 31, fig. 99— is a
native of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land.
A full-grown individual varies in length from eighteen
to twenty inches, including the tail, which measures
about five inches. The fur exhibits a tawny or rufous
colour, one or other of these tints prevailing in different
varieties. In the young state the skin is entirely
destitute of hair, and the jaws are short, soft, and
flexible. In the adult the tongue is placed far back,
the tip being folly an inch behind the anterior opening
of the bill. According to Professor Owen, " the
raised posterior lobe of the tongue must impede the
passage of unmasticated food to the pharynx, and
doubtless tends to direct it on each side into the cheek -
pouches, whence the ornithorhynchus may transfer its
store at leisure to the molar teeth, and complete its
preparation for deglutition. An air-breathing, warm-
blooded animal, which obtains its food by the capture
of small aquatic animals while submerged, must derive
great advantage from the structure which enables it to
transfer them quickly to a temporary receptacle, whence
they may be extracted and masticated while the animal
is floating on the surface or at rest in its burrow."
ORNITHOKHYSCHID.E. MAMMALIA. TACHYGI.OSSID.E.
219
The Duck-bill feeds on small molluscous animals,
various aquatic larvae, and especially on water-bugs
belonging to the genus Nattcoris, which abound in
the running streams and lakes of Australia. The most
interesting account of the habits of this animal yet
placed on record, is that given by Mr. Bennett in the
first volume of the Zoological Society's Transactions.
Speaking of one which he kept in a semi-captive state,
occasionally tethering it to a stake by the river's side,
he tells us that " it was exceedingly lively, swam in
the centre of the stream, and appeared in excellent
health and spirits. The water at one part of the
river being very clear, I saw its movements distinctly
under the water. On diving, it sank speedily to the
bottom, swam there for a short distance, and then rose
again to the surface ; it ranged the banks, guiding itself
in its progress according to the impressions received by.
the mandibles, which appeared to me to be used by it
as very delicate organs of touch. It seemed to feed
well ; for whenever it inserted its beak into the mud
it evidently procured some food from thence, as, on
raising the head, after withdrawing the beak, the man-
dibles were seen in lateral motion, as is usual when
the animal masticates. Although several insects were
basking and fluttering about the surface of the water,
close to it, no attempt was made to capture them, either
from its not seeing them, or from its preferring the food
which the mud afforded. The motions of the mandi-
bles in this animal, when seeking its food in the mud
and water, are the same as those of a duck when feed-
ing in similar situations. After feeding it would lie
sometimes on the grassy bank, and at others partly in
and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its
coat as usual with the claws of the hind feet. After
permitting it to swim, feed, and clean itself for an
hour, it was replaced, although with great reluctance
on its own part, in its box ; it did not, however, as
before, betake itself to repose, but commenced and
continued a scratching on the sides of the box."
During sleep the duck-bill rolls itself up in the form
of a ball. For this, and many other interesting
facts, we are indebted to Mr. Bennett, who has also
given us a full account of the form and extent of the
burrows which these animals construct in the banks
of rivers. One of these burrows measured fully
twenty feet in length. It commenced in some long
grass about five feet from the water's edge, passed
upwards in a serpentine direction, terminating near
the surface of the ground in a rounded excavation, the
lower part of this hollow forming a nest x>f dried grass
and weeds. In this particular burrow Mr. Bennett
captured an unlucky ornithorynchus, which, on being
drawn out by the leg, manifested the most alarming
evidences of fear, its heart palpitating violently. It did i
not scream, or make any attempt to bite ; during its j
subsequent captivity, however, it frequently uttered a
soft growl during the night, at which tune it also made ;
vigorous efforts to escape.
FAMILY IL— TACHYGLOSSHX3E.
The members of this family are at once distinguished
from the former by the mixed spinous and hairy char-
acter of their fur, as well as by the circumstance of
their possessing a slender subulate muzzle and a merely
rudimentary tail. On closer examination we find that
the jaws are entirely edentulous, the palate being
armed with several rows of small spines directed
backwards. A more significant character is founded
on the form of the tongue, which is long, narrow,
rounded, and very extensile — hence the family name
above given — closely resembling the lingual organ in
their placental representatives, namely, the true ant-
eaters and pangolins. The pentadactylous feet are
short and thick, the digits being furnished with power-
ful falciform claws adapted for burrowing. The second
aud third digits of the hind feet are particularly long.
The stomach is simple, capacious, and spherical when
distended. The coecum is moderately developed.
THE POBCTJPLNE ANT-EATER (Tachyglotwu Hys-
trix), or AUSTRALIAN HEDGEHOG of the colonists, is a
native of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,
but is now rather rare in the first named locality. It
is maintained by some, on grounds apparently tenable,
that the forms proper to the two habitations are
distinct species; but others consider the differences
observable insufficient to prove a separate origin.
Without offering a positive decision, we strongly incline
to the belief that they are different annuals, the form
known as the Van Diemen's Land species (Tachyglossus
setosus) — which, however, is not peculiar to that island,
according to the testimony of Mr. Waterhouse — being
provided with small and narrow digits, as compared
with those of T. Hystrix, whilst the hairy appendages
of the skin are also longer, the spines, on the other
hand, being relatively short. Other minor differences
likewise exist. These animals are about the size of
our common hedgehog, varying in length from fourteen
to eighteen inches. The hairy portion of the skua
exhibits a chestnut colour, the spines being whitish
except at their tips, which are black. Like hedgehogs,
they roll themselves up when attacked on the open
ground ; but their safety is usually more effectually
secured by burrowing in the earth, or by entering a
previously constructed tunnel. These animals feed
upon ants, captured by the protrusion and subsequent
retraction of their extensile glutinous tongues, after
the manner previously described in our account of the
typical edentate ant-eaters or myrmecophagas.
Those who desire more extended information respect-
ing the structure and economy of the monotreme mar-
supials, are referred to Professor Owen's elaborate
article " Monotremata," contained in the third volume
of Dr. Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology ;
and also to Mr. Gould's large folio work on the
" Mammals of Australia."
END OF MAMMALIA.
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
Aard-Vark, the, Orycteropus Capensis .
Acronotus Caama, the Harte-beest . .
Acronotus lunata, the Sassabe .
Addax, the, Antilope Addax .
Agouti, the, Dasyprocta Aguti
Ai, the, Bradypus tridactylu* .
Ailurus refulgens, the Panda
Alcephalus bubalus, the Bubale
Alces Malchis, the Elk ...
Ant-eater, the Great, Myrmecophagajubata
Ant-eater, the Little, Myrmecophaga didactyla .
Ant-eater, the Porcupine, Tachyglossus Ht/strix
Antechinus minutissimus
Antelope, the Common, Antilope cervicapra
Antelope, the Four-Horned, Antilope quadricornis
Antelope, the White, Antilope Leucoryx
Antelope, the White-Faced, Antilope albifrons .
Antilope Addax, the Addax
Antilope albifrons, the Bless-boc
Antilope Anderssonii, the Nakong
Antilope Capreolus, the Rhee-boc
Antilope cervicapra, the Common Antelope
Antilope coins, the Saiga . . .
Autilope eleotragus, the Reit-boc
Antilope ellipsiprimna, the Water-boc .
Antilope furcifer, the Prong-horn
Antilope Grimmia, the Duiker-boc
Antilope Hodgsoni, the Chiru .
Antilope Leche'e, the Lechee
Antilope leucophaea, the Blauw-boc . .
Antilope Leucoryx, the Leucoryx
Antilope melampus, the Pallah
Antilope melanotis, the Grys-boc . '
Antilope Mohr, the Mohr
Antilope Oryx, the Gems-boo .
Antilope quadricornis, the Chousingha . .
Antilope rupicapra, the Chamois
Antilope saltiana, the Madoqua . .
Antilope Sumatrensis, the Cambing-outan
Antilope tragulus, the Steen-boc
Aonyx leptonyx, the Javanese Otter
Ape, the Barbary, Inuus Sylvanus
Arctocephalus ursinus, the Sea-Bear
Arctomys Bobac, the Polish Marmot
Arctomys brachyurus, the Short-tailed Marmot
Arctomys empetra, the Quebec Marmot
Arctomys latrans, the Prairie Marmot
Arctomys marmotta, the Alpine Marmot
Arctomys monax, the Maryland Marmot .
Arctomys pruinosus, Pennant's Marmot
Armadillo, the Black, Dasypus peba
Armadillo, the Great, Dasypus gigas
Armadillo, the Hairy, Dasypus villosus
Arvicola agrestis, the Field Vole
Arvicola amphibia, the Water Rat .
Arvicola borealis, Richardson's Vole
Arvicola Pennsylvanicus, Wilson's Vole
Arvicola riparia, the Bank Vole
Arvicola xanthognathus, the Yellow-cheeked Vole
Asinus Hemionus, the Kiang
Asinus onager, the Koulan . ...
Asinus vulgaris, the Ass
Ass, the, Asinus vulgaris
Ateles Paniscus, the Coaita
Auchenia glama, the Llama
Axis, the, Cervus Axis
Page
. 149
. 168
Aye- Aye, the, Cheiromys madagascariensis .
Babi Alu, the Malayan Tapir . . ,
Page
. 46
. 187
. 168
Babirussa alfurus, the Babyroussa
. 189
. 171
Baboon, the Common, Cynocephalus Pupio
. 38
. 143
Babyroussa, the, Babirussa alfurus
. 189
. 153
Badgareit, the, Manis pentadactyla
. 147
77
Badger, the American, Meles labradoria .
. 74
. 168
Badger, the European, Meks taxus
74
. 174
Badger, the Indian, Meles collaris
. 74
. 147
Bajing, the, Sciurus Plantani .
. 132
. 148
Balasna antarctica, the New Zealand Whale
. 199
. 219
Balaena australis, the Cape Whale
. 199
. 215
. 168
. 171
Balasna gibbosa, the Scrag Whale
Balaena japonica, the Japanese Whale .
Balaena marginata, the Australian Whale
. 199
. 199
. 199
. 171
Balaena mysticetus, the Mysticete Whale
. 198
. 170
Balsenoptera rostrata, the Pike Whale .
. 199
.. 171
Bandicoot, the Long-nosed, Perameles nasutus .
. 214
. 170
. 171
Bandicoot, Ogilby's, Ch&ropus castanotis
Bandicoot, the Pig-footed, Chaeropus castanotis .
. 214
. 214
. 170
Bandicoot, the Spring, Perameles obesula
• 214
. 168
Bangsring, the Javanese, Tupaia javanica
. 69
. 169
Barbastellns communis, the Barbastelle
54
. 170
Bat, the African leaf, Megadermafrons
. 58
. 170
Bat, the Barbastelle, Barbastellus communis
54
. 171
Bat, Bechstein's, VespertiUo Bechsteinii
54
. 170
Bat, Daubenton's, Vespertilio Daubentonii
. 54
. 169
Bat, the Greater horse-shoe, Rhinolophus Ferrum-eqm
num. 56
. 171
Bat, the Kalong, Pteropus edulis
. 58
. 170
Bat, Leisler's, Vespertilio Leisleri
54
. 171
Bat, the Lesser horse-shoe, Rhinolophus hipposideros
. 56
. 169
Bat, the Long-eared, Plecotus auritus . ' .
. 54
. 170
Bat, the Mouse-coloured, Vespertilio murinus .
53
. 169
Bat, -Natterer's, Vespertilio Naltereri .
. 53
. 170
Bat, the Noble horse-shoe, Rhinolophus nobilis .
. 57
. 171
Bat, the Noctule. Vespertilio noclula
52
. 171
Bat, the Particoloured, Vespertilio discolor
53
. 169
Bat, the Pipistrelle, Vespertilio pipistrellus
. 51
. 171
Bat, the Serotine, Vespertilio serotinus
. 53
. 170
Bat, the Swift-flying thick-lipped, Molossus velox
. 56
. 95
Bat, the Vampire, Phyllostoma spectrum
. 57
35
Bat, the Whiskered, VespertiUo mystadnus
. 54
. 126
Bathiergus maritimus, the Shore Mole .
. 140
. 132
Bear, the black, Ursus americanus . .
82
. 132
Bear, the brown, Ursus arctos .
. 77
. 132
Bear, the grisly, Ursus ferox . . .
. 83
. 132
Bear, Horsfield's, Ursus isabellinus . .
. 80
. 132
Bear, the Malayan sun, Helarctos malayanus
. 81
. 132
Bear, the Polar, Thalarctos maritimus . .
83
. 132
Bear, the Sea, Arctocephalus ursinus .
. 126
. 150
Bear, the Sloth, Ursus labiatus
. 80
. 151
Bear, the Syrian, Ursus syriacus
. 80
. 151
Beaver, the Common, Castor fiber
. 137
. 136
Beluga Catodon, the White Whale
. 203
. 136
Beluga Catodon, the Northern Beluga .
. 203
. 136
Beluga, the Northern, Beluga Catodon .
. 203
. 136
Bene, the, Sus Papuensis . . «
. 189
. 136
Betjuan, the, Antilope melampus . .
. 169
. 136
Bhunder, the, Macacus Rhesus .
. 34
. 180
Binturong, the, Ictides albifrons
76
. 180
Biscacho, the, Lagostomus trichodactylus ,
. 142
. 180
Bison, the American, Bison Americanus
. 159
. 180
Bison, Americanus, the American Bison .
. 159
40
Bison, Bonassus, the European Bison .
. 159
. 176
. 175
Bison, the European, Bison Bonassus .
Blauw-boc, the, Antilope leucophaa . .
. 159
. 170
222
IXDEX TO MAMMALIA.
Page
Bless-boc, the A ntilope albifrons . . .170
Boar, the African, Phacochcerus ^Ethiopian . . 190
Boar, the Masked, Sus larvatus .v . .189
Boar, the Papuan, Sus Papuensis . . . 189
Boar, the Wild, Sus Scrofa . . - 188
Bokkul, the, Sciurus insignia . . . ' 132
Bos frontalis, the Gyall . ' . . - .162
Bos Gaurus, the Gour . . . ... 162
Bos Indicns, the Zebu . / . . .161
Bos poephagus, the Yak . . . . .162
Bos taurus, the Ox . . . • . . 158
Bosch-Boc, the Tragelaphus sylvatica . ; .166
Bosch- Vark; the, Sus larvattis . '•-. . .189
Boselaphus oreas, the Eland . . . .167
Bottle-head, the, Globiocephalus deductor . . 204
Bottle-head, the, Hyperoodon Butzkopf . . 202
Bradypns torquatus, the Gipakeiou . . . 154
Brady pus tridactylus, the Three-Toed Sloth . .153
Bruh, the, Macacus Nemestrinus . . .34
Bnbale, the, Alcephalus bubalus . . .168
Bnbalus arna, the Indian Buffalo . . ; 161
Buhalus Caffer, the Cape Buffalo . . .160
Budeng, the, Semnopithecus Maurus . . .28
Buffalo, the, Bison Americanus . . . 159
Buffalo, the Cape, Bubalus Coffer . . .160
Buffalo, the Indian, Bubalus arna . . .161
Bulau, the, Gymnura Rafflesii . . " . .68
Bulu, the, Felts Sumatrana . •- .112
Caama, the, Acronotus Caama . * - . .168
Cabrit, the, Antilope furdfer . . . = .171
Callithrix, the, Cercopithecus Saboeus . . . 31
Callithrix sciureus, the Squirrel Monkey . - .40
Cambing-outan, the, Antilope Sumatrensis . .171
Camel, the Bactrian, Camelus Bactrianus . . 176
Camel, the One-humped, Camelus Dromedarius . . 176
Camelopard, the, Camelopardalis Gira/a • • 173
Camelopardalis Giraffa, the Giraffe . .-.. . 173
Camelus Bactrianus, the Bactrian Camel . .176
Camelus Dromedarius, the Dromedary . . . 176
Canis aureus, the Jackal . . • . - . 105
Canis jubata, the Red Wolf . . -. - .107
Canis lupus, the Wolf . . . . .106
Canis lupus, var. familiaris, the Dog . . .108
Capra stgagras, the Wild Goat . . . .164
Capra ibex, the Ibex . . . . .164
Capreolus Dorcas, the Roebuck . . i-' ' .175
Capybara, the, Hydrochcerus Capybara . " . . 143
Caracal, the, Felis Caracal . . f . 113
Caribov,-, the, Tarandus Rangifer . , M • .174
Castor fiber, the Common Beaver . . . 137
Castor zebethicus, the Musquash . « • ••* . 139
Cat, the ^Egyptian, Felis maniculata . . .111
Cat, the domestic, Felis domestica . . .110
Cat, the Nepaulese, Felis Nepaulensis . . .111
Cat, the pampas, Felis pnjeros . . . Ill
Cat, the Tasmanian Wild, Dasyurus viverrinus . . 215
Catoblepas gnu, the Gnoo . . . .164
Catoblepas Gorgon, the Brindled Gnoo . . .165
Catodon colueti, the Mexican Sperm Whale . . 201
Catodon macrocephalus, the Northern Sverm Whale . 200
Catodon polycyphus, the Southern Sperm Whale . 200
Cavia aperca, the Restless Cavy . . . 143
Cavy, the Bolivian, Ctivia Boliviensis . . . 143
Cavia Boliviensis, the Bolivian Cavy . . . 143
Cavia rupestris, the Rock Cavy . . .142
Cavy, the Patagonian, Dolichotis Patagonica . 142
Cavy, the restless, Cavia aperca . . . 143
Cavy, the rock, Cavia rupestria . . 142
Caelogenys Paca, the Paca . . . . 143
Cebus Apella, the 'Weeper Monkey . . .40
Cebus fatuellus, the Horned Monkey . . .39
Centetes setosns, the Tenrec . . . .70
Cephalophus pygmseus, the Guevi . , .169
Cercocebus .£thiops, the White-crowned Mangabey . 32
Cercocebus Collaris, the Collared Mangabey . .32
Cercocebus Fuliginosns, the Sooty Mangabey . 32
Page
Cercoleptes caudivolvnla, the Kinkajou . . .76
Cercopithecus Diana, the Diana Monkey . .31
Cercopithecus Griseus. the Grivet . . .31
Cercopithecus Mona, the Mone . . . .30
Cercopithecus Nictitans, the White-nosed Monkey 31
Cercopithecus Petaurista, the White-nosed Monkey . 31
Cercopithecus Pyrrhonotus, the Nisnas . . .32
Cercopithecus Ruber, the Patas . . .32
Cercopithecns Sabaeus, the Callithrix . . .31
Cercopithecus Talapoin, the Talapoin . . .30
Cervus Axis, the Axis . . . . . 175
Cervus Canadiensis, the Wapiti . . . .174
Cervus dama, the Fallow deer .... 175
Cervus Elaphus, the Red-deer .... 174
Cervus Muntjac, the Muntjak .... 175
Chacma, the, Cynocephalus porcarius . . .37
Chamois, the, Antilope Rupicapra . . .171
Chati, the, Felis mitts . . . . .111
Chaus, the, Felis Chaus . . . .112
Cheetah, the, Felis jubata .... 114
Cheirogaleus Milii .... .43
Cheiromys madagascariensis, the Aye- Aye . 46
Cheironectes variegatus, the Yapock . . .217
Chibiguazu, the, Felis chibiguazu . . .111
Chimpanzee, the, Troglodytes niger . . .16
Chincha, the, Lagotis Cuvieri .... 142
Chinchilla, the, Chinchilla lanigera . . .141
Chinchilla lanigera, the Chinchilla . . .141
Chiru, the, Antilope Hodgsoni . . . .169
Chlamydophorus truncatus, the Pichiciago . . 152
Chaeropus castanotis, Ogilby's Bandicoot . .214
Choloepus didactylus, the Unau . . .154
Chousingha, the, Antilope quudricomis . . . 171
Chrysochloris capensis, the lustrous Cape Mole . . 64
Chuck, the Wood, Arctomys monax . . . 132
Civet, the African, Viverra civetta . . . 100
Coaita, the, Aides Paniscus . . . .40
Coatimoiidi, the Brown, A'nsua narica . . .76
Coendou, the, Synetheres prehensilis . . . 140
Colobus Guereza, the Guereza . . . .29
Colus, the, Antilope colus '. . . .169
Condylnra macroura, the Thick-tailed Star-nose . . 63
Coypu, the, Myopotamus Coypus . . .139
Cricetus frumentarius, the Hamster . . . 135
Crossarchus obscurus, the Mangue . . .98
Cryptoprocta ferox, the Gakt . . . .96
Ctenomys, the Brazilian, Ctenomys Braziliensis . .141
Ctenomys, Braziliensis, the Brazilian Ctenomys . .• 141
Cuscus maculata, the Spotted Phalanger . . 212
Cynictis Steedmannii, tht Meerkat . . .97
Cynocephalus Hamadryas, the Derrias . . .37
Cynocephalus Papio, the Common Baboon . . 38
Cynocephalus porcarius, the Chacma . . .37
Dam.in, the, Hyrax Siriacus . . . .192
Dasse, the, Hyrax capensis .... 192
Dasyprocta Aguti, the Agouti . . . .143
Dasypus gigas, the Great Armadillo . . .151
Dasypus minutus, the Pichey . . . .150
Dasypus peba, the Peba . . . .150
Dasypus sexcinctus, the Poyou .... 151
Dasypns Tatouay, the Tatouay .... 150
Dasypus tricinctns, the Mataco .... 151
Dasypus villosus, the Hairy Armadillo . . .151
Dasyure, the Long- tailed, Dasyurus macrourus . .215
Dasyure, Mange's, Dasyurus Mangii . . . 215
Dasyure, Shaw's, Dasyurus viverrinus . . . 215
Dasyurus macrourus, the Long-tailed Dasyure . .215
Dasyurus Mangii, Manges Dasyure . . .215
Dasyurus Ursinus, the Ursine Opossum . .214
Dasyurus viverrinus, Shaw's Dasyure . . .215
Deer, the Fallow, Cervus dama. . . .175
Deer, the Musk, Moschus Moschiferus . . . 176
Deer, the Red, Cervus Elaphus . . . .174
DelunJung, the, Prionodon gracilis . . .96
Delphinapterns Peronii, Peron's Dolphin . . 205
Delphinus Delphis, the Common Dolphin . . 204
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
223
Delphinus Tursio, the Bottle-nose Dolphin
Page
. 204
Family Hyracidae
Page
191-193
Dendroolgus inustus, the Tree Kangaroo
. 211
Hystricidae ...
139, 140
Dendrologus ursinus, the Tree Kangaroo
. 211
Lemuridse
42, 43
Derrias, the, Cynocephalus Hamadryas .
37
Leporidae . . .
143-145
Dicotyles labiatus, the White-lipped Peccary
. 191
Lichanotidse
43, 44
Dicotyles torquatus, the Collared Peccary
. 190
' Macropida . . .
. 211
Didelphis Azare, Azara's Possum
. 217
Manidaa
Didelphis Californica, the Texas Possum
. 217
' Manatidae
205-207
Didelphis cancrivora, the Crab-eating Opossum .
. 217
' Muridse
134, 135
Didelphis Virginiana, the Virginian Opossum .
Dipus jEgyptius, the ^Ef/yptian Jerboa .
. 216
. 133
Mustelidje
' Myoxidae
85-96
. 133
Dipus Indicus, Hardicickes Jerboa
. 134
' Myrmecophagida?
147-149
Dipus Mitchellii, Mitchells Jerboa
. 134
' Nycticebidae
44, 45
Dog, the, Canis lupus, var. familiaris .
. 108
' Octodontidae
140, 141
Dolichotis Patagonica, the Patagonian Cavy
. 142
' Ornithorhynchidae
218,219
Dolphin, the Bolivian, Inia Geoffroyii .
. 205
Peramelidae
. 214
Dolphin, the Bottle-nose, Delphinus Tursio
. 204
' Phalangistida? .
211-214
Dolphin, the common, Delphinus Delphis .
. 204
" Phascolomydse .
. 209
Dolphin, the Inia, Inia Geoffroyii
. 205
". Phocidse
124-128
Dolphin, Peron's, Delphinapterus Peronii
. 205
" Phyllostomidae .
57, 58
Dolphin, the Sou-Sou, Platanista Gangetica
. 205
Pteropidse
58, 59
Diodon Sowerbwi, Sowerby's Dolphin
. 205
" Rhinoceridae
184-186
Dolphin, Sowerby's, Diodon Sowerbcei .
. 205
" Rhinolophida? .
56, 57
Dolphin, the White-beaked, Delphinapterus Peronii
. 205
" Seiuridae
130-133
Dormouse, the common, Myoxus avellanarius
. 133
" Simiadae
16-38
Dormouse, the great, Myoxus Glis
. 133
'• Soricidae . . .
65-69
Douc, the, Semnopithecus Nemceus
. 28 li Suidaa ....
188-191
Douroucouli, the, Nyctipithecus trivirgulus
40
" Tachyglossido; .
219, 220
Drill, the, Papio leucophceus .
. 37
" Talpida;
59-65
Dromedary, the, Camelus Dromedarius .
. 176
Tapiridse
187, 188
Duck-bill, the, Ornithorhynchus paradoxus
. 218
" Tarsiidae
45
Dugong, the Australian, Halicore Australis
. 207
" Trichecida3
128, 12S
Dugong, the Indian, Halicore Dugong .
. 206
" Tupaiadae
. 69
Duiker-boc, the Antilope Grimmia
. 170
" Ursidze
72-85
Vespertilionida!
51-66
Echinops Telfairi, the Sokinnh .
70
" Viverridae
96-101
Eland, the, Boselaphus oreas .
. 167
Felis domestica, the Domestic Cat
. no
Elephant, the African, Elephas Africanus
. 182
Felis Canadensis, the Canada Lynx
. 113
Elephas Africanus, tfie African Elephant
. 182
Felis Caracal, the Caracal
. 113
Elephant, the Indian, Elephas Indicus .
. 182
Felis Catus, the Wild Cat
. no
Elephas Indicus, the Indian Elephant
. 182
Felis Chaus, the Chaus
. 112
Elephant, the Sea, Morunga proboscidea
. 127
Felis Chibiguazn, the Chibiguazu
. Ill
Elk, the, Aloes Mulchis
. 174
Felis concolor, the Puma
. 119
Enhydra marina, the Sea Otter .
. 95
Felis Javanensis, the Kuwuk
. Ill
Equus Caballus, the Horse
. 177
Felis jubata, the Cheetah
. 114
Erinaceus europoeus, the Common Hedgehog
70
Felis Le"o, the Lion
. 119
Ermine, the, Muslela erminea . . .
. 91
Felis Leopardns, the Leopard .
. 113
Felis Lynx, the European Lynx
113
Family yEgosceridse ....
163, 164
Felis macroscelis, the Rimau-Dynn
. 115
" Antilopidae ....
164-172
136 137
Felis maniculata, the ^Egyptian Cat
. Ill
. HI
" Balasnidae ....
198-200
Felis Nepaulensis, the Nepaulese Cat .
. HI
" Bovidae . . .
158-163
Felis Onca, the Jaguar
115
Bradypidae ....
152-154
Felis pajeros, the Pampas Cat .
. HI
Camelidae ....
176,177
Felis pardalis, the Ocelot
. . HI
•' Camelopardidx
172, 173
Felis serval, the Serval
112
" Canidas ....
103-108
Felis Snmatrana, the Bulu
. H2
Castoridae ....
137-139
Felis Tigris, the Tiger .
. H6
" Catodontidaa ....
200-201
Felis Uncia, the Ounce
113
Cavidae ....
142, 143
Felis unicolor, TraiWs Puma .
. H9
" Cebids ....
38-41
Fennec, the, Vulpes Zerda
. 104
Cervidae ....
173-176
Flying Lemur, the, Galeopithecus volant
47
Cheiromvidae ....
45,46
Fox, the American red, Vulpes fulvus .
. 104
" Chinchiliida3 ....
141, 142
Fox, the Artie, Vulpes lagopus
105
Dasypidae ....
149-152
Fox, the common, Vulpes vulgaris
104
Dasyuridae ....
214-216
Fox, the Indian, Vulpes Bengalensis
.105
Delphinidae ....
201-205
Fox, the Kit, Vulpes cinereo-argentutus
. 104
Didelphidae ....
216, .217
Dipodidae ....
" Elephantida ....
Equidse . . .
" Erinaceadae ....
133, 134
181-184
177-180
69-71
Galago crassicaudatus .
Galago, the Senegal, Galago Senegalensis
Galago Senegalensis, the Senegal Galago
Galeopithecus volans, the Flying Lemur
45
. 45
45
. 47
Felida; .
109-123
Galet, the, Crypt«procta ferox .
96
" Galeopithecidaa
46,47
Galictis Allamandi, Allamand's Grison .
. 88
" Hapalidae ....
41,42
Galictis vittata, the Grison
. 87
" Hippopotamidai
186, 187
Garangan, the, Herpestes Jacanicus
97
" Hyaenidae ....
101-103
Gazella Dorcas, the Gazelle
. 170
'224
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
Page
Gazella Euchore, the Spring-boc . . .169
Gazelle, the, Gazella Dorcas .... 170
Geras-boc, the, Antilope Oryx . - . . .170
Genet, the common, Gene.Ua vulgaris . . .99
Genetta vulgaris, the common Genet . . .99
Gibbon, the agile, Hylobates Agilis . ' . . • . 26
Gibbon, the Cinereous, Hylobates Leuciscus •'. ' . 26
Gibbon, the White-handed, Hylobates Lar ' . • . 24
Gipakeiou, the, Bradypus torquatus . , . 154
Giraffe, the, Camelopardalis Giraffa . . . 173
Glutton, the, Gulo luscus . . .73
Gnoo, the, Catoblepas gnu . . ... 164
Gnoo, the Brindled, Catoblepas Gorgon . . ' .165
Goat, the wild, Capra cegagras . . . .164
Gorilla, the, Troglodytes Gorilla . . . 18
Gour, the, Bos Gaurus . , . . .162
Grampus, the, Grampus orca .... 204
Grampus orca, the Grampus . . • . . 204
Grison, the, Galictis vittata . . : . .87
Grivet, the, Cercopithecus Griseus . . .31
Grys-boc, the, Antilope meluwtis . . . 170
Guanaco, the, Auchenia glama . ... . 176
Guereza, the, Colobus Guereza . . ••• .29
Gnevi, the, Cephalophus pygmceus . • . 169
Gulo luscus, the Glutton .. ' • - . . ' < . 73
Gyall, the, Bosfrontalis • -.- '. .162
Gymnura Rafflesii, the Bufau . . . .68
Habrocoma Bennettii, Bennetts Habrocome . .141
Habrocome, Bennett's, Habrocoma Bennettii -. • . 141
Halichajrus gryphus, the Grey Seal . . : .125
Halicore australis, the Australian Dugong . . 207
Halicore Dugong, the Indian Dugong . . .206
Halmaturus Asiaticus, Le Brun's Kangaroo , • . 210
Hamster, the, Cricetus frumentarius . . .135
Hare, the Alpine, Lepus vnriabilis . . . 144
Hare, the American, Lepus Americanus . . 144
Hare, the Calling, Lagomys pusillus . . . 145
Hare, the common, Lepus timldus . . • . 144
Hare, the Irish, I^epus Hibernicus . . . 144
Hare, the Little chief, Lagomys princeps .- .145
Hare, the Polar, Lepus glacMls . '. . 145
Hare, the Prairie, Lepus Virginianus . . . 145
Harte-beest, the, Acronotus Caama . . .168
Harte-beest, the Bastard, Acronotus lunata . .168
Hedgehog, the Australian, Tachyglossus Hystrix . 219
Hedgehog, the common, Erinaceus -europonis . .70
Helamys Capensis, the Cape Jerboa . . . 134
Helarctos malayanus, the Malayan Sun-Bear . . 81
Helictis moschatus, the Nyentek . •« . 86
Herpestes badius, the Jtatlamuchi . . 98
Herpestes griseus, the Moongus . . .97
Herpestes Ichneumon, the Egyptian Ichneumon . .97
Herpestes Javanicus, tJie Garangan . . .97
Hippopotamus, the, Hippopotamus amphibius . . 186
Hippopotamus amphibius, the Hippopotamus . . 186
Hippotigris Burchellii, BurchelVs Zebra . .179
Hippotigris Quagga, (he Quagga . . .178
Hippotigris Zebra, the Zebra . . . .179
Histrix cristata, the common Porcupine . . 139
Histrix pilosa, the Canada Porcupine . . . 139
Hog, the Ground, Orycteropus Capensis . . 149
Hog, ^Elian's Wart, Phacochcerus ^Eliani . . 190
Hog, the ^Ethiopian Wart, Phacochcerus ^Ethiopicns . 190
Hooloc, the, Hylobates Hooloc . . . .24
Hoonuman, the, Semnopithecus Entelhis . . 26
Hopoona-Roo, the, Petaurus Australis . . .212
Horse, the, Equus Caballus . . . . .177
Hyaana crocuta, the Spotted Hyaena , . .102
Hyaena, the Spotted, Hymna crocuta . . .102
Hyaena striata, the Striped Hynna . . .101
Hyaena, the Striped, Hyaena striata . . .101
Hyaena villosa, the Woolly Hyosna . . .103
Hyaena, the Woolly, Hycena villosa . . .103
Hydrochaerus Capybara, the Capybara . . .143
Hydromys, the, Hydromys leucogaster . . .135
Hydromys leucogaster, the Hydromys . . .135
Hylobates Agilis, the Agil
Hylobates Hooloc, the Hoc
Page
Gibbon . . .26
rooloc . . . .24
Hylobates Lar, the White-handed Gibbon . . 24
Hylobates Leuciscus, the Cinereous Gibbon . . 26
Hylobates Syndactylus, the Siamang . . .25
Hylomys, the, Hylomys suillus . . . .69
Hylomys suillus, the Hylomys . . . .69
Hyperoodon Butzkopf, the Bottle-head . . .202
Hypsiprimnus minor, the Kangaroo Eat . .211
Hyrax, Abyssinicus, the Syrian Hyrax . . . 192
Hyrax, the Cape, Hyrax Capensis . . .192
Hyrax Capensis, the Dasse . . . .192
Hyrax Siriacus, the Daman . . . .192
Hyrax, the Syrian, Hyrax Siriacus . . .192
Hystris. fasciculata, the Javanese Porcupine . . 140
Ibex, the, Capra Ibex . . . .164
Ichneumon, the Egyptian, Herpestes Ichneumon . 97
Ictides albifrons, the Binturong . . .76
Impoon, the, Antilope Grimmia . . . 170
Indri, the, Indris Brevicaudatus , . .43
Indris Brevicandatus, the Indri . . .43
Inghalla, the, Anlilope eleolragus . . . 170
Ingooloob, the Phacochcerus ^Ethiopicvs . . 190
Inia Geoffroyii, the Ma Dolphin . . .205
Inuus Sylvanus, the Barbary Ape . . .35
Jackal, the, Canis aureus . . . .105
Jacchus (Edipns, the Pinche . . . .42
Jacchus Rosalia, the Marikina . . . .42
Jacchus penicillatus, the Black-tufted Marmozct . . 42
Jacchus vulgaris, the common Alarmozet . . 42
Jaguar, the, Felis Onca . . . .115
Jelerang, the, Sciurus bicolor . . .131
Jerboa, the Alak-Daargha, Scirtetes jaculus . .134
Jerboa, the Egyptian, Dipus jEgyptius . .133
Jerboa, the Cape, Helaniys Capensis . . .134
Jerboa, Hardwirke's, Dipus Indicus . . . 134
Jerboa, Mitchell's, Dipus Mitchellii . . .134
Kahau, the, Nasalis Larvatus . . . .28
Kangaroo, the Black-gloved, Macropus Irma . .210
Kangaroo, the Brush-tailed Rock, Macropus penicillatus 210
Kangaroo, the Great, Macropus giganteus . .210
Kangaroo, the Great Rock, Masropus robust us . .210
Kangaroo, Le Bran's, Halmaturus Asiaticus . .210
Kangaroo, the Pandemelon Wallaby, Macrojrus The/ides 210
Kangaroo, the Red, Macropus laniger . . .210
Kangaroo, the Red-bellied Wallaby, Macropus Billarditrii 210
Kangaroo, the Red-necked, Macropus rnJicoUig . 210
Kangaroo, the Small Hare, Lagorchestes leporides . 210
Kangaroo, the -Sooty, Macropus fuliginosus . 210
Kangaroo, the Tree, Dendrologus inustus . .211
Kangaroo, the Tree, Dendrologus ursinus . .211
Kiang, the, Asinus Hemionus . . . .180
Kidang, the, Cervus Muntj'ic . . . .175
Kinkajou, the, Cercoleptes caudivolvula . . .76
Klipdas, the, Hyrax capensis .... 192
Koala, the, Phascolarctos cinereus . . .213
Kogia breviceps, the Short-headed Whale . .201
Kokoon, the, Catoblepas Gorgon . . .165
Koodoo, the, Strepsiceros Kudu . . .166
Kookaam, the, Antilope Oryx . . . .170
Koulan, the, Asinus onager .... 180
Kuwnk, the, Felis Javanensis . . . .111
Lagomys Ogotona, the Ogotona . . 145
Lagomys princeps, the Little-chief Hare , . 145
Lagomys pusillus, the Calling Hare . . . 145
Lagorchestes leporides, the Small Hare Kangaroo . 210
Lagostomus trichodactylus, the Viscacha . .142
Lagotis Cuvieri, the Chincha . . . .142
Lalande, the, Otocyon Lalandii . . .103
Lamantin, the, Manatus Senegalensif , . . 206
Lechce, the, Antilope Lechee .... 171
Lemur Catta, the Ring-tailed Lemur . .43
Lemur Macaco, the Pied Lemur . . .43
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
225
Lemnr Mongoz, the Mongous .
Lemur, the Pied, Lemur Macaco
Lemur, the Ring-tailed, Lemur Cutta .
Lemming, Back's, Myodes trimucronatus
Lemming, the Greenland, Myodes Greenlandicus
Lemming, the Hudson's Bay, Myodes Hudsonius
Lemming, the Scandinavian, Myodes Lemmus .
Leopard, the, Felis Leopardus
Leopard, the Sea, Leptonyx Weddellii .
Leptonyx Weddellii, the Sea Leopard .
Lepus Americauus, the American Hare .
Lepus cuniculus, the Rabbit
Lepus glacialis, the Polar Ilare
Lepus Hibernicus, the Irish Hare
Lepus timidus, the common Hare
Lepns variabilis, the Alpine Hare
Lepus Virginianus, the Prairie Hare
Leucoryx, the, Antilope Leucoryx
Lion, the, Felis Leo .
Lion, the Sea, Otariajubata
Llama, the, Auchenia glama
Lori, the Bengal, Loris gracilis
Lori, the Javanese, Loris tardigradus
Loris gracilis, the Bengal Lori . .
Loris tardigradus, the Javanese Lori
Loutre, the Petite, Cheironectes variegatus
Lutra Americana, the American Otter .
Lutra Braziliensis, the Brazilian, Otter .
Lutra vulgaris, the Otter
Luwak, the, Vicerra musanga .
Lycaon, the marbled, Lycaon venatica .
Lycaon venatica, the marbled Lycaon .
Lynx, the Canada, Felis Canadensis
Lynx, the European, Fells Lynx
Macacus Cynomolgus, the Macaque
Macacus Nemestrinus, the Bruh
Macacus Niger, the Black Macaque
Macacus Rhesus, the Bhunder .
Macacns Silenus, the Wanderoo
Macacus Sinicus, the Bonnet Monkey .
Macacus Speciosus, the Red-faced Macaque
Macacns Ursinus, the Ursine Macaque .
Macaque, the, Macacus Cynomolgus
Macaque, the Black, Macacus Niger
Macaque, the Red-faced, Macacus Speciosus
Macaque, the Ursine, Macacus Ursinus .
Macroptus Billardierii, the Red-bellied Wallaby Kangaroo 210
Macropus fuliginosus, the Sooty Kangaroo . . 210
Macropus giganteus, the Great Kangaroo . .210
Macropus Irma, the Black-gloved Kangaroo . . 210
Macropus laniger, the Red Kangaroo . . . 210
Macropus melanops ..... 210
Macropus ocydromus . . . . .210
Macropus penicillatus, the Brush-tailed Rock Kangaroo 210
Macropus robustus, the Great Rock Kangaroo . . 210
Macropus ruficollis, the Red-necked Kangaroo . . 210
Macropus Thetides, the Pandemelon Wallaby Kangaroo . 210
Macroscelides typicus, the Elephant Mouse , . 66
Madoqua, the, Antilope Saltiana . . 169
Magot, the, Inuus Sylvanus . . . .35
Manatee, the, Manatus australis . . .206
Manatus australis, the Manatee . . . 206
Manatus latirostris, the Mexican Sea-cow . .206
Manatus Senegalensis, the Lamantin . . . 206
Mandrill, the, Papio Mormon . . .36
Mangabey, the Collared, Cercocebus Collaris .
Mangabey, the Sooty, Cercocebus Fuliginosus . . 32
Mangabey, the White-crowned, Cercocebus j£thiops . 32
Mangue, the, Crossarchus obscurus . . .98
Manis multiscutata, the Many-shielded Pangolin
Manis pentadactyla, the Short-tailed Pangolin . . 147
Manis Temmincki, Temminck's Pangolin . 147
Manis tetradactyla, the Long-tailed Pangolin . . 147
Marikina, the, Jacchus Rosalia . . . . .42
Marmot, the Alpine, Arctomys marmotta
Marmot, the Bobac, Arctomys Bobac . . .132
VOL. I.
Page
43
. 43
43
. 136
. 136
. 136
. 136
. 113
. 126
. 126
. 144
. 145
145
. 144
. 144
. 144
. 145
. 171
. 119
. 127
. 176
. 44
. 44
. 44
. 44
. 217
. 94
95
. 93
99
. 103
. 103
. 113
. 113
. 33
. 34
35
. 34
. 33
. 32
. 35
. 35
. 33
. 35
35
. 35
Marmot, the Diana, Lagostomus trichodactylus .
Marmot, the Maryland, Arctomys monax
Marmot, Pennant's, Arctomys pruinosus
Marmot, the Polish, Arctomys Eobac . '
Marmot, the Prairie, Arctomys latrans .
Marmot, the Short- tailed, Arctomys brachyurus
Marmot, the Souslik, Spermophilus citellus
Marmot, the Quebec, Arctomys empetra .
Marmot, the Wistonwish, Arctomys latrans
Marmozet, the Black-tufted, Jacchus penicillatus
Marmozet, the common, Jacchus vtilyaris
Marten, the Beech, Maries foina
Marten, the Pine, Maries abietum
Martes abietum, the Pine Marten
Martes Canadiensis, the Pekan ....
Martes foina, the Beech Marten
Martes leucopns, the Sable ....
Mataco, the, Dasypus tricinctus
Meerkat, the, Cynictis Steedmannii
Megaderma frons, the African Leaf Bat
Megaptera Americana, the Bermuda Hump-backed Whale
Megaptera Kuzira, the Kuzira Whale . . . .
Megaptera longimana, Johnston's Hump-backed Whale .
Megaptera Poeskop, the Cape Hump -backed Whale
Meles Collaris, the Indian Badger
Meles labradoria, the American Badger .
Meles taxus, the European Badger
Mellivora capensis, the Ratel ....
Meminna Indica, the Peesoreh ....
Mephitis americana, the Skunk ....
Meriones Labradorius, the Labrador jumping Mouse
Mohr, the, Antilope Mohr .
Mole, the Australian Water, Ornithoryhnchus paradoxus
Mole, the common, Talpa EuropoM
Mole, the lustrous Cape, Chrysochloris capensis .
Mole, the Shore, Bathiergus maritimus .
Mole, the Shrew, Scalops aquaticus
Mole-Rat, the Blind, Spalax typhlus
Molossus velox, the Swift-flying thick-lipped Bat
Mone, the, Cercopithecus Mono ....
Mongous, the, Lemur Mongoz ....
Monkey, the Bonnet, Macacus Sinicus .
Monkey, the Brown Howling, Mycetes Ursinus .
Monkey, the Brown Sajou, Cebus Appella
Monkey, the Diana, Cercopithecus Diana
Monkey, the Horned, Cebus fatueUus .
Monkey, the Proboscis, Nasalis Larvatus
Monkey, the Red Howling, Mycetes Seniculus .
Monkey, the Squirrel, Callithrix sciureus
Monkey, the Weeper, Cebus Appella
Monkey, the White-nosed, Cercopithecus Nictitans
Monkey, the White-nosed, Cercopithecus Petaurista
Monodon monosceros, the Narwhal
Moongus, the, Herpestes griseus
Moose-Deer, the, Akes Malchis
Moose, the Grey, Cervus Canadiensis .
Morse, the, Trichechus Rosmarus
Morunga proboscidea, the Sea-Elephant .
Moschus Moschiferus, the Musk-deer
Mouse, the American field, Mus leucopus
Mouse, the Barbary, Mus Barbarus
Mouse, the common, Mus musculus
Mouse, Darwin's, Mus Darwinii
Mouse, the Elephant, Macroscelides typicus
Mouse, the Harvest, Mus messorius
Mouse, the Labrador jumping, Meriones Labradorius
Mouse, the Long-tailed field, Mus sylvaticus
Mouse, the Meadow, Arvicola agrestis .
Muntjak, the, Cervus Muntjac .
Mus Barbaras, the Barbary Mouse
Mus Darwinii, Daruriris Mouse
Mus giganteus, the Bandicoot Rat
Mus decumauus, the Brown Rat
Mus lencopus, the American field-mouse
Mns messorius, the Harvest Mouse
Mus musculus, the common Mouse
Mus Rattus, the Black Rat .
2 F
Page
142
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
132
42
42
89
151
97
58
199
199
199
199
74
74
74
72
176
86
135
169
218
GO
64
140
65
137
56
30
43
32
39
40
31
39
28
38
40
40
31
31
202
97
174
174
128
127
176
135
135
134
135
66
135
135
135
136
175
135
135
135
135
135
135
134
135
226
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
Page
Page
Mus Setifer, the Tikus-wirok Rat
. 135
Paca, the Caelogenys Paca
. 143
Mus sylvaticns, the Long-tailed field-mouse
. 135
Pallah, the, Antilope melampus
. 169
Musquash, the, Castor zebethicus
. 139
Panda, the, Ailurus refulgens .
77
Mustela ermiuea, the Ermine
. 91
Pangolin, the Long-tailed, Manis tetradactyla .
. 147
Mustela putorius, the Polecat . • .
90
Pangolin, the Many-shielded, Manis midtiscutata
. 117
Mnstela vulgaris, the Weasel . . ,
. 92
Pangolin, the Short-tailed, Manis pentadactylu .
. 147
Mycetes Seniculus, the Red Howling monkey
. 38
Pangolin, Temminck's Manis Temminckii
. 147
Mycetes Ursinus, the Brown Howling monkey
. 39
Papio lencophoeus, the Drill
. 37
Mydaus meliceps, the Javanese Teledu .
. 85
Papio Mormon, the Mandrill .
. 36
Mygale moschata, the Musk rat
. 66
Paradoxnrus typns, the Pougonne
98
Myodes Greenlandicus, the Greenland Lemming .
. 136
Patas, the, Cercopithecus Ruber
. 32
Myodes Hudsonius, the Hudson's Bay Lemming .
. 136
Peba, the, Dasypus peba
. 150
Myodes Lemmus, the Scandinavian Lemming .
. 136
Peccary, the Collared, Dicotyles torquatus
. 190
Myodes trimucronatns, Back's Lemming
Myopotamus Coypus, the Coypu
Myoxus avellanarius, the common Dormouse
. 136
. 139
. 133
Peccary, the White-lipped, Dicotyles labiatus
Peechey, the, Hippotigris BurcheUii
Peesoreh, the, Meminna Indica . .
. 191
. 179
. 176
Myoxus Glis, the Great Dormouse . «
. 133
Pekan, the, Maries Canadiensis
. . 90
Mynnecobe, the Banded, Myrmecobius fasciatus
. 216
Perameles nasutus, the Long-nosed Bandicoot .
. 214
Myrmecobius fasciatns, the Banded Myrmecobe .
. 216
Perameles obesula, the Spring Bandicoot .
. 214
Mrymecophaga didaetyla, the Little Ant-eater .
. 148
Perodicticus Potto, the Potto .
. 44
Myrmecophaga jubata, the Great Ant-eater
. • 14"
Petaurist, the large, Petaurus taguanoides
. 212
Myrmecophaga Tamandua, the Tamandua .
. 1.48
Petanrist, the Sciurine, Petaurus sciureus
. 212
Petaurus Australis, the Hopoona Roo .
. 21-2
Nakong, the, Antilope Anderssonii *
. 171
Petaurus Sciurens, the Sciurine Petaurist
. 212
Napn, the, Trayulus Javanicus
. 176
Petaurus taguanoides, the Flying Squirrel
. 212
Narwhal, the, Monodon monosceros
. 202
Phacochoerus .Eliani, jElians Wart-hog
. 190
Nasalis Larvatus, the Kahau
. 28
Phacochoerus jEthiopicus, the jEthopian Wart-hog
. 190
Nasau narica, the Brown Coatimondi
76
Phalanger, the Mouse-like, Phalangista gliriformis
. 21-2
Neotoma Drummondii, the Rocky Mountain rat
. 135
Phalanger, the Spotted, Cuscus maculata
. 212
Nisnas, the, Cercopithecus Pyrrhonotus
Nyctipithecus trivirgatus, the Douroucouli
. 32
40
Phalangista gliriformis, the Mouse-like Phalanger
Phalangista vulpina, the Vulpine Opossum
. 212
. 212
Nyentek, the, Helictis moschatus
. 86
Phascogale, the common, Phascogale penicillatus
. 215
Nyl-Ghau, the, Portax picta .
. 166
Phascogale penicillatus, the Common Ph ascot/ale
. 215
Phascolarctos cinereus, the Koala
. 213
Ocelot, the, Felis pardalis . ...
. 112
Phascolomys latifrons
. 209
Octodon, Cuming's, Octodon degus
. 140
Phascolomys Wombat, the Wombat
. 209
Octodon degus, Cuming's Octodon
. 140
Phatagin, Manis multiscutata .
. 147
Ogotona, the, Lagomys Ogotona ' .
. 145
Phitomok, the, Antilope ellipsiprimna .
. 170
Ondatra, the, Castor zebethicus
. 139
Phloeomys, the, Phlaomys Cummingii
. 135
Opossum, the Crab-eating, Didelphis cancrivora
. 217
Phoca annulata, the Marbled Seal
125
Opossum, the Ursine, Dasyurus Ursinus • »
. 214
Phoca barbata, the Great Seal .
. 125
Opossum, the Virginian, Didelphis Virginiana .
Opossum, the Vulpine, Phalanffista vulpina
. 216
. 212
Phoca Groenlandica, the Harp Seal
Phoca vitulina, the Common, Seal
. 125
. 124
Orang-Outan, the, Simia Saiyrus . •• ..
. 20
Phocffina communis, the Common Porpoise
. 203
Order Bimana ....
" Carnivora . . . .
9,14
71-123
Phyllostoma spectrum, the Vampire Bat
Physalus Antiquornm, the Razor-back Whale .
57
. 199
" Cetacea ...
193-207
Physeter Tursio, the Black-fish Whale .
. 201
" Cheiroptera . -. - .
48-59
Pichey, the, Dasypus minutus . . .
. 150
" Edentata . . . .
146-154
Pichiciago, the, Chlamydophorus truncatus .
. 151
" Insectivora . . t. .
59-71
Pinche, the, Jacchus OSdipus .
. 42
Marsupialia . . . ..*...
207-217
Platanista Gangetica, the Sou-Sou Dolphin
. 205
Monotremata « . .
218-220
Plecotus auritus, the Long-eared Bat
54
Pachydermata ....
180-193
Polecat, the, Mustela putorius.
90
Pinnipedia ....
124-129
Porcupine, the Brazilian, Synetheres prehensilis .
. 140
Quadrumana ....
. 9-47
Porcupine, the Canada, Histrix p ilosa .
. J39
Rodentia
129-145
Porcupine, the common, Histrix cristata
. 139
Ruminantia ....
154-177
Porcupine, the Javanese, Hystrix fasciculata
. 140
Solidungula ....
177-180
Porpoise, the common, Phoccena communis
. 203
Ornithorhynchus paradoxns, the Duck-bin
. 218
Porpoise, the Right- whale, Delphinapterus Peronn
. 205
Orycteropus Capensis, the Aard Vark .
. 149
Porpoise, the Round-headed, Globiocephalus deJurtor
. 204
Oryx, the, Antilope Leucoryx .
. 171
Portax picta, the Nyl-ghau
. 166
Otana jubata, the Sea-Lion
. 127
Possum, Azara's, Didelphis Azarce
. 217
Otocyon Lalandii, the Lalande .
. 103
Possum, the common, Didelphis Virginiana
. 210
Otter, the, Lutra vulgaris
. 93
Possum, the Texas, Didelphis Californica
. 217
Otter, the American, Lutra americana .
94
Potoroo, the, Hypsiprimnus minor
. 211
Otter, the Brazilian, Lutra Braziliensis
. 95
Potto, the, Perodicticus Potto .
44
Otter, the Javanese, Aonyx leptonyx
. 95
Pougonne, the, Paradoxurus typus
. 98
Otter, the Sea, Enhydra marina
95
Poyou, the, Dasypus sexcinctus .
. 151
Ounce, the, Felis Undo
. 113
Prionodon gracilis, the Delundung
. 96
Ovibos moschatus, the Musk Ox
. 162
Procyon lotor, the Racoon
Ovis aries, the Sheep .
. 163
Prong-horn, the, Antilope fur cijer
. 171
Ox, the, Bos taurus ....
. 158
Proteles Lalandii, the Aard- Wolf
. 101
Ox, the Cape, Bubalus Coffer .
Ox, the Grunting, Bos poephagus
. 160
. 162
Pteromys volucella, the Assapun Squirrel
Pteropus edulis, the Kalong Bat
. Ib3
58
Ox, the Jungle, Bosfrontalis .
. 162
Puma, the, Felis concolor
. 119
Ox, the Musk, Ocibos moschatus
. 162
Puma, Traill's, Felis unicolor .
. 119
INDEX
TO MAMMALIA.
227
Page
Page
Quagga, the, Ilippotigris Quagga
178
Seal, the Great, Phoca barbata . .
. 125
Quagga, the Bond, Hippotigris Burchellii
179
seal, the Grey, Halichaerus gryphus
. 125
Seal, the Harp, Phoca Gramlandica . .
. 125
Rabbit, the, Lepus cuniculus ...
145
Seal, the Marbled, Phoca annulata
. 125
• Racoon, the, Procyon lotor ...
77
Semnopithecus Entellus, the Hoonuman
26
Rasse, the, Viverra Rasse
99
Semnopithecus Maurus, the Budeng
. 28
Rat, the Bandicoot, Mus gigantvus
135
Semnopithecus Nemoeus, the Douc . ,
28
Rat, the Black, Mus Rattus ....
135
Serval, the, Felis serval
. Ill
Rat, the Brown, Mus decumanus
135
Sheep, the, Ovis aries ....
. 163
Rat, the Kangaroo, Hypsiprimnus minor.
211
Shrew, the American Marsh, Sorex palustris
. 68
Rat, the Musk, Castor zebethicus
139
Shrew, the Common, Sorex araneus.
66
Rat, the Musk, Mygale moschata
66
Shrew, Forster's, Sorex Forsteri
. 68
Rat, the Rocky Mountain, Neotoma Drummondii
135
Shrew, the Indian, Sorex indicus
. 68
Rat, the Tikus-wirok, Mus setifer
135
Shrew, the Oared, Sorex remifer
67
Rat, the Water, Arvicola amphibia
136
Shrew, Savi's, Sorex etruscus .
68
Ratel, the, Mellivora capensis ....
72
Shrew, the Water, Sorex fodiens
. 67
Ratlamuchi, the, Herpestes badius
Rein-Deer, the, Tarandus Rangifer . .
98
174
Siamang, the, Hylobates Syndactylus
Simia Satyrus, the Orang-Outan
25
. 20
Reit-boc, the, Antilope eleotragus
170
Skunk, the, Mephitis americana
86
Rhee-boc, Antilope Capreolus .
170
Slepez, the, Spalax typhlus
. 137
Rhinoceros Africanus, Bruce1 s Rhinoceros
184
Sloth, the three-toed, Bradypus tridactylus
. 153
Rhinoceros bicornis, the Indian Rhinoceros
184
Sloth, the two-toed, Chokepus didactylus
. 154
Rhinoceros, Bruce's, Rhinoceros Africanus
Rhinoceros, Burchell's, Rhinoceros simus
184
185
Sokinah, the, Echinops Telfairi . .
Solenodon, the, Solenodon paradoxus .
. 70
66
Rhinoceros, the Indian, Rhinoceros Indicus .
Rhinoceros Indicus, the Indian Rhinoceros
184
184
Solenodon paradoxus, the Solenodon
Sorex araneus, the common Shrew
. 66
66
Rhinoceros, the Javanese, Rhinoceros sondaicus .
184
Sorex etruscus, Savfs Shrew
68
Rhinoceros Javanus, the Javanese Rhinoceros
184
Sorex fodiens, the Water Shrew
67
Rhinoceros Keitloa, Sloans Rhinoceros .
185
Sorex Forsteri, Forster's Shrew .
68
Rhinoceros, simus, BurcheWs Rhinoceros
Rhinoceros, Sloan's Rhinoceros Keitloa .
185
185
Sorex indicns, the Indian Shrew
Sorex palustris, the American Marsh Shrew
68
68
Rhinoceros sondaicus, the Javanese Rhinoceros .
184
Sorex remifer, the Oared Shrew
67
Rhinoceros, the Sumatran, Rhinoceros Sumatrensis
Rhinoceros Sumatrensis, the Sumatran Rhinoceros
184
184
Spalacopus noctivagns, Poppig's Spalacopus
Spalacopus, Poppig's, Spalacopus noctivagus
. 140
. 140
Rhinoceros, Oswell's Rhinoceros Osicellii
185
Spalax typhlus, the Slepez
. 137
Rhinoceros Oswellii, Osv:ell"s Rhinoceros
185
Spermophilus citellus, the Souslik
. 132
] Rhinoceros unicornis, the Indian Rhinoceros
Rhinolophus Ferrum-equinum, the Greater horse-shoe Bat
j Rhinolophus hipposideros, the Lesser horse-shoe Bat
Rhinolophus nobilis, the Noble horse-shoe Bat .
! Rhynchocyon cirnei, the Rhynchocyon .
\ Rhynchocyon, the, Rhynchocyon cirnei .
Rhytina Stelleri, Steller's Rhytina
Rhytina, Steller's, Rhytina Stelleri
Rhyzoena tetradactyla, the Suricate
Rimau-Dyan, the, Felts macroscelis
184
56
56
57
69
69
207
207
98
115
Spring-hoc, the, Gazella Euchore
Squirrel, the Assapan, Pteromys volucelia
Squirrel, the Black, Sciurus niger
Squirrel, the Chilian, Octodon degus
Squirrel, the common, Sciurus vulgaris .
Squirrel, the European flying, Sciuropterus volans
Squirrel, the Flying, Petaurus taguanoides
Squirrel, the Four-banded, Sciurus quadrivittatus
Squirrel, the Greater flying, Sciuropterus Sabrinus
Squirrel, the Grey, Sciurus cinereus
. 169
. 133
. 131
. 140
. 132
. 130
. 213
. 132
. 133
. 131
Roebuck, the, Capreolus Dorcas
175
Squirrel, the Ground, Sciurus Lysteri .
. 132
Squirrel, the Hackee, Sciurus Lysteri .
. 132
I Sable, the, Maries leucopus ....
Saiga, the, Antilope colus ....
89
169
Squirrel, Horsefield's flying, Sciuroplerus lepidus
Squirrel, the Hudson's Bay, Sciurus Hudsonius .
. 133
. 131
; Sassabe, the, Acronotus lunata ....
168
Squirrel, the Kechubu, Sciuropterus genibarbis .
. 133
| Scalops aquations, the Shrew-Mole
Scham-Scham, the, Cuscus maculata
65
212
Squirrel, the, Malabar, Sciurus maximus
Squirrel, NieuhofFs flying, Sciuropterus sagitta .
. 131
. 133
i Schizodon, the, Schizodon fuscus
\ Schizodon fuscus, the Schizodon
140
140
Squirrel, the Palm, Sciurus palmarum .
Squirrel, Smith's, Sciurus Cepapi
. 132
. 131
Scirtetes jaculus, the Alak-Daargha Jerboa
Sciuropterus genibarbis, the Kechubu
• Sciuropterus lepidus, Horsfield's Flying Squirrel
Sciuropterus Sabrinus, the Greater Flying Squirrel
Sciuropterus sagitta, Nieuhojf's Flying Squirrel
Sciuropterus volans, the European Flying Squirrel
Sciurus bicolor, Sparrmann's Squirrel .
Sciurus Cepapi, Smith's Squirrel
Sciurus cinereus, the Grey Squirrel
Sciurus getulus, the White-striped Squirrel
Sciurus Hudsonius, the Hudson's Bay Squirrel .
Sciurus insignis, the Bokkul .
134
133
133
133
133
133
131
131
131
131
131
132
Squirrel, Sparmann's, Sciurus bicolor .
Squirrel; the Sugar, Petaurus sciureus .
Squirrel, the White-striped, Sciurus getulus
Star-Nose, the Thick-tailed, Condylura macroura
Stag, the Common, Cervus Elaphus
Steen-boc, the, Antilope tragulus
Stemmatopns cristatus, the Crested Seal
Stoat, the, Mustela erminea
Strepsiceros Kudu, the Koodoo .
Suricate, the, Rhyzcena tetradactyla
Sus larvatus, the Masked Boar .
Sus Papuensis, the Papuan Boar
. 131
. 212
. 131
. 63
. 174
. 170
. 126
91
. 166
98
. 189
. 189
Scinrns Lysteri, the Ground Squirrel
Sciurus maximus, the Malabar Squirrel
132
131
Sus Scrofa, the Wild Boar
Synetheres preheusilis, the Brazilian Porcupine .
188
. 140
Sciurus niger, the Black Squirrel
Sciurus palmarum, the Palm Squirrel
131
132
Tachyglossus Hvstrix, the Porcupine Ant-eater
. 219
Sciurus Plantani, the Bajing . •
132
Tagnicate, the, Dicoti/les labiatus
. 191
I Sciurus quadrivittatus, the Four-banded Squirrel
Sciurus vulgaris, the common Squirrel .
132
130
Tajazou, the, Dicotylus torquatus
Talapoin, the, Cercopithecus Talopoin .
190
. 30
Sea-cow, the Mexican, Manatus latirostris
\ Seal, the common, Phoca vitulina
Seal, the Crested, Stemmatopus cristatus
206
124
126
Talpa, Europse, the Common Mole
Tamandua, the, Myrmecophaga Tamandua
Tanggalung, the, Viverra zibetha
60
. 148
. 100
228
INDEX TO MAMMALIA.
Page
Tapir, the common, Tapirus Americanus . . 187
Tapir, the Malayan, Tapirus Malay anus . 187
Tapir, Roulin's, Tapirus villosus
Tapirus, Americanus, the Common Tapir . .187
Tapirus Malayanus, the, Malayan Tapir . . 187
Tapirus villosus, Roulin's Tapir . . 187
Tarandus Rangifer, the Rein-deer . . .174
Tarsier, the, Tarsius Spectrum . . . . 45
Tarsius Spectrum, the Tarsier . . .45
Tatouay, the, Dasypus Tatouay . .150
Teledu, the Javanese, Mydaus meliceps . . .85
Tenrec, the, Centenes setosus . . . .70
Thalarctos maritimus, the Polar Bear . . ' . 83
Thylacine, the, Thylacinus Harrisii . . .215
Thylacinus Harrisii, the Thylacine . . .215
Tiger, the, Felis Tigris . . . . . .116
Tragelaphus sylvatica, the Bosch-Boc . . .166
Tragulus Javanicus, the Napu . . . 176
Trichechus Rosmarus, the Morse . . .128
Troglodytes Gorilla, the Gorilla . . .18
Troglodytes niger, the Chimpanzee . . .16
Tschikitei, the, Asinus Hemionus . . .180
Tupaia javanica, the Javanese Bangsring '. .69
Unau, the, Cholcepus didactylus . . .154
Ursus americanus, the Black Bear . . 82
Ursus arctos, the Brown Bear . . . .77
Ursus ferox, the Grisly Bear . . . .83
Ursus isabellinus, Horsfield's Bear . . .80
Ursus labiatus, the Sloth Bear . . . .80
Ursus syriacus, the Syrian Bear . . .80
Valke-Vark, the, Phacochcerus jEthiopicus . .190
Vespertilio Bechsteinii, Bechstein's Bat . . .54
Vespertilio Daubentonii, Daubenton's Bat . .54
Vespertilio discolor, the Particoloured Bat . .53
Vespertilio Leisleri, Leisler's Bat . .54
Vespertilio murinus, the Mouse-coloured Bat . .53
Vespertilio mystacinus, the Whiskered Bat . . 54
Vespertilio Nattered, Natterer's Bat . . . .53
Vespertilio noctula, the Noctule . ' . . .52
Vespertilio pipistrellus, the Pipistrelle . .' .51
Vespertilio serotinus, the Serotine . . .53
Viscacha, the, Lagostomus trichodactylus . .142
Vison, the, Vison lutreola . . . .93
Vison lutreola, the Vison . . . . 93
Viverra civetta, the African Civet . . .100
Viverra musanga, the Luwak . . • , .99
Viverra Rasse, the Rasse, . , . .99
Viverra zibetha, the Tanggalung, . .. .100
Vole, the Bank, Arvicola riparia . , . 136
Vole, the Field, Arvicola agrestis . .. . • .136
Vole, Richardson's, Arvicola borealis . . .136
Vole, Wilson's, Arvicola Pennsylvania^ . .136
Vole, the Yellow-cheeked, Arvicola xanthognalhus . 136
Vulpes Bengalensis, the Indian Fox . . .105
Vulpes cinereo-argentatus, the Kit-fox . , .104
Vulpes fulvus, the American red Fox . , .104
Vulpes lagopus, the Arctic Fox .
Vulpes vulgaris, the common Fox
Vulpes Zerda, the Fennec .
Page
.105
.104
.104
Walrus, the, Trichechus Rosmarus . , .128
Wanderoo, the, Macacus Silenus . . .33
Wapiti, the, Cervus Canadiensis . . 1 74
Warak, the, Rhinoceros sondaicus . . .184
Water-boc, the, Antilope ellipsiprimna . . .170
Weasel, the, Mustela vulgaris . . . .92
Whale, the Australian, Balcena marginata . .199
" the Bermuda Hump-backed, Megaptera Americana 199
" the Black, Globiocephalus deductor . .204
" the Black-fish, Physeter Tursio . . .201
" the Blunt-headed Cachalot, Catodonmacrocephalus 200
" the Caaing, Globiocephalus deductor . .204
" the Cape, Balcena australis . . .199
" the Cape Hump-backed, Megaptera Poeskop . 199
" the Common Cachalot, Catodon macrocephalus . 200
" the Common Whalebone, Balcena mystice.tus, . 198
" the High-finned Cachalot, Physeter Tursio . 201
" the Howling, Globiocephalus deductor . . 204
" the Japanese, Balcena japonica . . .199
" Johnston's Hump-backed, Megaptera longimana . 199
" the Kuzira, Megaptera Kuzira . . . 199
" the Mexican Sperm, Catodon Colueti . . 201
" the Mysticete, Balcena mysticetus . . 198
" the New Zealand, Balcena antarctica . . 199
" the Northern Sperm, Catodon macrocephalus . 200
" the Pike, Balcenoptera rostrata . . . 199
" the Pilot, Globiocephalus Svineval . .204
" the Poeskop, Megaptera Poeskop . .199
" the Razor-back, Physalus Antiquorum . . 199
" the Scrag, Balcena gibbosa . . . 199
" the Short-headed, Kogia breviceps . . 201
the Social, Globiocephalus deductor . . 204
" the Southern Sperm, Catodon polycyphus . 200
" the Spermaceti, Catodon macrocephalus . . 200
" the Tuku Peru, Balcena antarctica . .199
" the White, Beluga Catodon . . .203
Wilde Paard, the, Hippotigris Zebra . . . .179
Wolf, the, Canis lupus . . . . .106
Wolf, the Aard, Proteles Lalandii . . .101
Wolf, the Pouched, Thylacinus Harrisii . .215
Wolf, the Red, Canis jubata . . . ,107
Wombat, the, Phascolomys Wombat . . .209
Wolverene, the, Gulo luscus . . . .73
Yak, the, Bos poephagus . . . .162
Yapock, the, Cheironectes variegatus . . .217
Zebra, the, Hippotigris Zebra . . . .179
Zebra, Burchell's, Hippotigris Burchellii . .179
Zebu, the, Bos fndicus . . . . .161
Zenic, the, Rhyzcena tetradactyla . . .98
Zorilla, the, Zorilla, striata . . . .88
Zorilla striata, the Zorilla . . . .88
THE MUSEUM
OF
NATURAL HISTORY.
ZOOLOGY.
CLASS II.— BIRDS.
ALTHOUGH the numerous and varied tribes of Birds
undoubtedly come next in order after the Mammalia,
we cannot point to any member of the latter class,
which, in its general characters, really makes an ap-
proach to the birds. Some of the lowest mammals
certainly present some resemblance to the oviparous
Vertebrata in a physiological point of view; but the
peculiarities exhibited by these rather indicate a rela-
tionship to the class of reptiles, and thus, in our classi-
fications, the Birds form, as it were, a supplementary
class, interpolated between the two similarly-quadruped
groups of Mammalia and reptiles.
This view is remarkably in accordance with geolo-
gical facts, as far as we can judge from the present state
of our knowledge ; the preponderating reptilian Fauna
of the secondary period gives place, in the gradual
evolution of organic nature, to the similarly prepon-
derating mammalian Fauna of the tertiary epoch,
whilst the traces of birds, such as they are, occur
simultaneously with these from a very early period of
time.*
Birds, like mammals, are warm -blooded, air-breathing,
vertebrate animals, and, like them, possess a he'art com-
posed of four distinct cavities and voluminous minutely
cellular lungs. The latter organs, however, present
some differences from the corresponding parts in the
Mammalia ; they are not lobed, and, instead of being
freely suspended in the cavity of the chest, they are
attached to the inner surface of the dorsal part of this
cavity. Moreover, the surface of the lung, instead of
forming a closed sac, as in the Mammalia, is perforated
by several large apertures, passing down through its
substance to the main branches of the air-tubes, and,
on the other hand, communicating externally with an
extensive system of air-sacs, which penetrate to nearly
every part of the body of the bird, and even occupy the
internal cavities of those hollow bones, which, in the
Mammalia, and indeed in the young bird, are filled
with marrow. By this arrangement the air taken into
* The foot-prints of birds occur in the new red sandstone,
the earliest of the secondary formations, both in Europe and
America. They are accompanied by similar traces of gigantic
Batrachiau reptiles.
the lungs may, to a considerable extent, penetrate, as
it were, into the very substance of the bird's body,
a circumstance of no small importance in reducing
its specific gravity, and rendering it capable of being
readily supported in the air by the action of the wings.
So ready is the communication between these air-sacs
and the lungs, that birds have even been known to
breathe through a fractured wing-bone, when the ordi-
nary air-passages have been closed by compression.*
Another anatomical character by which birds are
distinguished from mammals, consists in the absence
of the diaphragm or muscular partition, which, in the
latter, separates the cavity of the chest from that of
the abdomen, and which, by its movements, assists
greatly in respiration ; the alternate enlargement and
diminution of the cavity of the chest by which this
function is executed in birds, is effected by the alter-
nate elevation and depression of the broad flat sternum.
As the power of flight is the principal general charac-
teristic of the whole class of birds, we naturally expect
to find the structure of the skeleton specially modified
for the accomplishment of this object; and so com-
pletely are these expectations fulfilled, that it is impos-
sible ever to mistake the skeleton of a bird for that of
any other form of animal (see Plate 36). Nevertheless
the parts described as occurring in the skeleton of a
mammal, may invariably be traced distinctly. The dis-
tinctions of head, neck, and trunk are always clearly
visible ; but the tail is very short, and the proportions
of the different regions of the body are usually quite
different from those which prevail among the Mam-
malia.
The skull is generally of small size, and its cavity is
much smaller in proportion than in the Mammalia.
This indicates a smaller brain, and less general intelli-
* Although it is by no means certain that the air pervading
the body of the bird by means of these air-sacs, is in any way
subservient to respiration, it is impossible not to recognize in
this provision lor the passage of air amongst the tissues of the
body an analogy with that arrangement of the respiratory
apparatus in insects, which, in like manner, serves to render
the bodies of those animals sufficiently light to enable them to
exercise the power of flight. In this, as in some other respects,
the analogybetween birds and insects is unmistakable.
230
GENERAL CHARACTERS. BIRDS.-
JENERAI, CHARACTERS.
gence in these animals than in those of the preceding
class. The bones forming the skull in birds, become
completely united together at a very early period of
life, so that the whole of the true skull (cranium)
usually appears to be composed of a single bony piece
without any of those sutures, which, in the Mammalia,
mark out the separate bones of which the skull is com-
posed. The facial bones, on the contrary, are gene-
rally attached to the skull in such a way as to retain a
certain amount of mobility; and this is so great in some
species as to" give the upper mandible the appearance
of being articulated to the cranium. The jaws are
prolonged into a beak of variable form, upon the upper
surface of which, near the base, the nostrils are almost
invariably situated; the internal partition between these
is sometimes deficient, when the nostrils appear to form
a narrow horizontal slit or passage, leading from one
side of the beak to the other. The jaws bear no teeth,
but are covered with horny sheaths, the form of which
varies remarkably, according to the nature of the food
upon which the creature is destined to subsist. The
orbits, which are always placed laterally, are seldom
completely closed; the partition separating them is
often perforated (fig. 140). Beneath them on each
side runs a slender process of the upper jaw, called the
jttgal bone, which passes backward until it reaches a
small bone springing from the hinder part of the skull
on each side close to the ear ; these, which are called
the tympanic bones, furnish the points of articulation
for the two branches of the lower jaw. The occipital
bone, situated at the lower part of the back of the skull,
exhibits a large aperture for the passage of the spinal
cord, and a single condyle or tubercle for the articula-
tion of the skull with the first vertebra of the neck.
This condyle is always very convex, and sometimes
nearly globular — a structure which gives to the heads
of these animals a great range and facility of move-
ment.
The neck in birds is of greater average length than
in mammals, and even in those species which appa-
rently have a short neck when clothed with feathers,
the cervical region of the skeleton is usually much
elongated. The number of vertebrae is never less than
nine ; but most birds have from twelve to fifteen of
these bones in the neck, whilst some have upwards of
twenty. The neck is longest in some of the aquatic
birds, such as the swans and flamingoes; the neck of
the swan has twenty-seven vertebrae. The. bodies of
the vertebras present a convex surface behind, and a
concave one in front, an arrangement which gives great
freedom of motion ; and in most birds we find the neck
capable of describing very sharp curves, whilst the
strong lateral processes of the vertebras furnish suffi-
cient points of attachment for the muscles which
support the neck in its different positions, and enable
the bird to dart its head rapidly forward in order to
capture its prey.
Of the dorsal vertebrae there are usually from eight
to ten ; but some birds have only six of these bones,
while others have as many as eleven. They are gene-
rally short and very firmly attached to each other, so
as to form a solid column ; great firmness being requisite
in this part of the body, in order to give a proper sup-
port to the wings. In some cases, indeed, the dorsal
vertebra? are anchylosed. They are furnished with
spinous processes both above and below; the latter
serving to give attachment to the lungs, which, as
already stated, are affixed to the inner surface of the
chest. They are also provided with transverse pro-
cesses for the articulation of the ribs, which present
two articulating surfaces— one of which is applied to
the body of the vertebra, and the other to the trans-
verse process. The ribs are flat bones composed oi
two parts, united by a movable joint (fig. 135) ; the
upper part which articulates with the vertebral column
is the true rib ; the lower, which is attached to the edge
of the sternum, is analogous to the sternal cartilage
in the Mammalia. It is by this arrangement that the
movements of the chest, necessary for the inspiration
and expiration of air, are performed. From the pos-
terior surface of each true rib, at a variable distance
from its base, there springs a laminar process of greater
or less length, which projects backwards and upwards,
so as to overlie the succeeding rib just above its laminar
process (fig. 134). The object served by these pro-
cesses is that of furnishing an additional bond of union
between the different ribs, so that the whole framework
of the chest acquires a great degree of firmness. The
processes are very large in birds possessing great
powers of flight (such as the hawks), whilst in those
which are not remaikable for this faculty they are
usually of small size, or even rudimentary (see fig. 135).
The sternum, which completes the bony framework
of the chest, is a large, more or less triangular bone,
concave internally and usually very convex externally,
where it is also furnished with a large crest or keel,
serving to give attachment to the enormous pectoral
muscles, by which the wings are made to strike down-
wards upon the air. In birds noted for a very powerful
flight, this keel is of great size, as might be anticipated ;
whilst, in the ostrich and some other birds whose wings
are so small as to be incapable of raising them into the
air, the sternal keel is entirely deficient. The edges
of the sternum, as already stated, give attachment to
the sternal ribs ; at its anterior part it is provided with
articular surfaces for the reception of some bones
connected with the wings, to which we shall have to
allude further on.
The lumbar vertebrae, which in the Mammalia
always retain a certain amount of mobility, are here
completely amalgamated together, and with the sacral
vertebrae, form a single piece to which the pelvis is
attached. The latter is greatly elongated, advancing
so far as often to conceal a portion of the last ribs (see
i. 135, 136) ; but its inferior arch is not closed, as is
the case in the Mammalia. The only known exception
to this rule is to be found in the African ostrich. The
posterior limbs are articulated to the sides of the pelvis
by a ball and socket joint, as in the mammals. The
sacral vertebrae are succeeded by those of the short
tail, which are of small size, and vary from six to nine
in number. The last vertebra is usually larger than
the others, and often placed so as to rise perpendi-
cularly to the axis of the body ; it is to this that the
muscles for moving the tail are attached.
Having shown above how the framework of the
GENERAL CHARACTERS. BIRDS. GENERAL CHARACTERS.
231
chest in birds is arranged, so as to give it the firmness
necessary to bear the strain thrown upon it in the
action of flight, we may now proceed to the considera-
tion of the structure of the wings, and the mode in
which they are supported. From the articular sur-
faces already mentioned as existing on the anterior
part of the sternum, there spring two large and strong
bones, which are directed upwards and forwards, at the
same time diverging more or less from each other.
These are the coracoid bones, which, in the Mammalia,
with the exception of the monotremata, are reduced to
a rudimentary condition, and anchylosed to the upper
part of the shoulder-blade. The superior part of each
coracoid bone is furnished with an articular surface,
which assists in the formation of the shoulder joint.
The remainder of this socket is formed by the ex-
tremity of the scapula or shoulder-blade, which rests
against that of the coracoid bone. The scapula is
usually elongated and rather slender, and is applied
upon the dorsal surface of the ribs, where it lies nearly
parallel to the vertical column. From the position
and strength of the coracoid bones, they are evidently
well adapted to furnish firm points of support for the
wings ; but they are further assisted in this office by
the clavicles or collar bones, which are usually anchy-
losed to each other in the median line, so as to form a
single V-shaped bone called the furculum* The
other extremities of the clavicles are articulated to
the inner surfaces of the superior extremity of the
caracoid bones, to which they serve as supporting
buttresses, and thus assist materially in resisting the
action of the powerful muscles of the wings. The
bones of the wings themselves are easily recognized as
corresponding with those of the anterior members in
the Mammalia. The humerus, or arm-bone, is a long
cylindrical bone articulating with the shoulder-blade
and coracoid by a ball and socket joint, and presenting
at its lower extremity a double articular surface for the
reception of the two bones of the fore-arm. The latter
are usually longer than the humerus, cylindrical in
form, and thickened at the two extremities ; but one
of them — the ulna — is always much stouter than the
other— the radius — which is generally very slender.
The carpal bones forming the wrist, are two in num-
ber, small, and rounded. They are followed by two
elongated metacnrpal bones of unequal thickness,
which are completely anchylosed together at both
ends. At the base of these, on the outer edge, we find
another small bone, which is sometimes free and
sometimes anchylosed to the metacarpal (fig. 137).
This is the rudiment of a thumb, and gives support to
a few feathers, forming what is called the pinion or
bastard-wing. The metacarpal bones are followed by
the phalanges, which usually represent two fingers,
one of which is composed of two or three joints, the
other only of one. These phalanges are endowed with
but little mobility, so that the whole wing may be
regarded as composed of three joints, united by a more
or less hinge-like articulation at the elbow and wrist.
By this arrangement the wing is rendered stiff when
extended, whilst, at the same time, its three joints lie
* This is the well-known merrythought, with the ceremony
of breaking which most of our readers are probably acquainted.
nearly parallel to each other when the wing is con-
tracted, and thus occupy a very small space.
The structure of the hind limbs corresponds, in like
manner, with that of the same members in the Mam-
malia. The femur, or thigh-bone, is usually short and
stout, and articulates with the pelvis by a ball and
i socket joint, the rounded head being set on, as in the
' mammals, nearly at a right angle to the axis of the bone
(see fig. 135, Plate 36). This is followed by the tibia,
or shank-bone, usually much longer than the thigh,
and accompanied by a slender fibula. This latter bone
is, however, commonly attached to the tibia, and
it always becomes gradually attenuated towards the
apex, and disappears entirely long before reaching the
extremity of the shank. The knee-joint is furnished
with a small knee-cap, or patella. The tarsus also
consists of a single cylindrical bone, often ol great
length ; and the foot is terminated by from two to
four toes containing a variable number of joints. The
usual number of toes, especially in the most typical
birds, is four ; and of these one is generally directed
backwards.
Of the muscles by which the apparatus of bones
just described is set in motion, we need say but little.
They are generally very firm, and of a deep-red
colour. The principal mass of the muscles is devoted
to the movement of the wings. These, of course,
vary in bulk according to the power of flight possessed
by the bird, and correspond with the development of
the sternal keel. The muscles of the thigh and shank,
are also largely developed, and it is in the hinder
limbs also that we find the sinews presenting most
distinctly those peculiarities which characterize them
in birds. They are exceedingly white and glistening,
and have a great tendency to become ossified. The
long tendons which pass down the back of the tarsus
from the flexor muscles of the toes, are especially
remarkable in these respects. They are of the greatest
importance to the bird in perching; indeed, it is to
this peculiar arrangement that the bird is enabled to
perch. Passing over the back of the heel, like a cord
over a pulley, they are necessarily stretched by the
flexion of this joint, caused by the weight of the body
in the act of perching. They thus exercise a sort of
involuntary action upon the toes, causing them to grasp
any object with great firmness, and thus retaining the
bird securely in its position even during sleep.
It is hardly necessary to say that the clothing of
the skin in these animals consists of feathers, a circum-
stance from which de Blainville proposed to name the
class Penniferes. It may be as well, however, to give
a few details of the nature of these tegumentary appen-
dages, which, although somewhat analogous to the
hairs of the Mammalia, are of a far more complicated
structure.
A feather ordinarily consists of two distinct portions
—a central shaft or stem, and a pair of webs, occupy-
ing the two sides of the shaft, and composed of numer-
ous flattened fibres or barls, closely applied to each
other. The basal portion of the central stem, which
is partially inserted into the skin, is a hollow, horny
tube, usually transparent, and terminating in a more or
less pointed or rounded extremity. The upper portion
232
GENERAL CHARACTERS. BIRDS.-
IENERAL CHARACTERS.
forming the true shaft of the feather, is solid, and
composed of a white spongy substance coated with a
horny sheath. It tapers gradually to the extremity ;
its lower surface exhibits a strong groove, whilst
its upper horny, surface is usually rather convex,
smooth, and continuous at the base, with the tubular
portion of the feather. At the point where the
upper horny sheath wrapping round the sides of the
stem forms the origin of the hollow quill, there is
usually a second small stem, also furnished with webs.
This, which is called the plumule, is not found in all
birds, and where it does occur, is always confined to
the soft feathers forming the clothing of the body ; the
quill feathers of the wings and tail being destitute of it.
The sides of the shaft are occupied by the webs,
composed, as already stated, of numerous flattened
fibres or barbs. These are inclined towards the apex
of the feather. They are usually concave in front and
convex behind ; so that they fit together very closely,
and their mutual adhesion is provided for by the
agency of a series of minute secondary fibres, or
barbules, which spring from their margins. These
characters are not, however, common to all the barbs
even of the same feather. The lower barbs are usually
soft and disunited, forming the substance well known
as down, and in many of the feathers clothing the
body this downy portion constitutes the principal part
of the feather, the tip only being formed by a few stiff
barbs. The accessory plumule, where it exists, is
always of a downy nature, and in a few species of
birds the whole plumage shows a tendency to acquire
a similar structure. The skins of many birds, espe-
cially of the aquatic tribes, are also clothed, beneath
the ordinary covering of feathers, with a thick coat
of down, which, although evidently analogous in its
nature to the true feathers, yet exhibits certain pecu-
liarities deserving of special mention. The down
consists of a multitude of minute tubes inserted into
the skin, from the extremity of each of which there
arises a little tuft of soft, disunited filaments. These
may evidently be regarded as the barbs of a shaftless
feather, and they are furnished on each side with
numerous minute fibres representing the barbules.
In all birds the feathers are changed once or twice
in the course of the year, the old feathers falling out
by degrees, to be replaced by new ones. This process
is called moulting. In it, as 'in the first clothing of
the bird with its feathers, these organs are formed in
small tubes in the skin, lined by a duplicature of the
epidermis. A peculiar fluid secretion is produced at
the bottom of each tube; this is soon inclosed in a
delicate, conical, horny sheath, with its point directed
outwards ; and within this sheath the formation of the
feather goes on. As the latter increases in size, the
point of its sheath is extended towards the surface of
the skin, from which it finally issues, and then, burst-
ing, allows the inclosed feather to make its escape.
The portion of the formative fluid remaining in the
quill after the feather has attained its maturity, is
gradually dried up within the cavity, where it forms
that peculiar membranous substance which every one
must have observed in the quills destined for use
na pens.
In the bats, the only forms of mammals which are
endowed with the power of flight, the function is per-
formed, as has already been stated, by the agency of
broad membranes, which, when they are extended
by the elongated fingers, constitute admirable organs
for aerial locomotion. In the bats, also, the tail is
usually provided with a membrane of greater or less
extent, which is of great service to these creatures in
directing their course through the air. In birds the
same purposes are fulfilled in a very different manner,
but still by an extension of the tegumentary appen-
dages. The structure of the anterior member in a
bird, as already described (see Plate 36), is very differ-
ent from that of the same part in a bat. For all
practical purposes, the region of the hand may be
regarded as reduced to a single finger, so that the
limb forms a single series of long joints placed end to
end. But the feathers implanted in the skin of these
members are of large size and firm texture, and so
arranged that when the wing is extended they spread
out like the rays of a fan, so as to expose a broad
surface to the air ; whilst by the mode in which they
mutually assist each other, and their own proper
elasticity, their power of resistance is very considerable.
At the same time, when the wing is closed, they pack
together into a comparatively small compass, and are
thus no impediment to their owner in moving about
upon the ground or in trees.
As the number, form, and arrangement of the quill
feathers of the wing are of considerable importance in
the classification of birds, ornithologists have found it
necessary to give them different names, according to
the region of the wing upon which they are situated.
The longest and strongest, and consequently those
which have the most influence upon the power of flight
possessed by any bird, are the feathers inserted upon
the hand ; these are called primaries. They usually
decrease in length from the outer margin of the wing,
and in this case the wing is more or less pointed in its
outline ; in other cases the longest feather is the fourth
or fifth, when the apex of the wing becomes more or
less rounded. Their number is usually nine or ten, and
sometimes eleven. The name of secondaries is given
to the feathers attached to the middle division of the
anterior limb, corresponding with the fore-arm of man ;
these are shorter and weaker than the primaries, and
vary far more in then- number. The terliaries are the
feathers attached to the arm. A few small quill fea-
thers attached to the rudimentary thumb, form what is
called the alula, or spurious wing, and the bases of all
the quills are concealed by numerous large but com-
paratively soft feathers, forming the wing-coverts, which
are distinguished as primary and secondary, according
to then- position.
The quill feathers of the tail, like those of the wings,
are long and stiff; they are furnished with muscles, by
which they can be spread out to catch the ah- or con-
tracted within a small compass, and by the motion of
the tail itself they may be turned in various directions.
Hence, from their serving in some sort as a rudder for
the bird in its aerial course, they have been termed
rectrices ; the quills of the wings being also known as
remiges, from their being the main instruments of pro-
GENERAL CHARACTERS. BIRDS. GENERAL CHARACTERS.
233
pulsiori. The bases of the tail feathers are concealed,
like those of the wings, by softer feathers, forming coverts;
these are usually of moderate or small size, but some-
times attain an extraordinary degree of development.
It seems almost unnecessary to indicate the beautiful
a daptation of the covering of birds to their habits and
mode of life. Organized as they are for the most rapid
passage through the air, their numerous feathers, lying
one over the other and all directed backwards, offer no
impediments to their flight ; whilst, at the same time,
the very pressure of the atmosphere, as the bird pursues
its swift course, will only cause the feathers to lie more
closely, and thus present an increased obstacle to the
penetration of the cold air to the skin of the bird — a
circumstance of no small importance when we consider
the high temperature of the bodies of these creatures.
The downy coat which everywhere intervenes between
the external feathers and the skin, is an additional pro-
tection against the influence of cold, especially by
giving room for a certain quantity of warm air, the
escape of which is prevented by the outer feathers.
The structure of all the feathers, even those of the
wings and tail, renders them very light, a necessary
condition for animals whose principal activity is in the
air. In the aquatic birds a further provision is necessary ;
the feathers of these must resist the passage, not only
of air, but of water. For this purpose they are found
to be constantly lubricated with a peculiar oily secre-
tion, which renders them perfectly waterproof; it is
obtained from a peculiar gland situated on the tail,
which the birds press with their bills when cleaning and
arranging their plumage.
In most birds the whole surface, with the exception
of the bill and feet, is clothed with feathers, but a few
have the head, or even the head and neck, quite bare.
In most of these the skin is folded so as to form wrinkles
or wattles, which are often adorned with the most bril-
liant colours.
The horny bill or beak which incloses the jaws of
all birds, is usually of a more or less conical form ; but
this is modified almost infinitely to suit the requirements
of the different species. Thus, in the hawks or other
predaceous birds, the upper mandible of the bill is
strongly hooked at the tip, and many of the species
possess a tooth on each side at some little distance
from the apex ; the parrots possess a strongly hooked
bill, which assists them in climbing ; the wading birds
are often endowed with long bills, adapted for the cap-
ture of their food in mud and water ; and the ducks
have a more or less flattened bill, fringed along the
margins, and admirably fitted for straining their food
from the soft mud in which it is often found. All
these and many other variations in the form and struc-
ture of the bill, will, however, come under our con-
sideration hereafter, in describing the characters of
the different species of birds, so that it is unnecessary
to dwell upon them any longer here. The cere is a
naked skin, clothing the base of the bill in many birds,
and inclosing the nostrils.
In the structure and clothing of the feet, we find
characters of perhaps equal importance with those pre-
sented by the bill and wings. The number of toes is
usually four, and of these three are commonly turned
VOL. i.
forwards, and one— the great toe — backwards. In some
of the waders and aquatic birds, the hind toe is entirely
wanting, as it is also in the ostriches ; the true, or
African ostrich, is also destitute of one of the front
toes, so that it has but two in each foot. In the parrots
and woodpeckers, and some other climbing birds, the
outer toe is directed backwards as well as the great toe,
so that there are two each way — (see fig. 134) — and
the cuckoo has the power of turning the outer toe
either backwards or forwards at its pleasure. The
swifts have all the four toes turned in one direction.
In most birds the toes are united at the base by a small
fold of skin or web, which is generally insignificant, but
often shows itself very distinctly. In the true water
birds, these webs attain a much larger development,
generally uniting the anterior toes quite down to their
tips, and in some cases even extending back along the
inner margin of the foot to the hinder toe.
In a few birds, of which the eagle is one, the clothing
of feathers extends down to the very toes, but in the
majority the whole foot, from the heel downwards, is
quite naked, and in some of the waders and water birds
this naked part even extends for some distance up the
shank. The skin of the foot is of a homy texture,
sometimes scaly or granulated, sometimes divided into
distinct horny plates of larger or smaller size. The
toes are always terminated by claws, the form of which,
like that of the bill, usually furnishes a good clue to the
habits of the animal. Thus, in the predaceous species
we find the claws long, strong, sharp, and curved,
forming most formidable weapons ; the smaller grani-
vorous and insectivorous birds are also usually provided
with long, curved claws, but these are slender and
weak, and only of service to them in clinging to the
surfaces of objects. Those species which, like the
pheasant and our common fowl, find much of their
food by scratching in the earth, are furnished with
stout nail-like claws ; and these organs become still
more nail-like in many of the aquatic birds. In the
pheasant family, the male birds are frequently furnished
with one or more spurs or accessory claws, attached to
the back of the tarsus, at some little distance above the
hinder toe.
In their internal structure, birds present much resem-
blance to the Mammalia; they possess the same organs,
arranged, with one or two exceptions, nearly in the
same manner, and the vital operations are carried on
by precisely the same means in both these great classes.
The principal difference in the structure of the diges-
tive organs consists in the dilatation of the resophagus,
or gullet, into a spacious bag called the crop, in which
the food is retained for some time after being swallowed.
The walls of this bag contain a great number of glands,
the fluid secreted from which soaks the food, and thus fits
it for the action of the true digestive organs. The true
stomach is separated from the crop by a continuation
of the oasophagus, furnished with very thick, glandular
walls. The office of these glands is to secrete the gas-
tric juice ; and the stomach itself, in those birds which
feed on hard substances, such as seeds, is very muscu-
lar, and lined internally with a hard coating, which
materially assists in the trituration of the food. This
stomach is well known as the gizzard.
2 G
234
GEXERAL CHARACTERS. BIRDS.-
CHARACTERS.
The brain in birds is proportionally smaller than in
the Mammalia, indicating a lower degree of general
intelligence. The organs of the senses, also, are for
the most part less perfect than in the Mammalia, and
the sense of touch especially must generally be possessed
by birds in a very low degree. The eyes, however,
are usually of large size and well formed, although,
as they have but little power of motion in the orbits,
these animals are under the necessity of turning their
heads to bring into view any objects at which they
desire to look. This peculiarity is induced by the form
of the eye, which is of a very large size, and of a more
or less flattened form, but bearing in front a narrowed
portion, the surface of which is occupied by the cornea.
Around this narrowed portion of the eye we find a
curious ring of small bony plates imbedded in the
sclerotic coat, and hence known as the sclerotic plates.
The office of these plates, which are connected with
delicate muscular fibres, is to increase or diminish the
convexity of the cornea, according as the ring which
they form is contracted or dilated by the action of their
muscles, and thus adapt the visual power of the eye to
the varying distances of objects.
The organs of hearing are, next to those of sight, the
most highly developed in birds; but they are never fur-
nished with an external ear, such as we see in most
Mammalia. The ears open on the sides of the head,
behind the eyes ; they are usually surrounded by a
circle of feathers, which, to a certain extent, takes the
place of an external ear, and within these the tympanic
membrane may be easily seen stretched across the
bottom of a short passage. In the owls and other
nocturnal birds, the ears are of great size.
The organs of smell are but imperfect in their con-
struction; the internal cavities possessing but few of
those convolutions, clothed with a delicate mucous
membrane amply supplied with nerves,, which exist in
most mammals. The nostrils are nearly always placed
on the sides of the bill, or at its base ; the only excep-
tions to this rule being presented by the species of
the singular genus Apteryx, which is peculiar to New
Zealand. In many birds with the nostrils placed near
the base of the bill, these apertures are pierced in a
naked skin, called the cere. The sense of taste appears
to be exercised by most birds in even a still lower
degree of perfection than that of smell, for the tongue
is usually of a horny texture, and it is only in the
parrots and a few other birds that we meet with a
fleshy tongue.
The reproduction of birds is effected, as previously
stated, by eggs ; and they are, in fact, the only class of
vertebrate animals in which nothing approaching a
viviparous reproduction ever takes place. The Mam-
malia are all strictly viviparous, and therefore out of
the question here ; but, amongst reptiles and fishes, we
meet with many instances in which the eggs are hatched
within the body of the mother, whilst the eggs of birds
are invariably excluded, inclosed within a hard cal-
careous shell.
The young birds are, as is well known, usually
hatched by the warmth of the body of their parents ;
the latter sitting upon the eggs during the whole time
that the development of the embryos is going on within
the shells. In this occupation, which is denominated
incubation, both sexes frequently take part; but, in
many instances, the whole of this labour devolves upon
the female. The number of eggs laid by a hen-bird
varies greatly in different species ; some lay only a single
egg ; most of the rapacious birds lay at least two, whilst
the smaller birds are far more prolific, some of them
depositing sixteen or eighteen eggs in a single brood.
After the young birds are hatched, the parents attend
to then- wants and safety for a considerable time ; but
the amount of labour thus entailed upon them is very
different in different groups of birds, owing to variations
in the condition in which the young birds leave the egg.
In all the birds whose chief scene of activity is the air;
that is to say, in those groups which are most distin-
guished by the power of flight, and which dwell amongst
the branches of trees, or in other elevated situations,
— the young are hatched in a very helpless condition;
and for some time after they come into the world are
wholly dependent upon their parents, not only for pro-
tection from danger, but for the nourishment necessary
for their further development. In the land and water
birds, on the contrary, the chief activity of which con-
sists in running or swimming, the young birds are
usually capable of accompanying their parents from
the time of their leaving the egg ; and in these, there-
fore, the principal duties of the latter consist in con-
ducting their progeny to the places in which food is
to be found, and in sheltering them from the perils to
which, in their comparatively helpless state, they are
exposed. Hence it has been proposed to divide all
birds into two primary groups — the Autophagce or
self-feeders, in which the young can provide for them-
selves from the first ; and the Insessores or Perchers
(so called from the ordinary habits of the majority of
the species), in which the young require to have the
food brought to them by their parents. Unfortunately,
this rule does not strictly hold good, as regards all the
members of the former group ; for the young of many of
these are for a long time wholly dependent on their
parents.
There are two other phenomena connected with the
general history of birds, to which we must briefly advert
in this place. The first of these is intimately con-
nected with the subjects that we have just been con-
sidering; this is their nest-building, or nidijication, as it
is usually termed. Almost all birds form a nest of some
kind for the reception of then- eggs during the period
of incubation ; and, in those species whose young are
hatched in a perfectly helpless condition, this also serves
as a cradle for the callow brood during their infancy.
The materials of which the nest is composed vary
greatly ; but the individuals of each species usually
exhibit a most remarkable uniformity of choice in this
respect. Very few, and these are all of the auto-
phagous section, content themselves with a hole scraped
in the ground in some sheltered situation ; and even
of these the majority take care to line the bottom of
the cavity with a few leaves, or other materials, to pro-
tect the eggs from the coldness of the ground. Some
birds, such as the parrots and woodpeckers, lay their
eggs in the holes of trees, which, however, they gene-
rally enlarge considerably to suit their purposes by
CL A SSIFICATION. BIRD S.-
235
means of their bills ; and the chips produced during this
operation serve as a soft layer for the reception of the
eggs. Other birds which take up their abode in similar
situations, bring in soft materials to line the bottom of
their wooden nest. But most of the true nest-building
birds bring together a quantity of materials of various
kinds, sticks, twigs, straws, moss, wool, feathers, &c.,
which they either lay together in a mass amongst the
branches of the trees, or on the surface of a rock, or
interweave in a most ingenious manner to form a more
or less cup-shaped nest; the finer and warmer materials,
such as wool and feathers, being always employed in
lining the interior. A few species, such as the swallows,
compose the exterior of their nests of mud, and line
them with softer materials. The beauty and ingenuity
of construction of many of these little edifices, to which
we shall have to advert hereafter, are such as must
excite the highest admiration in every intelligent ob-
server. In this respect, they resemble the wonderful
architectural labours of many insects, and thus furnish
an additional indication of the analogy already men-
tioned between these two classes in their respective
sections of the animal kingdom. In both we find the
highest development of the instinctive faculties in their
respective grades ; for it is to be observed that both
the bird and the insect always build in one particular
fashion ; every edifice produced by individuals of a
given species, exactly resembling those formed by its
brethren both in structure and materials, except where
accidental circumstances, easily traced, may now and
then cause a slight deviation from the ordinary mode of
proceeding.
The second phenomenon above alluded to is an
illustration of instinct perhaps almost more puzzling
than the nidification of birds ; it is their periodical
migration from one country to another. Every one is
aware that great numbers of our common birds only
reside with us during a portion of each year : some
visit us in the autumn, and stay in Britain during the
winter ; others arrive in the spring, and leave our
shores in the autumn. The winter visitors come
from more northern, and the summer ones from more
southern regions. The latter are for the most part
insectivorous birds ; and we can easily understand that,
although, during the summer, they may find an abun-
dant nourishment about our fields and woods, they
would be but ill off when the severe weather of winter
sets in. The winter visitors are principally granivorous
small birds, or aquatic species, whose nourishment
would be equally cut off by the intense frosts of the high
northern latitudes, where they have their abode in the
summer. Thus we may easily understand the reasons
for this great change of dwelling on the part of our
feathered visitors ; but we must not the less wonder at
the marvellous instincts which prompt whole species
to undertake a long and arduous journey over sea and
land at certain definite periods of the year, prompting
them even long before there is any apparent necessity
(to our observations) for their departure, to wing then-
way to distant climes.
It will be unnecessary to enter into any historical
account of the different classifications of birds, such as
we thought it desirable to give in connection with the
Mammalia. Naturalists are pretty generally agreed as
to the limits of the orders composing the present class ;
and we shall therefore confine ourselves here to the
following tabular view of the classification that will be
adopted in the present work. The sectional names —
Autophagse and Insessores — have been retained in this
table, rather as indicating the general habits of the
species included in the orders placed under them, than
as being strictly parts of the classification.
SECTION I.— INSESSORES.
ORDER 1. ACCJPITRES. — Bill much hooked, with a cere at
its base ; feet strong ; claws strong, and much hooked.
" 2. PASSERES. — Bill variable in shape, without a cere ;
toes three in front, one behind.
" 3. SCANSORES. — Bill variable in shape; toes two in
front, two behind.
" 4. COLUMBJE.— Bill slightly arched, with a soft tumid
membrane at the base of the upper mandible, in which
the nostrils are pierced ; toes three before, one behind.
SECTION II.— AUTOPHAG^E.
ORDER 5. GALLING. — Bill arched above, with the edges of
the upper mandible overlapping the lower ; toes three
before, one behind (or hind toe wanting) not united
by a membrane ; legs feathered to the heel.
" 6, CURSORES.— Wings rudimentary; legs strong;
hind toe wanting.
" 7. GRALL^E. — Wings well developed; legs long;
tibiae not feathered to the heel ; toes three in front,
one behind (or hind toe wanting) not united by a
membrane.
" 8. NATATORES. — Feet webbed ; legs placed very far
back.
OEDER I.— ACCIP1TEES.
THE Accipitres or Kapacious Birds, the Eaptores of
Cuvier, have been placed by almost all naturalists at
the head of their class ; and in this we shall follow
preceding authors, although, in point of intelligence, as
also of analogy with the mammalia, the parrots ought
perhaps to occupy this honourable position. This order
includes those birds which are more especially adapted
to a strictly predaceous mode of life, and which display
their fierce and destructive nature in their tremendous
muscular power, and the formidable weapons with which
they are furnished.
It is, as already stated, in the structure of the bill and
feet, that we look for those characters which stand in
the most intimate relation to the mode of life of the
bird. The bill is short, strong, and hooked ; that is to
say, the upper mandible is always much longer than
the lower one, and either more or less curved through-
out its whole length, but more especially at the tip, or
else nearly straight in its basal portion, and strongly
bent down at the apex. The lateral margins of the
upper mandible are often armed with one or more
teeth, not like those of the Mammalia, but simply acute
236
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS.
projections of the horny covering of the mandible ; its
base is always covered by a naked leathery cere, in
which the nostrils open.
This bill, with its acute tip and sharp and often
jagged edges, is admirably adapted for tearing to pieces
Fig. 94.
Head of the Golden Eagle.
the prey upon which these birds subsist; and the struc-
ture of the feet and claws fits them no less admirably
for seizing the victim and holding it fast, while the
relentless beak is engaged in its destructive work.
The feet are generally short and very powerful, and
terminated by four strong toes, covered beneath with
Fig. 95.
f the Golden Eagle.
roughened pads. The claws with which these toes are
armed, are of enormous size and strength, very acute
at the tip, and furnished with two sharp edges. This is
especially the case hi the most predaceous species; but,
in those which feed on carrion and in some of the
smaller species which prey upon insects, the power of
the feet and claws, as also that of the bill, is naturally
much diminished.
In accordance with the indications furnished by the
bill and feet, we find the whole organization of the bird
eminently fitted to sustain it in the continual warfare
which it wages with nearly all the rest of the animated
creation. The wings are of immense extent, and moved
by most powerful muscles; the keel of the sternum being
excessively developed to give attachment to those which
draw the wings downwards. Then: flight is accordingly
powerful ; and many of the species cut their way through
the air with the most astonishing rapidity ; the ordinary
rate of progress of some being calculated at about sixty
miles an hour. But even this rapid motion is greatly
exceeded under circumstances of excitement; for, in
pursuit of their prey, some falcons are supposed to rush
along at the rate of at least a hundred and twenty miles
hi the same space of time. The tail also is long and
composed of strong feathers, so that it forms a most
effective rudder to direct the movements of the birds
I in then1 rapid course.
The covering of the feet is usually a reticulated or
scaly skin; and it is only in a few species that we find
any portion of the foot covered with shield-like plates.
In some, however, the tarsi are clothed with feathers
quite down to the origin of the toes. The toes are
always four hi number, and placed three in front, and
one behind. The anterior toes are usually united by
a fold of skin at the base ; but hi the owls this small
membrane only occurs between the inner and middle
toes, and the outer toe is capable of being turned back-
wards.
The birds of this order vary greatly hi size, and in
most cases the male is considerably smaller than the
female. They live hi pairs during the breeding season,
and both the male and the female assist in the construc-
tion of the nest, in the task of incubation, and hi the
bringing up of the young. They are found hi all climates,
from the coldest to the hottest, and only the species of
one family are confined to the warmer regions of the
earth.
The accipitres are usually divided into three families,
the Vulturidce or vultures, the Falconidce or hawks, and
the Strigidce or owls ; the latter also constitute the sec-
tion of nocturnal birds of prey, the principal period of
activity being the evening and night ; the other two
families are called diurnal predaceous birds, as by far
the greater part of them are never abroad except by
day.
FAMILY I.— VULTUEID^l.
In the Vultures the bill is considerably more elon-
gated than hi the other families of predaceous birds, and
often comparatively slender in its form ; its basal por-
tion is always straight, and the tip rather suddenly
hooked. The lateral margins of the upper mandible
are often sinuated, but never toothed. The head —
(fig. 96)— is usually naked, and the neck also frequently
partakes of this character; hi many cases the head is
furnished with peculiar wattles, and the skin, both of
this part and the neck, is sometimes adorned with
brilliant colours. The eyes are placed on the sides of
the head, without any projecting eyebrows above them ;
the wings are very long and pointed ; the feet are
covered with reticulated scales ; the middle toe is very
long, the hinder one rather elevated, and the whole are
armed with stout but rather blunt claws.
These birds, as may be easily seen from their cha-
racters, are by no means the most predaceous of their
order ; on the contrary, most of them hardly deserve the
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. VULTURID^E.
237
title of predaceous birds, as they rarely attack a living
prey, but content themselves with feeding upon the
flesh of such animals as have already died. Their
F\S. 96.
Head of the Tawny Vulture (Gyps fulvus.)
favourite food, in fact, is carrion, in the midst of which
they revel in a state of the highest enjoyment, often
gorging themselves to such a degree with this savoury
banquet, that they become utterly incapable of flight.
From the nature of their diet they also acquire an
abominable odour; and taking these facts into considera-
tion, it is hardly to be wondered at that most people
feel a certain degree of disgust associated with the idea
of a vulture. But in the hot countries frequented by
these birds, they are viewed with very different eyes ;
there their mission as scavengers is recognized. They
are seen pouring down in flocks upon an abundant sup-
ply of their favourite food, and soon clear away every
vestige of animal matter, even from a large carcase ;
thus preventing those pestilential effluvia which would
speedily emanate from a mass of animal matter exposed
to the tropical sun, and poison the air in its vicinity.
Viewed in this light, the vultures must be regarded
as benefactors of the human race in the countries
frequented by them, and in most oriental cities they
combine, in their own proper persons, the offices of
inspectors and removers of nuisances. Under any cir-
cumstances, the vultures are certainly undeserving of
the opprobrium that has been heaped upon them even
by professed naturalists, such as Buffon and his fol-
lowers, whose statements have still some influence upon
the popular mind. It is true, that if we apply to the
characters of animals the moral tests that we employ in
discriminating those of our fellows, the vultures may be
called cowardly, lazy, and gluttonous, and the eagles
may be magnified into models of courage and noble-
ness. But this is hardly fair, for each of these birds is
equally fitted for its peculiar sphere of activity. The
vulture feeding on carrion, and even preferring this to
freshly-killed meat, is not likely to exhibit much of
what is called courage in attacking other animals, and
in devouring as much as he can at once, he is but ful-
filling his instincts ; and on the other hand, when we
calmly investigate the so-called courage of the eagle,
we find it hardly so great as is commonly supposed, for
scarcely any of the animals that he attacks have the
least power to defend themselves against his terrific
talons.
It has long been a question amongst ornithologists
whether the vultures discover their food by the sense
of smell or by that of sight ; and the older writers on
natural history generally assumed that it was by the
former of these senses that the birds received the first
indication of the presence of their favourite nourish-
ment. Probably they were led to this conclusion rather
by the well known odorous properties of the delicacies
in question than by any other consideration ; and it
must be confessed that this solution of the matter
seemed perfectly natural. It is now, however, a good
many years since some ornithologists ventured to raise
a doubt as to the accuracy of this view, denying that
the vultures were endowed with the sense of smell in
a sufficiently high degree to account for their percep-
tion of carrion at a distance, and urging the claims of
the sense of sight to the honour of guiding these birds
to then- food. The controversy was carried on with a
vehemence which soon left the ordinary amenities, sup-
posed to prevail amongst philosophers, at a distance ;
and it seems now to be established, in opposition to the
older writers, that it is really by the sense of sight, at
all events in part, that the vultures discover their food.
Thus it has been found, that when the body of an
animal, even in an advanced stage of putridity, is con-
cealed by a covering of any kind, the vultures do not
come near it ; but as soon as the covering is removed,
they descend upon the carcass and speedily devour it.
It is also said that a carcass may lie untouched in a
similar manner under the trees of the forest, although
the vultures may frequently sail over the spot ; whilst
the same object could scarcely He for a few minutes in
the open country without being surrounded by numerous
devourers. These facts seem to show indubitably, that
it is to acuteness of vision that the vultures are usually
indebted for earliest intelligence of a feast in prospect.
Amongst the vultures, as in the monkeys, we find
that the members of the family inhabiting the two
hemispheres are distinguished by certain peculiarities
coinciding with their geographical distribution. One of
the most important of these consists in the structure of
the nostrils, which, in the species inhabiting the Old
World, are separated by a partition, so that they appear
as mere holes pierced in the cere on the sides of the
beak ; whilst in the American species the partition is
wanting, and the nostrils form an opening from one
side of the beak to the other.
THE AKABIAN VULTUEE (Vultur monachus) —
Plate 1, fig. 1 — is not, as might be supposed from its
name, peculiar to the peninsula of Arabia; its range
extends over the whole of Northern Africa, and it also
occurs in Persia, India, and several parts of the south
of Europe, especially in mountainous districts, such as
the Pyrenees, Switzerland, the Tyrol, Hungary, Italy,
and Spain. In the Pyrenees it is known by the name
of the Arrian. We have mentioned it first from its being
the type of the genus Vultur, as restricted by modern
authors, distinguished by having the nostrils round, and
the head or neck more or less covered with a short
down. The Arabian Vulture is a large species, mea-
suring about four feet in height. The general colour
of its plumage is a blackish-brown, but sometimes with
an intermixture of tawny ; the head is covered with a
238
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. VULTURID-E.
nearly naked bluish skin, and the neck with a very
short down ; the latter is surrounded at its base by a
frill or collar of long, soft feathers, which also occurs in
many other species. The cere is of a violet colour,
and the feet greyish. The nest of this bird is built
upon the most inaccessible rocks, where it forms a flat
mass of sticks, three or four feet in diameter. Upon
this platform the female deposits two, or rarely three
eggs, which are white, with a very faint bluish tinge.
THE TAWNY VULTUEE (Gyps Fulvus)— fig. 96, page
237 — is another European species, which is met with
abundantly in the same situations as the preceding. It
appears to be particularly common in Greece, Turkey,
and the Grecian Archipelago; but we must remark that,
according to some modern writers, the birds found in
the eastern and western parts of Europe belong to dis-
tinct species. To those inhabiting the Pyrenees, Spam,
and Sardinia they give the name of Gyps occidentalism
whilst for those found in the mountains of Europe,
from Italy eastward, they retain that of Gyps fulvus.
The differences between the two forms are veiy slight,
the principal distinctive character being derived from
the form of the feathers on the lower surface of the
body. These are rounded at the tip hi the western
form, and pointed in the eastern. Specimens, probably
of the former, sometimes find their way into this coun-
try. The general colour of the plumage in all is tawny,
deeper on the upper parts-; the head and neck are
covered with a whitish down ; the nostrils, as hi the
other species of the genus Gyps, are much elongated,
and placed perpendicularly to the length of the beak ;
at the base of the neck there is a frill of long white
downy plumes, which gives the bird a singular aspect ;
the beak is livid, with the tip blackish, and its base is
enveloped hi a flesh-coloured cere. This fine bird,
which is but little smaller than the Arabian vulture, is
said to be a summer visitor to most of those parts of
Europe in which its occurrence is recorded, retreating
at the approach of whiter to the African continent, on
which, according to Le Vaillant, it even extends its
journies as far as the Cape of Good Hope. It feeds,
like the rest of its family, upon carrion ; and when a
party of these vultures has once taken possession of the
carcass of a large animal, they are said never to quit it
as long as a morsel of the flesh remains, so that they
may be seen perched hi the same spot for days together.
When fully fed, or rather crammed with food, they are
quite incapable of flight ; and if suddenly disturbed hi
this happy condition, they are compelled to disgorge
the greater part of their banquet before they can rise
into the ah*. They also resort to this process for the
purpose of feeding their young, never carrying any
portion to the nest hi their beak or talons, but throwing
up some portion of their own half-digested food to
satisfy the cravings of then1 offspring. When a supply
of carrion is not to be had, these vultures are said
occasionally to attack living annuals. This bird builds,
like the preceding species, upon the highest rocks, and
forms its nest in the same manner. Its eggs are two
or three hi number, of a greyish-white colour, more or
less covered with reddish spots.
KOLBE'S VULTURE (Gyps Kolbii), another species
of this genus, which is very common at the Cape of
Good Hope, is called Chasse-fiente by the French
writers, from its habit of devouring ordure as well as
carrion. This species also feeds upon molluscs, crabs,
tortoises, and even insects.
THE BENGAL VULTUEE (Gyps Bengalensis} is a
smaller species, measuring only about two feet and a
half in length ; its general colour is brown, with the
head and neck pale chestnut, and the bill livid, tipped
with black. It is a gregarious bird, flying and feeding
in flocks, and also building its nests in small societies
among the branches of tall trees. In their habits these
birds are very similar to the preceding species, feeding,
like them, upon carrion, and gorging themselves into a
state of inactivity whenever an occasion presents itself.
The recognition of the good service which they render
to the public health protects them from disturbance, so
that, like licensed scavengers, they are allowed to go
about their duty business without molestation. They
consequently lose ah1 shyness but are exceedingly
cowardly, giving way to dogs, jackals, and even crows.
Notwithstanding their gregarious habits, they squabble
exceedingly when feeding; but these quarrels go no
further than screaming and hissing, for they seldom
or never fight. The nest is described as consisting of
a thick mass of branches and twigs, intermixed with
dead leaves ; the birds appear to lay only a single egg,
which is of large size and perfectly white. Lieutenant
Button, who obtained a young vulture of this species
from the nest, found that its progress towards maturity
was exceedingly slow. Although it fed greedily it could
not stand at six weeks old, and the down did not begin
to give place to quill-feathers until it was more than a
month old. At two months it was completely fledged.
Lieutenant Hutton gives the Mowing account of the
manners of this somewhat disagreeable pet : — He says,
" It was so tame as to become a perfect nuisance ; for
no sooner did it see any person than it ran towards
them, screaming and flapping its long wings, with the
head bent low, and neck drawn hi towards the body,
often pecking at the feet of the person thus intercepted.
Many are the thumps and kicks the luckless bird
received from the servants, who most cordially hated
him, as their bare feet were often assailed and cut
with the sharp blows of his curved beak. Still, through
good and evil, he remained with us, roosting at night
sometimes on the top of my bungalow, and at others
wandering to some of the neighbours. Often did I
wish that he would take unto himself the wings of the
morn and flee away; for he never entered the house
without making it so offensive as to be scarcely bear-
able."
THE PONDICHEEEY VULTUEE (Otogyps calvus)
is another Indian species, greatly resembling the
preceding hi its habits. It belongs, however, to a
different genus, distinguished by having the head and
neck quite bare of feathers, and by the skin of the
former being curiously folded about the aperture of the
ear. The nostrils resemble those of the genus Gyps in
their position. The plumage of the Pondicherry Vul-
ture is of a blackish-brown colour, with the wings black ;
the head and neck are flesh-coloured ; the crop is sur-
rounded by a longish white down ; the beak is blue-
black, with a yellow cere ; and the feet are yellow.
-BIRDS. VULTURID.*:.
239
This species inhabits the same districts as the preceding,
and appears to be almost equally abundant with it. It
is not, however, gregarious, more than two being rarely
seen together. It builds its nest in trees. Although
the Pondicherry vulture and the Bengal vulture are
nearly of the same size, the former appears to have the
power of inspiring some kind of dread in his brother
scavenger; for whenever he descends upon a carcass on
which a crowd of Bengal vultures are feeding, they
immediately make way for him and retire from the
banquet until he is satisfied — a proceeding which has
obtained for the present species the name of the King
Vulture, both from Europeans and natives.
THE SOCIABLE VULTUEE (Otogyps auriacularis),
one of the largest of the species inhabiting the Old World,
is an inhabitant of the interior of the Cape of Good
Hope, and apparently of the eastern parts of Africa in
general, as it is found also in Egypt, Abyssinia, and
Nubia. It was discovered in the first-mentioned locality
by the celebrated French traveller and naturalist, Le
Vaillant, who gives the following account of the first
specimen that he met with: — "On the carcass of a
hippopotamus," says Le Vaillant, " there was a magni-
ficent vulture busily engaged in devouring it. I had
never seen such a large one. When I wounded it,
although already gorged with a great quantity of flesh,
as its crop contained six pounds and a half when I
dissected it, its greediness was such, that in attempting
to fly away, it tore off a fragment of its prey, as if
desirous of carrying the whole away with it. On the
other hand, the weight of the flesh which it had just
devoured made it heavy, and prevented it from taking
flight easily. We had time to reach it before it flew
away, and endeavoured to kill it with the butt ends of
our guns; but it defended itself for a long time with the
greatest intrepidity, biting our guns or pecking at them
with its beak."
This fine bird measures about five feet in length, and
its expanse of wing is upwards of eleven feet. Its head
and neck are naked and of a reddish colour, tinged
here and there with blue, violet, and white ; the general
plumage is blackish-brown, and the frill surrounding
the base of the neck is of the same colour; the feathers
of the lower part of the body are crisped so as to exhibit
the white down with which the skin is clothed. The
beak is horn-coloured, with a yellow cere. The folds
of skin on the head and neck are very striking in this
species ; they commence behind the ears, round which
they form a sort of irregular conch ; they then pass
down the neck for several inches. From this peculiar
structure, which is referred to in both the scientific
names of the bird, Le Vaillant gave it the French name
of Oricou, or Eared-neck.
The Sociable vulture is an inhabitant of the mountains,
where the numerous caves and fissures furnish it with
a good shelter in which to pass the night, or to repose
during the day, after a full meal. At sunrise they are
seen perched upon the rocks in large bands ; and from
these stations they soar into the air to such a height as
to become quite invisible. But, even at then- greatest
elevation, they seem still to keep a sharp look out upon
the occurrences in the world below them ; for no sooner
does an animal die than the vultures are upon it,
" seeming," as Le Vaillant expresses it, " to escape from
a cavern in the sky." If a hunter kill an animal which
he cannot remove at once, he will find on his return
that the vultures are already busy on its carcase,
although a quarter of an hour previously not one was
to be seen in the neighbourhood.
This bird builds its nest in the caverns of the rocks ;
and the different pairs agree so well together, that two
or three nests may sometimes be found in the same
cave. The female lays two or three eggs which are of
a bluish-white colour, with numerous large spots or
patches of reddish-brown, especially towards the larger
end. During the period of incubation the male birds
keep watch at the entrance of the cavern; and the
interior presents a most disgusting spectacle, and is
infected by an intolerable stench.
THE EGYPTIAN VULTUEE (Neophron percnoplerus)
— Plate 1, fig. 3 — is a third species which occurs com-
monly in the south of Europe ; but it extends its visits
further to the north, having been killed even in Norway.
It is especially abundant in Greece, Arabia, and Egypt,
but is also met with in great numbers in India, and is
stationary all the year round in Spain, Italy, and the
south of France. Individuals have also been killed in
England. It is the bird popularly known as Pharaoh's
chicken.
The characteristics of the genus Neophron consist
in the great development of cere, which occupies two-
thirds of the length of the beak; in the elongated longi-
tudinal nostrils; and in the nakedness of the face and
throat, while the back of the head and neck are clothed
with feathers. The present species is smaller than any
of those that we have described, measuring only about
two feet and a half in length; its plumage is white, with
the extremities of the wings black ; the naked skin of
the face and throat is yellow, the beak lead colour, the
feet yellow, and the claws black.
The Egyptian vulture builds its nest, like the pre-
ceding species, amongst the rocks, and lays from two
to four eggs of a white colour, but usually more or less
spotted with brownish-red. It seeks its food, however,
principally in the towns and villages, where it feeds
promiscuously with the dogs and jackals on the carcasses
of animals and other putrefying filth, which appears
to be so peculiarly abundant about the habitations of
eastern nations. Its natural appearance is by no means
prepossessing, and its plumage is constantly daubed
over with the filth amongst which it finds its nourish-
ment; so that it constitutes a most disgusting object to
the eye. Nevertheless its useful properties are so well
recognized by the inhabitants of the countries in which
it principally occurs, that it would be almost a crime
there to kill one of these birds ; and in Cairo legacies
have been left by many wealthy men, for the purpose
of providing the vultures, and their brother scavengers
the kites, with supplies of fresh meat, in order, no doubt,
to induce them to remain permanent residents in the
city. This meat is distributed, according to Hasselquist,
every morning and evening in the great square where
criminals are executed ; and here the birds assemble
regularly to receive their expected meal. These vul-
tures are also said annually to accompany the caravan
to Mecca across the deserts, in order to feed on the
240
THE LAMJIEKGEVEK. BIRDS. THE COXDOK.
offal of the beasts slaughtered, or on the carcasses of the
camels which die by the way. In India the bird seems
to have exactly the same habits ; and Colonel Sykes
states that they are always found in cantonments and
camps. They pass nearly the whole day on the wing,
sailing round in circles. Then1 efficiency as scavengers
is also recognized hi India.
THELAMMEEGEYEE (Gypaetos larlatus}— Plate 2,
fig. 4 — which is also frequently called the Bearded
Vulture, is a remarkable species of this family, forming,
both in its characters and habits so striking a transi-
tion towards the eagles, that it has even been arranged
with the latter by some naturalists, whilst others have
constituted a distinct family for its reception. As,
however, its most important characters are decidedly
vulturine, we have preferred placing it at the end of
the eastern vultures.
The principal distinctive characters of the genus
Gypaetos, to which the Lammergeyer belongs, consist
in the strong, compressed, and greatly-hooked beak, in
the presence of a singular beard-like tuft of stiff bristles
under the lower mandible, and of a patch of similar
bristles, covering the base of the upper mandible on
each side, and concealing both the cere and the oval
oblique nostrils which are pierced in it. The tarsi are
short and clothed with feathers; and the claws are
stronger and more curved than in the other vultures.
The head and neck are entirely clothed with feathers.
The Lammergeyer is one of the largest birds of
prey, attaining a length of about four feet, and mea-
suring nine or ten feet in expanse of whig. Individuals
have been described exceeding even these dimensions,
and measuring from twelve to fifteen feet from tip to
tip of the wings. The plumage of the upper part of
the body is of a dull brown colour, mixed with grey;
the wings and tail are of a greyish tint; the neck,
breast, and belly are whitish, more or less tinged with
yellow or orange ; and the head is dirty white, with a
black band on each side. The bristles of the beard
and face are also black, as are the claws. These are
the general characters of the species ; but they are
liable to some variation in specimens from different
regions, and these have induced several modern ornitho-
logists to describe three or four species of these birds.
The distinctions of size and colour upon which they
rely for the discrimination of these so-called species,
are, however, very slight, and may probably be due
10 geographical circumstances ; we therefore prefer
regarding all the northern Lammergeyers at any rate,
as belonging to one species.
This fine bird inhabitants the mountainous regions
of Southern Europe and North Africa, and extends its
range in Asia to the Caucasus, the Altai mountains, and
the Himalayas. In its carriage and aspect it greatly
resembles the eagles, as it does also in its habits; for,
unlike the preceding vultures, it evinces no liking for
carrion, but, on the contrary, prefers its meat fresh-
killed. To satisfy this craving, it is endowed with a
far more audacious and warlike disposition than the
peaceful birds whose characters we have hitherto been
considering, and the weapons with which nature has
armed it are also of a far more formidable character.
It feeds principally upon quadrupeds, such as rabbits,
hares, sheep, lambs, and kids, which its powerful beak
and talons enable it to overcome easily ; and its Swiss
name of Lammergeyer (signifying Lamb- Vulture), suf-
ficiently expresses the sense which the Alpine shep-
herds entertain of its predilection for the tenderer part
of their flocks. It is also said sometimes to attack the
chamois, or even man himself; but when attempting
any such doubtful enterprise as this, it waits until its
intended victim is close to a precipice, and then de-
scending upon it with irresistible velocity, sweeps it off
into the abyss below. Both in Europe and India
stories are current of children being carried off by the
Lammergeyer ; but these want confirmation. In the
latter country, according to Mr. Hodgson, the habits of
the birds approach more nearly to those of the ordinary
vultures than appears to be the case in Europe ; and
they come in flocks to devour carrion of all sorts, with-
out the least regard to the presence of man. The same
gentleman tells us that, in the vicinity of Simla and
elsewhere on the western hills, the flesh-pots, in which
cooking is carried on in the open air, require to be well
watched, lest the Bearded vulture steal a share of then-
contents ; and Bruce, in his " Travels in Abyssinia,"
relates a story of this nature which applies either to this
or the following species.
The Bearded vulture builds no nest, but deposits
its eggs upon the bare rock ; these are two or three in
number, of an oval form with one end rather acute ;
then- colour is a bluish-white, covered with smaller and
larger spots of reddish-brown and ochreous yellow.
THE AFEICAN BEAEDED VTJLTUEE (Gypaetos
nudipes) appears to merit being regarded as a distinct
species, as the lower part of its tarsi is bare of feathers,
a character of more importance than a slight diversity
of colour. It is found in Abyssinia, and in the more
southern parts of Africa. This is probably the bird
alluded to by Bruce, which, he says, is called .ZVmer
Werk in Ethiopic, and Abou Duchir or Father Long-
beard by the Arabs. Bruce gives the following account
of the audacity of this bird. While his servants were
eating then- dinner hi the open ah- on the top of a high
mountain, with several dishes of boiled goats' flesh
before them, one of these birds suddenly made his
appearance. He did not stoop rapidly from a height,
but came flying slowly along the ground, and sat down
close to the meat, within the ring the men had r^ade
round it. A great shout was raised, when the bird
slowly retired ; but he soon came up again, and was
shot within a short distance of the party. Dr. Roth
says, that the Abyssinian species " smells dreadfully
from its mode of living," and " takes a great quantity
of water."
THE CONDOE (Sarcorhamphus GrypTius}-^. 97,
page 241. — The first of the American vultures to which
we shall allude, is one of the most remarkable and cele-
brated species of this family. The nostrils hi the Ameri-
can vultures are pierced through, as has already been
stated, from side to side of the beak. In the Condor
and another species belonging to the same genus, they
are surmounted in the males by a large fleshy car-
uncle, which, hi the former, constitutes a comb some-
what resembling that of a cock. The bill in these
birds is very strong, and much hooked at the extremity.
-BIRDS.
241
The head and neck are quite naked, and the skin on
these parts is variously folded.
The Condor, although undoubtedly one of the largest,
or perhaps the largest of predaceous birds, long
enjoyed a reputation for -size and strength to which
he was certainly not entitled. This was due to the
exaggerated accounts of the older travellers in America,
which led their readers ajmost to believe that this bird
rivalled the fabulous Roc of the Arabian writers in
rig.'
bulk. It appears, however, from the more trust- worthy
accounts of modern naturalists, amongst whom we
may mention especially the late Baron Humboldt and
his celebrated companion Bonpland, that the Condor
scarcely exceeds the Lammergeyer in size and spread
of wing, the ordinary distance from tip to tip being
only from nine to eleven feet, and the largest recorded
expanse fourteen feet. These are about the measure-
ments of tlie Lammergeyer ; and as the length of the
The Condor (Sarcorhamphus Gryphus).
latter bird from the tip of the beak to the extremity of
the tail, is rather greater than that of a Condor with
the same expanse of wing, we may consider these
birds as approaching very closely in size.
The basal part of the beak in the Condor is brown-
ish; the tip nearly white. The naked skin of the
head and neck is of a reddish colour, with a few
scattered black hairs. The front of the neck, beneath
the chin, is furnished with a loose membrane, which
can be dilated at the will of the bird, in the same way
as the wattles of the turkey-cock. Round the base of
the neck is a frill of white, downy feathers, like that
which has already been described as occurring in other
species ; and the rest of the plumage is black or greyish-
black, with the exception of the wing coverts and the
secondary quill feathers, of which the former are white
at the apex in tne male, and the latter along the outer
margin in both sexes. The legs, which are short and
very stout, are of a grey colour. The toes exhibit a
distinct membrane at their base, and are armed with
rather long and stout, but very slightly curved, black
claws. The hinder toe is very short, in comparison
with that of the birds of prey in general.
The Condor is found along the whole range of the vast
chain of the Andes, from near the Straits of Magellan to
the republic of New Granada, a few degrees north of the
equator. It is most abundant in the tropical parts of this
range, especially in Peru and Quito. It is principally
an inhabitant of the higher regions of the mountains,
from an elevation of about 11,000 feet up to the line of
perpetual snow. In its flight, however, it soars far
above the latter level, and is justly said by Humboldt
242
THE CONDOR. BIRDS. THE KING VUI,TI:I:E.
to ascend to a greater height in the air than any other
bird. That traveller ascertained, by actual measure-
ment, that the height attained by one of these birds
must have been at least 23,000 feet above the level of
the sea ; and in the neighbourhood of Cotopaxi, at an
elevation of 14,471 feet, he observed a condor at such
an altitude, that it appeared as a mere black speck in
the sky. Even at the ascertained level, it is, as he
remarks, a singular physiological phenomenon, " that
the same bird which wheels for hours together through
these highly rarefied regions (where the barometer
scarcely stands at 12*7 inches), should be able sud-
denly, as for instance on the western declivity of
Pichincha, to descend to the sea-shore, and thus in
the course of a few hours traverse, as it were, all
climates."
In its habits the Condor appears closely to resemble
the Lammergeyer, unless its predilection for carrion
may be considered rather stronger. But it not only
feeds freely on the carcasses of dead anknals, "but also
destroys many lambs, calves, and young llamas, espe-
cially when juet bom and in a perfectly helpless state.
For these purposes, the Condors, which usually live
singly or in pairs, congregate in small flocks ; but there
appears to he no foundation for the stories of their
uniting to destroy full-grown cattle and llamas, any
more than their attacking man or carrying off chil-
dren in their talons. Of the latter crime, indeed, the
structure of their feet may prove them guiltless, for
the small development of the hinder toe must render
them quite incapable of perpetrating any such enormity.
The accounts of their attacking men are equally desti-
tute of foundation. Humboldt learnt from the Indians
that, the Condors are perfectly innocent of this ; and
he also states that he frequently approached within
ten or twelve yards of them, when sitting three or four
together upon the rocks, and that they never showed
the least disposition to .attack him. Nevertheless, the
damage done "by the Condors to the domesticated
animals of Peru and Chili is so considerable, that
the inhabitants regard them as among their most
formidable enemies, and miss no opportunity of de-
stroying them. For this purpose, they sometimes lay
the carcass of some large animal as a bait, and shoot
the Condors as they descend upon it to feed, or, wait-
ing until they have eaten their fill, capture them with
the lasso. But more commonly the bait is laid down
in a space surrounded by strong palisades, which, by
preventing the tirds from taking the short run, with
their wings half extended, necessary to enable them to
rise from the ground in their gorged state, gives the
Indians the opportunity of despatching a great number
of them at once.
The Condor makes no nest, but lays its eggs upon
the tare rocks, simply selecting a spot where there
are cavities large enough to receive the eggs, and pre-
vent them from being rolled down when the parent
descends upon or rises from them. The situations
chosen by the Condors for this purpose are always
exceedingly inaccessible. The eggs are said to be two
in number, and the Indians describe them as of a white
colour, which is also that of a specimen from Chili
deposited in the Museum at Paris by M. Claude Gay.
M. D'Orbigny, from a fragment seen by him, supposes
the eggs to be spotted with reddish-brown.
THE KING VULTURE (SarcorhampJnis Papa) —
Plate 1, fig 2. The King vulture, the only other
species of the genus SarcorliampJnts, is particularly
remarkable for the brilliant colours which adorn the
naked skin of its head and neck. The comb which
surmounts the nostrils in the male, is of a brilliant
orange colour; the face is blackish violet; a scarlet
ring surrounds the eyes; a patch of black down occu-
pies the back of the head, and from this a reddish-
brown fold of skin runs down on each side below the
eye. The upper part of the neck is bright red, and
this colour gradually fades into orange and yellow on
the lower parts. The frill surrounding the base of the
neck is ashy-grey ; the plumage of the upper parts of
the body is of a delicate fawn colour, and that of tlie
lower surface white ; whilst the quill feathers of the
wings and tail are black. The contrast of these varied
colours renders this vulture one of the most beautiful
of the birds of prey, and forms a costume worthy of
the King ot the vultures — a title which, however,
belongs to him by a better right than only the magni-
ficence of his clothing.
This fine bird is an inhabitant of a great part of South
America ; but, unlike the condor, it is an inhabitant
rather of the vast plains and forests than of the
mountainous regions. It is most abundant within the
tropics, 'but extends its range beyond these lines, being
found commonly not only in Guiana, Brazil, and Peru,
but also in Paraguay and Mexico, and occasionally
visiting Florida in search of food. It feeds upon
reptiles and carrion, and even upon ordure, and in
summer devours great quantities ol the fishes which
perish in consequence of the drying up of the shallow
lakes. Its visits to Florida are said to be generally
made after the herbage has been burnt upon the
prairies, where it feeds greedily upon the half -roasted
snakes and other reptiles which have "been unable to
escape from the .flames. In its ordinary haaints, these
birds are frequently met with in considerable numbers
in the vicinity of the towns and villages, which are
also frequented ty flocks of turkey vultures, which
will form the subject of the next article. We are tokl
by ah1 writers on the natural history of these regions,
that when a band of the latter birds are squabbling
over their food after the ordinary vulturine fashion, the
appearance of a single 'bird of this species is sufficient
to disperse the whole assembly, who wait patiently
at a short distance-until their king has satisfied his appe-
tite. This is confirmed by Humboldt.
THE TURKEY VULTURE (Cathartes aura], and the
URUBU (Cathartes fattens).— These two birds, which
are very neary allied, are known by the name of
Gallinazos in the Spanish colonies, where, as in all
the warmer parts of America, they are exceedingly
abundant. They have a longer and more slender bill
than the condor. The head is destitute of caruncles,
and covered only with a naked, wrinkled skin; and the
nostrils are pierced in the sides of the cere. The
Turkey vulture, also frequently called the Turkey
Buzzard, owes its denomination to the marked resem-
blance which it presents to a turkey, both in size and
ACCIPITRKS. BIRDS.-
243
the red naked skin upon the head. The same general
similarity to the gallinaceous birds, which indeed pre-
vails more or less throughout the Vultures, is also
expressed in the name of Gallinazo, which appears to
be common to both the species whose names stand at
the head of the present article. The Turkey vulture
measures about two feet and a half in length, and six
feet in expanse of wing. The general colour of its
plumage is a sooty brown, with the back and shoulders
blackish. The naked skin of the head and neck is
reddish, beset with scattered black hairs ; and the back
of the neck is covered with blackish down. These
birds are found not only over the greater part of South
America, but also in the southern states of the North
American Union ; and during the summer they even
extend their range still further towards the north.
They are very gregarious in their habits, and congre-
gate in great numbers in the neighbourhood of the
towns and villages, where they perform the most
valuable service in devouring the carrion and offal,
which, in many districts of South America especially,
are far too abundant to be conducive to the health of
the human inhabitants. So numerous are the birds,
that Humboldt tells us he has seen seventy or eighty
of them at once surrounding a dead ox ; and he adds,
that, as mentioned in the preceding article, the appear-
ance of a single king vulture in the midst of this crowd
is quite sufficient to stop their gormandizing, until the
new-comer has satisfied his no less ravenous appetite.
By their human neighbours the vultures are never
disturbed. The beneficial nature of their operations is
thoroughly understood by the inhabitants of the coun-
tries frequented by them, and everywhere they are
under the protection of the laws, so that to kill one
of them would in most places subject the offender to
a fine ; whilst in Cuba, according to M. D'Orbigny,
excommunication is not regarded as too severe a
punishment. D'Azara states that this vulture, if
trained early, will acquire so much attachment to its
' master as to follow him on a journey for many miles.
The flight of the Turkey vulture is described as being
exceedingly lofty and elegant. " On a fine day," says
Mr. Darwin, " a flock may be observed at a great
height, each bird wheeling round and round, without
closing its wings, in the most graceful evolutions.
This is clearly done for sport's sake, or perhaps is
connected with their matrimonial alliances." Accord-
ing to Mr. Gosse, the soaring of these vultures in
flocks is regarded in Jamaica as indicative of a thunder-
storm ; and he says that at other times they are gene-
rally seen singly or in pairs. According to the writer
just quoted, the Turkey vulture, called the John Crow
vulture in Jamaica, would appear occasionally to kill
his own game, at least if he can meet with a weakly
lamb or pig at a distance from its mother. He will
also venture to attack a large hog if it be lying in a
sick condition, picking out its eyes ; but first dis
charging his excrements upon it, to see whether it is
strong enough to rise, which this indignity rarely fails
to effect, if the creature is still capable of any exertion.
It was from his observations upon this species that
Audubon was led to maintain, that the vultures are
guided to their prey rather by the faculty of sight than by
that of smell. He found that they would soon descend
;o attack the stuffed skin of an animal when exposed in
the open air ; whilst the carcass of a hog, which was
concealed under the bushes in a ravine, remained
innoticed by them, although many of them flew over
the spot, and it ultimately became so offensive that
Audubon himself could not venture to approach it.
Mr. Gosse, from his observations on the species in
Jamaica, seems to think that both the senses of smell
and sight may co-operate in betraying to the bird the
presence of its food, and that those naturalists who
attribute this to either of these senses exclusively are
in error. In support of the view that the olfactory
organs have something to do in the matter, he relates
the following anecdote — " A poor German immigrant,"
he says, " who lived alone in a detached cottage, rose
from his bed after a two days' confinement by fever,
to purchase in the market some fresh meat for a little
soup. Before he could do more than prepare the
several ingredients of herbs and roots, and put his
meat in water for the preparation of his pottage, the
paroxysm of fever had returned, and he laid himself
upon his bed exhausted. Two days elapsed in this
state of helplessness and inanition ; by which time the
mass of meat and pot herbs had putrefied, the stench
becoming very perceptible in the neighbourhood.
Vulture after vulture, as they sailed past, were observed
always to descend to the cottage of the German, and
to sweep round, as if they had tracked some putrid
carcass, but failed to find exactly where it was."
This led the neighbours to break open the door, when
the man was found in a state of utter exhaustion, and
his preparations for soup-making in a most intolerably
offensive condition.
The Urubu, or Black vulture, as it is sometimes
called, closely resembles the preceding in its appear-
ance and habits, so much so indeed, that as both are
found in precisely the same countries, the two species
have frequently been confounded together. The Uru-
bus are exceedingly common in Peru, where, according
to Tschudi, they sit in incredible numbers on the roofs
of the houses and along the walls of the streets, exposed
to the full blaze of the noonday sun, and sleeping with
their heads under their wings.
A third species of the genus Cathartes has been
described, namely, the CALIFOHNIAN VULTURE (Cath-
artes Calif ornianui). It resembles the preceding
both in form and size ; but was formerly supposed to
rival the condor in the latter particular. The general
colour of the plumage is black, with the tips of the
secondary feathers white. The head and neck are
covered with a rather smooth, naked, red skin.
FAMILY II.— FALCONID^.
The Falconidaj include not only the true Falcons,
but also the numerous hawks and eagles, nearly all of
which exhibit a predaceous disposition of a far more
decided character than that of the vultures. The
birds of this family are indeed for the most part of an
exceedingly rapacious nature, generally feeding prin-
cipally upon prey captured by themselves, and only
condescending to devour such dead carcasses as they
244
FALCOXID.E. BIRDS. THE CARACARA.
find when strongly pressed by hunger. There are,
however, some exceptions to this general rule ; a few
of the species being almost as inveterate carrion-eaters
as the vultures, with which they often share their
dainty meals. The Falconidae are distinguished from
the vultures — with which they agree in their diurnal
habits and in having the eyes placed upon the sides of
the head — by the much shorter and more powerful bill,
which is always much hooked, the ridge of the upper
mandible being generally curved from the base to the
apex, and its margins are in most cases armed with a
tooth on each side. The base of the bill is enveloped
in a cere, in which the nostrils are pierced (fig. 94,
p. 236); their eyes are overshadowed by projecting
brows ; the head and neck are clothed with feathers ;
the toes are armed with long and powerful claws ;
and the hinder toe, which in the vultures is compara-
tively short and weak, acquires a considerable develop-
ment, and renders the foot a most efficient grasping
organ. It is in fact with the feet that these birds seize
and carry off then* prey, and the bill appears in most
cases to be employed only in tearing it to pieces. In
the habits and mode of life of the Falconidse, there is a
much greater variety than is observable in the vultures.
Some ot them feed almost exclusively upon birds and
mammals ; others upon snakes, frogs, and other rep-
tiles. Others, again, are fishers by profession ; whilst
a considerable number, especially of the smaller species,
derive a great portion of their nourishment from
insects. Their modes of catching prey are also greatly
diversified. Some hover in the air, or sail slowly along
until their victim appears in sight, when they dart
down upon it with the rapidity of lightning; some
pursue their prey with the greatest pertinacity, until
they get an opportunity of seizing it with their murder-
ous talons; whilst others haunt woods and thickets,
and appear to lie in waiting for their food. They
usually nidificate amongst rocks or in tall trees, build-
ing a nest of sticks on which they lay from two to
five eggs, which are almost always of a white colour,
spotted with reddish-brown. The females are gener-
ally larger than the males, but inferior to them in
intensity of colour ; and the young birds pass through
several changes of plumage before attaining their adult
dress. The differences presented by the numerous
species of birds forming this family in their minor
characters, together with corresponding differences in
their habits, have led to their division into numerous
minor groups, which we may adopt here as sections,
commencing with the Caracaras, which from their
carrion-eating habits, must be regarded as most nearly
approaching the preceding family.
CARACARAS.
THE CA&ACABA (Polylorvs Iraziliensis), one of the
best-known species of this group, is an inhabitant of
South America, where, according to M. D'Orbigny, it
replaces the serpent-eater ol the Cape of Good Hope,
from the number of snakes which it destroys. It does
not, however, confine itself to this diet, but feeds in-
differently upon carrion, insects, and mollusca, and
also, like many vultures, attacks new-bom lambs.
D'Orbigny states that it is never seen to give chase to
birds, but, on the other hand, in some districts it can
scarcely fly without being pursued by some species of
small birds, against which it makes no effort to defend
itself. Chickens, however, are not safe from its depre-
dations, and it not unfrequently accompanies the sports-
man in his excursions, and seizes upon the birds shot
by him. Mr. Darwin informs us that the Caracara,
together with a smaller but nearly allied species, the
chimango, frequents the neighbourhood of the slaughter-
houses, to feed on the offals thrown out ; and these two
birds also follow the vultures in devouring the carcass
of any animal that dies in the open country, and never
leave it until the bones are quite clean. According to
some writers, the Caracaras are not above taking their
carrion at second-hand; they are said to watch for
one of the vultures returning from his repast, when
they fly out upon him and pursue him until he finds
it necessary to disgorge his food, upon which the con-
spirators immediately descend. D'Azara states that
these birds also combine to pursue some of the larger
birds, such as the heron. M. D'Orbigny describes the
Caracaras as accompanying the traveller throughout
the vast solitudes of the South American forests, but
never making their appearance until he comes to a
halt; then suddenly he will see them perching upon
the trees in his vicinity, and apparently waiting for the
remains of his dinner. Mr. Darwin, however, attributes
a far less amiable object to these intruders, and regards
this conduct on their part as an evidence of their desire
to indulge their carrion-eating propensities at the per-
sonal expense of the traveller. Of this, he says, any one
may convince himself, " by walking out on one of the
desolate plains, and then lying down to sleep : when he
awakes, he will see, on each surrounding hillock, one
of these birds patiently watching him with an evil eye."
The Caracara, which is also called the Carrancha
in South America, is said to derive its name from its
peculiar guttural cry, which is compared by Mr. Dar-
win " to the sound of the Spanish guttural, g, followed
by a rough double r, r." When uttering this cry it
throws the head back, until at last the crown almost
touches the lower part of the back, the beak being all
the while kept wide open. It is about the size of our
common kite, and has a tail nine inches in length. The
general colour of the plumage is a blackish-brown, with
the neck and breast brownish-grey, barred with brown ;
the top of the head is black, and the feathers of this
part are elongated, so as to form a sort of crest, which
the bird can elevate at pleasure ; the feathers of the tail
are of a dirty-white colour, with numerous transverse
dusky bands, and the tips black. The feet are yellow
with black claws, and the cere and cheeks are naked
and dull red. It is rather an indolent bird, especially
when gorged with food, and never flies to any great
height ; on the ground it runs with facility. Its nest
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCONID.E.
245
is sometimes built on the ground, but more commonly
in trees or on the ledges of rocks. It is rather large,
and consists of sticks, sometimes lined with a few hairs
and feathers ; in this it lays five or six eggs, which are
pointed at one end, and spotted with red on a reddish-
brown ground.
THE CHIMANCK) (Milvago Chimango\ which has
been already mentioned as accompanying the caracara
in its carrion-feasts, is said by Mr. Darwin to be gen-
erally the last bird that leaves the skeleton of a dead
animal ; it " may often," he adds, " be seen within the
ribs of a cow or horse, like a bird in a cage." Like the
caracara, its appetite appears to be satisfied with any-
thing, as it will even eat bread when this is thrown out
of a house with other offal. It also frequents the sea-
coast and the margins of lakes and swamps, in search
of small fish. In its general habits it resembles the
caracara.
THE CHIMACHIMA (M. C/rimachima), another species,
is said to attack beasts of burden upon which it per-
ceives wounds or sores ; these it tears with its bill, until
the unfortunate victim is forced to roll himself upon the
ground to get rid of his tormentor.
THE SOUTHERN CARACARA (Mifoago australis),
appears to be peculiar to the coasts of the southern
extremity of America and the Falkland Islands, where
it is exceedingly abundant. Its habits are very similar
to those of the caracara, but it appears to exceed even
that bird in impudence. It will seize upon birds shot
by the fowler, and on one occasion recorded by Mr.
Darwin, one of these birds actually pounced upon a dog
that was lying asleep close to his master. When a
hunting party has killed an animal, these caracaras
soon collect in the neighbourhood, and stand on the
ground waiting for their share of the spoil. Sometimes
they are said to stand, several in company, at the mouth
of a rabbit-hole, in order to seize on the animal as soon
as it comes out. These various methods of obtaining
food indicate considerable ingenuity, and the birds
appear to be of an exceedingly inquisitive disposition,
which often leads them into mischief. They are also
arrant thieves. When the Adventure was lying in
harbour at the Falklands during the winter, they would
fly on board every day, and it was necessary to keep a
sharp look-out to prevent them from tearing the leather
from the rigging, and stealing the fresh meat and game
hung up at the stern. On one occasion they carried a
heavy black glazed hat nearly a mile ; on another they
went off with a pair of heavy balls, used in the south-
ern parts of America for catching cattle ; and a small
compass in a red morocco case was so tempting a prize
that they carried it off, and it was never again found.
They are exceedingly quarrelsome, and when irritated
fall into such a passion that they tear up the grass with
their bills. Their flesh is said by the sealers who have
tried it to be very white, and good eating. They build
their nests on the rocks only in the small islets of the
Falkland group, which, as Mr. Darwin remarks, " is a
singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird."
BUZZARDS.
THE COMMON BUZZARD (Buteo vulfjaris) is a com-
mon British hawk, which is also met with in most parts
of Europe. It measures about twenty inches in length ;
the plumage of the upper parts, the neck and breast,
are of a dark-brown colour ; the throat and belly are
greyish-brown, spotted with dark-brown ; the tail pale
greyish-brown, with ten or twelve dark brown transverse
bars ; the beak lead colour ; and the cere and legs yellow.
The beak in the Buzzard is short and stout, compressed
on the sides, and has the margins of the upper mandi-
ble sinuated ; the nostrils are large ; the wings long,
but obtuse ; the tail of moderate length and rounded ;
the tarsi rather long and stout, covered with scales in
front, as are also the toes ; the remainder of the foot is
reticulated, and the claws are long, strong, and acute.
The common buzzard is generally distributed in the
British islands, and also occurs abundantly in most
parts of Europe. In some localities it is called the
Kite or Glead, although quite distinct from the bird to
which these names properly belong; and in other places
it bears the name of the Puttock. It is rather an inactive
bird, but often soars to a great height, and sails in
circles like an eagle. AVhen in pursuit of prey it glides
over the fields, at no great distance from the ground,
and pounces down upon any articles of food that come
within its ken. Its food consists of small birds and the
young of the grouse and partridge, the smaller quadru-
peds, reptiles, insects, and even earthworms — all of
which it captures in the way above described, very
rarely pursuing its feathered prey when on the wing.
Mr. M'Gillivray states that he once found the stomach
of a buzzard filled " with leaves of plants and roots,
along with beetles and an earthworm." After feeding
it retires to some secluded spot, and there reposes until
the food is digested, and its returning appetite again
suggests to it the necessity of exertion. The nest of
the common buzzard is composed of sticks and twigs,
mixed with heath, and lined with wool and grass. Its
position varies according to the nature of the country
inhabited by the birds ; in rocky districts it is built on
the ledges of the rocks, and in the more undulating and
wooded localities amongst the branches of trees ; but
the material and construction of the nest are the same
in both cases. These birds are said to save themselves
part of the trouble of building by taking possession of
the nest of a crow and enlarging it to suit their purposes.
In these nests the females deposit from three to four
eggs, which are of an almost perfectly oval form, and
of a dull, or slightly bluish white colour, sometimes
nearly spotless, but usually spotted with rusty brown.
Buzzards are said to attend to the wants of their
young for a longer period than most predaceous birds ;
and they certainly seem to possess very strong paren-
tal instincts. In captivity female buzzards have been
repeatedly known to hatch the eggs, and bring up the
young of other birds : and the following curious example
246
BUZZARDS. BIRDS. THE HONEY BUZZARD.
of this, related by Mr. Yarrell in his " History of British
birds" will probably be entertaining to our readers : —
He tells us that " a female buzzard, kept in the garden
of the Chequers inn at Uxbridge, showed an inclina-
tion to sit, by collecting and bending all the loose sticks
she could obtain possession of. Her owner, noticing
her actions, supplied her with materials ; she completed
her nest, and sat on two hen's eggs, which she hatched,
and afterwards reared the young. Since then she has
hatched and brought up a brood of chickens every year.
One summer, in order to save her the fatigue of sitting,
some young chickens just hatched were put down to
her ; but she destroyed the whole. When flesh was
given to her, she was very assiduous in tearing it, and
offering it as food to her nurslings, and appeared
uneasy, if, after taking small portions from her, they
turned away to pick up grain."
THE ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZAED (Buteo lagopus}—
Plate 3, fig. 7 — has been raised by many ornitholo-
gists to the rank of a distinct genus under the name of
Archibuteo ; its principal distinction from the common
buzzard consists in its having the tarsi clothed with
feathers down to the origin of the toes. It is found in
Britain, but by no means abundantly, and appears to
be a winter visitor to this country ; its real dwelling-
place being the cold northern regions of both conti-
nents. In its general habits it resembles the common
buzzard ; it is described by Audubon as a sluggish bird,
residing on the meadows and low grounds, and feeding
principally on small quadrupeds and reptiles, although
it also appears sometimes to attack larger animals, such
as rabbits and ducks. Its nest is built with sticks,
amongst the branches of trees ; and it lays two eggs.
Its southern migration during the winter is said some-
times to extend as far as the Cape of Good Hope.
THE HONEY BUZZAED (Perm's apivorus], which is
placed by some ornithologists with the kites, is a com-
mon bird in some parts of Europe, but a rare visitor to
Fig. 98
The Honey Buzzard (Pernis apivoms).
this country, where it is only met with in the summer.
It is also known to occur in Northern Africa and in
Asia. It has a rather weak bill, curved from the base,
which is covered by a large cere, close to the anterior
margin of which the elongated nostrils are placed
obliquely. The spaces between the base of the biU
and the eyes are clothed with small feathers, whereas
in the buzzard these parts are covered with hairs,
and the tarsi are reticulated.
The Honey buzzard measures from twenty-two to
twenty -five inches in length ; the colour of its upper
surface is a nearly uniform brown, with the primarie
black, or nearly so ; that of the lower surface is a pale
yellowish-brown ; the top of the head is bluish in the
male, whitish in the female, spotted in the latter with
brown ; the tail feathers are barred with brown. The
beak is black, with the cere grey, and the feet yellow,
with black claws.
THE CHESTED HONEY BUZZARD. BIRDS. THE GOLDEN EAGLE.
247
The food of this bird consists of small mammalia,
birds, reptiles, and insects ; and in the summer and
autumn it appears to derive a great part of its nourish-
ment from the larvae of wasps, which it obtains by
digging out the nests, and breaking up the comb. A
specimen observed by Mr. Selby, near Twizel in North-
umberland, was seen " to rise from the situation of a
wasp's nest, which it had been attempting to excavate,
or, in fact, to a certain extent had accomplished ; and
the large hole which had been scraped showed that a
much greater power could be employed, and that the
bird possessed organs much better fitted to remove the
obstacles which generally concealed its prey, than a
superficial examination of its feet and legs would war-
rant us in ascribing to it. A few hours afterwards, the
task was found to be entirely completed ; the comb
torn out, and cleared from the immature young ; and
after-dissection proved that at this season (autumn) at
least, birds and mammalia formed no part of its food."
The larvae of wasps also seem to constitute the chief
food of the young. In fact, in most cases insects ap-
pear to have been the chief food of the specimens killed
in England ; the larvae of wasps and bees being mixed
with caterpillars, and beetles and their larvae ; in one
examined by White of Selborne, the stomach contained
the limbs of frogs and a great many grey slugs. These
birds have, however, been captured in traps baited with
young rabbits ; they have been seen to strike and carry
oif young pheasants ; and a specimen kept in confine-
ment killed and ate rats, as well as birds of considerable
size, with great ease and appetite.
In a state of nature it is described as rather an inac-
tive bird, rarely flying, except from one tree to another,
and never rising to any great elevation ; on the ground
it runs with great rapidity, almost like a fowl. Its
nest is built in some high tree in a wood or forest,
and is composed of twigs, and lined with dead leaves.
The eggs, which vary from two to four in number, are
blotched over with two shades of orange-brown.
THE CRESTED HONEY BUZZARD (Permis cristata) is
a native of the northern parts of India, where, however,
it does not appear to be common. Its head is fur-
nished with a crest, which it is able to raise and depress
at pleasure. The flight of this species is slow, and its
general habits seem to resemble those of its European
relative. The stomach of a female shot by Mr. Jerdon
contained a soft green mass, which he supposed to be
the remains of half-digested caterpillars; that of a male
bird killed by the same gentleman contained a large
quantity of pure honey. Mr. Elliot also found in the
stomach of a specimen a mixture of ants, wax, and
honey; so that we may suppose the natural food of this
species to consist, partly at all events, of the last-men-
tioned substance, for which the European species is
also said to entertain a predilection. A second speci-
men examined by Mr. Elliot betrayed more predaceous
propensities ; its stomach contained the hair of a rat.
THE ABYSSINIAN BUZZARD (Buteo augur) is an
exceedingly common bird in Abyssinia, where it is
regarded by the inhabitants as furnishing important
omens to those about setting forth on a journey.
According to Salt, the Abyssinians, on meeting one
of these birds at the commencement of a journey,
watch it very carefully, and draw good or bad omens
from its motions:—" If it sit still with its breast towards
them until they have passed, it is a peculiarly good
sign ; and everything is expected to go well during the
course of the journey. If its back be turned towards
them, it is considered an unpropitious sign, but not
sufficiently so to create alarm; but if it should fly away
hastily on their approach, some of the most super-
stitious among them will immediately return back to
their homes, and wait till a more favourable oppor-
tunity for commencing their expedition occur." Dr.
Roth states that he never found anything but locusts
in its stomach ; but, according to Riippell, it feeds upon
small birds and bats, and pursues the latter chiefly
when roused from their retreats by the passage of
caravans or other large bodies of men, which it fre-
quently accompanies or precedes. To this circum-
stance Dr. Ruppell ascribes the belief in the faculty of
divination supposed to be possessed by this bird, as
above described, and which is expressed in its specific
EAGLES.
THE GOLDEN EAGLE (Aquilu clirysaetos), which is
certainly the finest British species of the group to
which the name of eagles is commonly applied, and
yields in size and majesty to few if any of his foreign
relatives, must first engage our attention. This mag-
nificent bird is found not only in Britain, and in all
the mountainous parts of the continent of Europe, but
also occurs in Asia as far to the east as Northern India,
in the north of Africa, and also in North America. Its
usual length is about three feet, and the wings spread
seven or eight feet when extended. The general colour
of the plumage is dark brown, with the belly and
thighs bay, and the quill feathers of the wings blackish.
The tail feathers are varied with two shades of brown ;
the beak is of a bluish horn colour, the cere and toes
are yellow, and the claws black. The tarsi are
-clothed with feathers down to the root of the toes.
In its structure the golden eagle exhibits the char-
acteristics of its tribe in the highest perfection. Its
beak is rather short, but exceedingly powerful, and
the upper mandible terminates in a strongly-hooked
and acute point ; but the sharp teeth which we shall
find in the true or nolle Falcons, on the margins of
the mandible, are here represented only by a slight
festoon. The feet are enormously strong, and the toes
armed with claws of great length and acuteness, curved
in such a manner that the grasp of the foot must
immediately bury them in the body of the prey.
The flight of this bird, as might be expected from
its great length of wing, is most majestic and powerful,
248
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCONID^E.
and it appears to delight in soaring to a great height in the
air. But even when the bird is at such an elevation as
to appear only like a small black speck in the sky, the
acuteness of its vision is so great, that it can readily
discover its prey upon the ground below it, when it will
descend with the most astonishing velocity to seize its
victim. Its great strength enables it to prey upon crea-
tures whose size would prevent them from being attacked,
or at all events being carried off by any of the smaller
Falconidse, and although it does not contemn such
small game as partridges and grouse, it destroys lambs,
even when several weeks old, and young fawns, which
its great muscular power enables it even to carry off in
its talons to its nest among the rocks. Hares and rab-
bits also constitute a considerable portion of its food.
The eagle is, in fact, the great tyrant of the wild regions
which he inhabits, but as we must bear in mind that
nothing that he can meet with there has any power of
defending itself from his terrible swoop, we must not
allow ourselves, as our forefathers did, to magnify him
into a type of magnanimity and courage. This view
is Induced by the magnificent aspect of the bird, and
the abundant evidences of terrible energy furnished
by his every movement; in true courage he is not supe-
rior to most of the smaller hawks, and certainly inferior
to the peregrine and many other falcons, which will
even venture to attack and drive away this so-called
monarch of the waste, when he approaches too neai
their nests.
The Golden eagle, as already stated, is an inhabitant
The Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaiitos).
of mouiitainoua regions, in the wild fastnesses of which
lie dwells in solitary state, far from the habitations of
man. On the highest and most inaccessible ledges of
the rocks the eagles build their nests, or eyries, which
consist of a vast assemblage of sticks, forming a flat
platform of several feet in diameter. Upon this the
female deposits two, or at the utmost three eggs, which
are of a dirty-white colour, mottled with pale reddish-
brown. The eggs are laid about the end of March or
the beginning of April, and in the course of a month the
young eaglets are hatched. During their growth the
parent birds are indefatigable in attending upon them
and supplying them with food ; and such an abundant
supply of game do they bring into the nest, that we are
told of one instance in which a native of Kerry obtained
a comfortable subsistence for himself and his family
throughout a summer of scarcity, by robbing the nest
of an eagle of the food brought for the support of the
young birds, whose wings he clipped in order to retard
their flight, and thus prolong the attendance of the
THE SPOTTED EAGLE. BIRDS. THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE.
249
parents. These birds are said to be very long-lived,
and one of them is recorded to have died at Vienna
after passing no less than one hundred and four years
in confinement. Their cry is a loud sharp scream.
They generally retain their ferocity even after long
captivity, seldom even showing any affection for the
person who feeds them ; but notwithstanding this and
the general character for intractability which has been
founded Tipon it, instances are on record of the recla-
mation of the Golden eagle, even so far as to enable
him to be used for the purposes of falconry. At the
same time his temper seems to be rather uncertain, and
he is by no means so desirable a favourite as the true
falcons.
The Golden eagle, like the lammergeyer, has been
accused of sometimes carrying off young children to its
nest, but as far as we are aware, none of these stories
have been fully authenticated. Another popular notion,
which is doubtless in some measure connected with the
supposed regal nature of the bird, namely, that he will
feed on nothing that he has not himself killed, is cer-
tainly destitute of foundation; the eagle, when he pays
an occasional visit to the shore, will feed freely upon
dead fish, and at other times, especially in winter, he
does not disdain carrion. Mr. M'Gillivray states that
he had seen several eagles hovering over a dead sheep,
and in the Scotch islands they are often lured to their
destruction by the exposure of the carcases of animals,
in the vicinity of a pit or other shelter in which the
gunner lies concealed.
THE SPOTTED EAGLE (Aqut'la ncevia) is another
European species, of which specimens have been killed
in Britain. It is an inhabitant of the mountainous dis-
tricts of central Europe, but extends its range south-
ward into Egypt; it also occurs in Asia as far as
Nepaul and Calcutta. It is considerably smaller than
the golden eagle, being about the size of a large cock ;
its general colour is brown, but the feathers of the legs
and sides are spotted with white, and the quill feathers
of the wings are terminated by whitish tips. It feeds
on small quadrupeds and birds, and builds its nest on
high trees, laying two eggs, slightly blotched with red.
BONELLTS EAGLE (Aquila Bonellii) an inhabitant
of Southern Europe, is also found in Asia as far as
India, where, however, it appears to be a rare bird. It
is not common in Europe, where it lives in the marshy
forests of Sardinia, Sicily, and the south of France. It
feeds principally upon birds, and is said to be especially
fond of ducks. In India it also inhabits wooded and
jungly districts, sitting upon the high branches of trees
to look out for its prey, which consists of jungle-fowl,
partridges, and hares, and occasionally even the peacock
falls a victim to its talons. Sometimes this eagle takes
up its abode in the vicinity of the villages, when it
makes fearful havoc among the domestic poultry.
Mr. Jerdon gives the following account of the mode of
attack adopted by a pair of these birds which haimted
some pigeon-houses in the Neilgherries. He says,
" On the pigeons taking flight, one of the eagles pounced
down from a vast height on the flock, but directing its
swoop rather under the pigeons than directly at them.
Its mate, watching the moment when, alarmed by the
first swoop, the pigeons rise in confusion, pounces
VOL. I.
unerringly on one of them, and carries it off. The
other eagle, having risen again, also makes another
stoop, which is generally fatal." The Indian falconers
also, according to the same authority, have generally
stories to relate of these eagles carrying off favourite
hawks.
THE TAWNY EAGLE (Aquila ncevioidcs) is the
common eagle of India, where it is known as the
Wokhab. It is also an inhabitant of Abj-ssinia, and
probably of the intervening countries. Like the pre-
ceding species, it dwells either in the jungly districts
or in the vicinity of towns and villages, over which it
is frequently seen daily in company with the kites.
Its food consists of hares and other game, but it also
condescends to devour rats, lizards, snakes, and even
insects, and it appears to share with the kites in any
carrion that may fall in its way. Mr. Jerdon thinks
that it obtains much of its food by robbing other birds
of prey, and he quotes a statement of Mr. Elliot's, that
this eagle is exceedingly troublesome to the falconers
by pursuing the hawks for the sake of their jesses,
which it mistakes for some kind of prey.
THE BOOTED EAGLE (Aquila pennata) has the
feet feathered down to the toes, the plumage of the
back brown, and that of the lower parts white, marked
with narrow brown lines. It is the smallest of the true
eagles found in Europe, measuring only about twenty
inches in length. It occurs principally in the eastern
parts of Europe, and, like the preceding species, is an
inhabitant of India. In its appearance and. mode of
flight it resembles the kite, and, like that bird, it is said
to be a " noted robber of the dove-cot and poultry
yard."
THE IMPERIAL EAGLE (Aquila imperialist, which
is also common to Europe and Asia, and yields only to
the golden eagle in size, abounds particularly in Turkey,
Egypt, and the north of Africa. It inhabits the hilly
districts, and when in search of prey, flies slowly along
at no great elevation, hunting over the bushy vallies
and ravines. It is said by Mr. Jerdon to strike fre-
quently at game raised by sportsmen.
THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE (Aquila fucosa] is a
native of Australia and Van Diemen's Land, where it
evidently takes the place of the golden eagle of Europe,
to which it is scarcely inferior in size. A specimen killed
by Mr. Gould measured six feet eight inches from tip
to tip of the wings, and he considers this to be far
from the largest bird of this species which had come
under his notice. The wedge-tailed eagle frequents
the interior of the country, and like its northern ana-
logue, the golden eagle, rarely makes its appearance on
the coast. It preys principally on the smaller species
of kangaroos and also on the large Australian bustard ;
and in the districts inhabited by the European settlers
it is so destructive to the young lambs, that the shep-
herds wage with it a war of extermination. It will
also devour offals and carrion; for the former it will
follow the kangaroo-hunters for days, and Mr. Gould
states, that in one of his journies he saw no less than
thirty or forty of these birds assembled round the car-
case of a dead bullock, some sitting in a gorged state
upon the neighbouring trees, while others were still
enjoying the feast.
2 I
250
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCONID^E.
The nest which is very large and nearly flat, is
placed amongst the most inaccessible branches of trees,
and composed of sticks and branches. Mr. Gould was
unable to procure the eggs.
THE MAKTIAL EAGLE (Spizaetus bellicosus)— Plate
2, fig. 6 — often called the Gri/ard by the French
writers, is a large and powerful species found in the
southern parts of Africa. It is about the size of the
golden eagle, of a brown colour above, with the edges
of the feathers pale. The lower surface is whitish, and
the feet are feathered down to the toes. The Martial
eagles are generally seen in pairs in the mountainous
districts. They prey upon antelopes and hares, and
during the period of incubation, the male bird provides
his partner with food. They are described as exceed-
ingly courageous, driving all other birds of prey from
the localities which they inhabit. The cry of this bird
is very sharp and piercing, and may be heard when the
eagle has soared quite out of sight. The nest, which
is built either on the top of a high tree, or amongst the
steepest and most inaccessible rocks, constitutes a flat
platform of four or five feet in diameter, and often two
feet in thickness ; and so solid in its construction, that
it will bear the weight of a man. Its foundation is
composed of several stout sticks, interlaced with a
quantity of flexible twigs, serving to form a solid sub-
stratum, when the nest is made on a tree ; and this is
surmounted by a thick mass of small twigs, moss, dry
leaves, roots, and reeds, which constitute the greater
part of the nest. The surface of this platform is covered
with a layer of small fragments of dry wood, upon which
the eggs are laid ; and this edifice, as might be expected
from the labour attending its construction, serves the
couple for several consecutive years. The eggs are
nearly round, of a pure white colour, and almost three
inches in diameter.
THE HARPY EAGLE (Thrasaetus Harpyia). The
preceding are some of the principal species of eagles
inhabiting the eastern hemisphere, and one of them, the
golden eagle, also extends its range into the northern
part of the American continent; we have now to
describe two species which belong exclusively to South
America. The first of these, the Harpy eagle, is a
formidable bird which inhabits the vast forests of inter-
tropical America, especially along the course of the
great rivers. It is the only species of its genus, which
is distinguished from the other eagles by having a
very strong beak, undulated at the margins, and very
greatly hooked at the tip; the wings short, scarcely
reaching the base of the tail, which is long ; and the feet
very stout, the tarsi reticulated and the toes scaled in
front. The head in this fine bird is clothed with large
rounded feathers, which can be raised at pleasure to
form a sort of crest.
This large and powerful eagle is said to prey almost
entirely upon Mammalia, and to have a particular pre-
ference for the monkeys and sloths which abound in the
forests of South America. In the morning it is seen
flying over the forest in search of these articles of diet,
but it is also said to attack other quadrupeds, and even
the fawns of the South American deer are not free from
its attacks. According to the natives it never attacks
birds. Mauduit asserts that the strength of this bird
is so great that it can split the skull of a man by a blow
with its beak, and it is certain, from M. D'Orbigny's
experience, that, when wounded, the Harpy eagle does
not hesitate to attack ita human enemies. That dis-
tinguished traveller, when navigating the Rio Securi in
a canoe, saw a large specimen of the Harpy perched
upon one of the lower branches of a tree ; he landed in
order to shoot it, but the soil being muddy, his Indians
got ashore first and wounded the bird with an arrow.
It flew to a short distance, when it was again wounded,
and finally knocked on the head, until life being sup-
posed to be extinct, the Indians plucked out the feathers
of the wings, tail and head, upon which they set a high
value, and even stripped the bird of some of its down,
which they employ, as we do spiders' webs in England,
for stopping the bleeding of wounds, &c. In this muti-
lated condition they brought the bird to the canoe, to
the great disgust of the enterprising voyager. What
followed will be best told in his own words: — " Being
regarded as dead, the bird," he says, " was placed in
the canoe in front of us ; and we did not remark that,
recovering from its state of insensibility, it revived
by degrees ; we did not perceive this until, becoming
furious, and no doubt longing for revenge, it threw
itself violently upon us, although, fortunately, it could
only make use of one of its talons ; with this, however,
it pierced through my arm from one side to the other,
between the cubitus and the radius, and at the same (
time tore the remainder of the arm. It also endea-
voured, happily without success, to pierce me with its
beak ; and, notwithstanding its wounds, it required two
people to make it let go its hold."
THE TJRUBITINGA (Morphnus Urubitinga), another
inhabitant of the South American continent, is found,
according to D'Orbigny, only in the plains, and there
always on the borders of lakes, rivers, and marshes.
It is a solitary bird, and rather sedentary in its habits,
taking up its position on the top of some dead tree,
where it will sit for hours watching for the appear-
ance of its prey, which consists principally of reptiles,
small mammalia, and dead birds. On catching sight
of its prey it descends upon it rapidly, and after its
meal returns quietly to its post. It flies but little ex-
cept in the morning and evening, and then sometimes
beats about the neighbourhood of its lodging, flying
slowly at a considerable height. It generally sleeps
on the lower branches of trees. The habits of the
other species of the genus Morphnus, of which several
occur in South America, are very similar.
THE SEBPENT EAGLE (Circa'etus galliciis}, called
the J ean-le-Blanc in France, is a small species, mea-
suring only about two feet and a half in length. It has
a large head, with a strong black beak, enveloped to
the base in a large bluish cere, near the margin of
which the nostrils are pierced; the tarsi are long, and
the toes short, and terminated by short and slightly
curved claws. The plumage of the head, throat, and
lower part of the body is white, spotted with brown ;
that of the upper surface is brown ; and the tail, which
is of a square form, is greyish-brown, banded with a
darker brown. The feet are bluish-grey.
In Europe this bird is found principally in the vast
pine forests of the north and east, but it also occurs,
THE SHORT-TAILED EAGLE. BIRDS. THE WHITE-HEADED EAGLE.
251
although rarely, in France; in the Asiatic continent it
extends its range as far as Bengal, and in the more
northern regions probably still further. In Europe it
preys upon the smaller quadrupeds and birds, occa-
sionally feeding upon reptiles and even insects ; but in
India its preference for reptiles is so marked, that its
native names refer to the havoc which it makes among
the snakes. It does not, however, confine itself to
this food, but devours small quadrupeds and birds ; and
Mr. Elliot found a centipede in the stomach of one,
together with a snake two feet in length. It builds in
trees, and lays two or three eggs of a bluish-white
colour, sometimes spotted with brownish.
THE SHORT-TAILED EAGLE (Helotarsus ecaudatus],
an inhabitant of the southern parts of Africa, is dis-
tinguished from all the other eagles by the extreme
shortness of its tail, which is almost entirely concealed
beneath the wings when these are closed. The eyes
are surrounded by a naked skin, which, with the cere,
is of a bright red colour. So short is the tail that Le
Vaillant, the first discoverer of the bird, fancied it to
be an eagle which had been deprived of its tail by some
accident; its aspect accordingly is very deficient in
grace, and its movements in the air are exceedingly
singular. This aerial play, which appears to be con-
nected with the courting of these remarkable birds, is
compared by Le Vaillant with the tricks of a tumbler,
and he gave this eagle the name of the Bateleur from
this circumstance. It is by no means choice in its diet,
but feeds freely, like the vultures, upon carrion ; never-
theless it frequently destroys young antelopes and
lambs, and also sickly sheep. Its nest is built in trees,
and the female lays three or four bluish-white eggs.
THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE (Haliaetus albicilla),
the first of the group of sea-eagles to which we shall
refer, is an inhabitant of the greater part of Europe,
especially the northern regions of that continent, and
extends its range eastward as far as Lake Baikal in
Siberia. It is also met with in Iceland and Greenland,
but does not occur in North America. It is a large
species, the adult female measuring nearly three feet
in length, so that it is little inferior in size to the
golden eagle; its general colour is brown, lighter and
darker on different regions of the body, the back and
wings being darkest; the tail is pure white, the feet,
cere, and beak yellow, and the claws black. In Britain
it is a more common species than the golden eagle,
from which it differs in many important characters,
especially in the much greater length of the beak, and
the comparative slenderness of the claws. In its habits
it is more sluggish and vulturine than the golden eagle
and its immediate allies.
The White-tailed eagle usually inhabits rocks
and cliffs overhanging the sea, from which it dashes
down impetuously to seize either birds or fishes, and
where seals abound it not uncommonly attacks them.
At other times it carries its marauding excursions
inland, destroying land birds and quadrupeds, and
evincing a particular partiality for young fawns and
dead deer. It is more abundant in the latitude
of Britain in the winter than in the summer; and,
according to Temminck, it follows the flocks of geese
which migrate annually to and from the Arctic seas.
Nevertheless numerous specimens of these birds
remain throughout the summer, and breed upon the
rocks surrounding the Orkney and Shetland islands,
and other northern coasts of the British islands;
although from the number of them that have been
killed, on account of their destruction of the young
lambs, they are by no means so abundant as formerly.
The nest, which is built upon a ledge of rock, usually -
at a great height above the sea, is of large size, consist-
ing of a flat platform, about five feet in diameter, com-
posed of sticks, heath, dried sea-weed, grass, wool, &c.
Upon this are deposited the eggs, usually two in
number, about the size of that of the goose, but broader
and of a white colour, with a few pale red spots, espe-
cially towards the larger end. Nidification com-
mences about the middle of spring, and the young are
hatched early in June. The young are able to fly
about the middle of August, but the old birds generally
continue to feed them for some time, and, according to
some writers, the parents quit the neighbourhood when
the young birds are able to provide for themselves;
unlike the golden eagles, which generally drive their
offspring away to some distance, and often occupy the
same nest for seven or eight consecutive years.
In courage the White-tailed eagle is very inferior to
the golden eagle, rarely attacking any large animal,
and feeding contentedly upon carrion of all sorts. In
the Shetlands they are known to sweep round the cot-
tages early in the morning, to pick up any poultry that
may be about; but, according to Dr. Edmondston, the
flocks of geese which are turned out in those islands to
pasture upon the hills during the summer and autumn,
are rarely attacked by the eagles, although in the
immediate vicinity of their haunts. "The wing of the
gander," he says, " which not unfrequently is uplifted
in defence of his young, has a moral, if not a physical
power, which the robber Erne seems to quail under."
The same gentleman tells us that, " occasionally, during
warm weather, skate and halibut bask on the surface
of the water, and the eagle pounces on them; but
several instances have occurred of this aquatic hunt
being fatal to him. If the fish is not so large as to be
able immediately to drag him under the water, he
elevates his wings, and in this way, if the wind happens
to be blowing on the land, he often manages to reach
it in safety." On reaching the shore, however, he is
compelled to liberate his claws with his beak, and it is
this circumstance that renders these piscatorial exploits
so dangerous, unless the fish captured be of the right
size, and the wind in the right direction. The Sea eagle
feeds freely upon any dead fish that may be thrown up
on the shore, and he seems to perceive these objects
from a great height in the air.
THE WHITE-HEADED EAGLE (Haliaetus leucoce-
phahts), which is also called the BALD EAGLE, is an
abundant species in the United States of North America,
where it takes the place of the white-tailed eagle
of Europe. It exceeds the European species in size,
and especially in extent of wing, but, like it, inhabits
the vicinity of the sea, and also of the lakes and rivers.
In its general habits it greatly resembles the white-
tailed eagle, feeding with avidity upon carrion, and
exhibiting a decided partiality for fish. In Wilson's
252
ACCIPITP.KS. BIRDS.
time this species was very abundant about the Falls
of Niagara, watching, in company with the ravens and
vultures, for the carcases of animals brought down
by the force of the great cataract. In obtaining his
supply of fresh fish, the White-headed eagle exhibits
an amount of sagacity which preserves him from
the unpleasant consequences sometimes attending the
piscatorial proceedings of his European congener — in
fact, he does his fishing by proxy. Perching on the
bough of a tree, or on some other elevated position
on the coast, he watches the manoeuvres of one of his
near relations, the smaller and less powerful osprey or
fish-hawk (Pandion Haliaetus). As soon as he sees
the osprey dash down into the waters, and emerge
again with his prey struggling hi his talons, the Bald
eagle quits his post of observation and darts off in
pursuit of the successful fisher. The latter, encumbered
with his prey, is quite unable to contend in flight
with his pursuer, who endeavours to rise above him ;
and the manoeuvres of the birds in this struggle for the
upper hand, are described as exceedingly interesting.
The conclusion of the affair is, however, nearly always
the same — the eagle, being quite unencumbered, gen-
erally overcomes the osprey ; the latter lets his prey
drop with a scream of disgust ; and the piratical pursuer
then descends with astonishing rapidity, and usually
manages to secure the booty before it reaches the
water. One can sympathize with Wilson in his regret
that so unprincipled a bird should have been selected
as the emblem of the United States ; for, notwithstand-
ing the ingenuity displayed in the proceedings just
described, it must be confessed that the industrious
osprey is the more respectable animal of the two.
Occasionally, however, a kind of revolution takes place ;
the ospreys, on a stretch of coast infested by a Bald
eagle, seem to grow tired of the exactions of their
plunderer, and, making common cause, drive him
from then- precincts. Under these circumstances he
often directs his course inland, where he commits great
depredations amongst the weaker domestic animals —
little pigs and lambs are said to be particular objects
of his attention. Wilson also mentions an instance in
which one of these birds, pressed by hunger, attempted
to carry off a young child, and actually dragged it
along for several feet, when its frodk fortunately giving
way, the robber was disappointed of his expected meal.
The White-headed eagle builds sometimes on the
rocks and sometimes amongst the branches of tall trees.
The nest is composed of the same substances as that of
the White-tailed eagle, sticks, tufts of grass, &c. ; it
serves the birds for several years, and is added to at
every breeding season, so that hi course of time it
consists of a vast mass of materials. The eggs are two
in number, of a bluish-white colour, without any spots,
and, according to Wilson, one of the eggs is laid a
considerable time before the other. The parents are
much attached to their young, which they tend with
great assiduity, and the female has been known to
adliere so pertinaciously to her young family, when the
tree containing her nest had been set on fire, that at
last she made her escape with considerable difficulty.
THE WHITE-BELLIED SEA EAGLE (Haliaetus leuco-
gaster) is a rather smaller species than the preceding,
which is found, although not very abundantly, about
the coasts and lakes of the East Indies and its islands,
and also in Australia. In some parts of India, accord-
to Mr. Blyth, it is known as the Snake-killer, a name
which is also applied to the Circa etus gallicus ; the
natives of Sumatra call it the Bald eayle, and on the
coasts it appears to subsist principally upon fish, which
it often carries off from the nets or boats of the
fishermen. Mr. Gould says that in Australia these
birds do not capture living fish by plunging into the
water, but content themselves with the dead fish and
cetacea which are thrown up on the beach ; they also
probably feed upon mollusca and other marine animals,
and Mr. Blyth found some joints of Crustacea in an
Indian specimen examined by him. They nidificate,
according to Mr. Gould, sometimes hi trees and some-
times on the rocks. The sexes are similar in their
plumage, having the head, neck, and the whole lower
surface of the body white, the back and wings grey,
the primaries and base of the tail feathers blackish, and
tips of the latter white.
THE OSPEEY (Pandion Haliaetus) also known as
the FISH-HAWK, is a small species of the tribe of
eagles, to the piscatorial accomplishments of which we
have already alluded. Its peculiar adaptation for the
capture of fish is evidenced by the structure of the
lower surface of the toes, the skin of this part being
formed into rough cushions, and each of the granula-
tions of the skin terminates in a point or spine, which
cannot but be of the greatest service to the bird in
seizing upon the slippery struggling fishes which con-
stitute its principal nourishment. It is a robust bird,
with long and powerful wings, and a strong beak ; the
tarsi are short and stout, and their granular scales
present an arrangement by which this bird and the
other members of its genus may be at once recognized.
The scales of the front of the tarsus are imbricated
downwards, that is to say, the margin of each scale
overlies the one below it ; but on the back of the tar-
sus this arrangement is reversed, and the lower scales
overlie those above them. The outer toe, also, is
capable of being turned either forward or backward,
an arrangement which must evidently assist the birds
materially in overcoming their slippery prey.
The Common osprey measures about twenty-two
inches in length ; the general colour of its plumage on
the upper surface and wings is dark brown, and on
the lower surface white, with a few brownish feathers
on the breast ; the tips of the primaries are black, and
the tail feathers are banded with two shades of brown.
The beak is black, with the cere blue, and the feet are
also blue, with black claws, which, unlike those of the
rapacious birds in general, are not grooved beneath.
The osprey which is, at all events partially, a migra-
tory bird, is found in almost all parts of the world,
generally on the sea- coast, but frequently also on the
banks of lakes and rivers far inland. It occurs abun-
I dantly on the shores of North America, and is almost
equally plentiful in Europe ; it is also an inhabitant of
Northern Asia, and extends its range southward as far
as India in the eastern, and Honduras in the western
hemisphere. It appears to reside in the temperate
arid colder climates during the summer, and to move
THE INDIAN OSPKEY. BIRDS. THE WHISTLING EAGLK.
253
into a milder atmosphere as the approach of cold
weather threatens to deprive it of its food, either by
freezing up the waters, or preventing the fishes from
coming so freely to the surface. Its habits appear to
be everywhere much the same. Sailing gently along, at
a considerable height above the surface of the water, it
keeps a watchful eye upon the proceedings of the fishes
beneath it, and the moment one of them comes near
enough to the surface to render its capture possible, the
wings of the osprey are immediately closed, and it
descends, as described by Wilson, " like a perpendi-
cular torrent, plunging into the sea with a loud rush-
ing sound, and with the certainty of a rifle." Rarely
is the attempt made in vain; in a few seconds the
osprey emerges again from the water with his prey
struggling in his talons, from which, however, there is
no escape, and shaking the water from his plumage he
sails slowly to the shore. In this way the osprey often
captures and bears to land a prey considerably exceed-
ing himself in weight, and the American ornithologists
describe the bird as exhibiting great ingenuity when
the wind is off the shore, in tacking about so as to avoid
flying directly against it. OccasioLally the osprey is
said to vary his fish-diet by capturing water-fowl, but
this seems to occur but rarely.
The nest is composed of an immense mass of rotten
sticks and similar materials ; it is generally placed in a
high tree, but sometimes upon rocks, ruined buildings,
or even on the ground. In this the female deposits
two or three eggs, of a white colour, blotched with
reddish-brown at the large end. The female sits
almost continuously, the male supplying her with food
during the periods of incubation, and after the young
birds are hatched, which is usually in the month of
June, the parents are indefatigable in feeding them,
until, or even after, they are able to provide for
themselves.
THE INDIAN OSPEEY (Pandion Ichthyaetus] is a
nearly-allied species, first discovered by Dr. Horsfield
in Java, where it frequents the borders of lakes and
large rivers. It is also found upon the continent of
Asia, as far north as Nepaul, and is known in Bengal
by the name of Fish-tyrant. In its habits it closely
resembles the common osprey, and lives exclusively
upon fish, never, according to Dr. Horsfield, attacking
fowls or other animals.
THE WHITE-HEADED OSPEEY (Pandion leucoce-
phalus) is a generally -distributed, although not an
abundant species in Australia, where it follows precisely
the same mode of life as its European congener, from
which it is readily distinguished by having the whole
crown of the head white. The nest is composed of
sticks, some of them as thick as a man's wrist, and lined
with sea-weeds. It is of enormous size — one measured
by Mr. Gilbert being fifteen feet in circumference — and
is placed either upon a rock, or amongst the branches
of a high tree. The eggs are two in number, yellowish
or white, blotched with reddish or purplish brown.
THE PONDICHEREY EAGLE (Haliastur Indus] is a
very common and conspicuous species in India, where
it is known to Europeans as the " Brahminy kite," the
former name being in allusion to its being regarded
with superstitious feelings by the Hindoos, and the
latter to the resemblance of its habits to those of the
kites. It is said to be sacred to Vishnu, and one of
its Hindoo names signifies that it is " Shiva's kite ;"
another native name is the " Washerman's kite," and a
third, which is interpreted the " Lucky-faced," is evi-
dently in allusion to a superstition prevalent among the
Mahometans, that "when two armies are about to
engage, the appearance of one of these birds over either
party prognosticates victory to that side."— (Pearson.}
This bird is found not only on the peninsula of Hindos-
tan, but also in the regions to the east of this, and in
the islands of the Indian Archipelago.
The Pondicherry eagle is a small species, measuring
scarcely twenty inches in length ; its plumage is chest-
nut-brown on the upper part, and white streaked with
brown on the lower. The beak is ash-coloured, with
a bluish cere, and the feet yellow, with black claws. The
beak, feet, and claws are much weaker than in the
ospreys ; the front of the tarsus is covered with large
hexagonal scales, and the upper surface of all the toes
is occupied by broad plate-like scales.
Its flight is described as greatly resembling that of a
kite, except that the motion of the wings is rather more
frequent. It is seen constantly sailing over the tanks,
rice-fields, and rivers, at a moderate height, often pass-
ing up and down the course of a river, ready to pounce
down in a moment at any unlucky fish that may make
its appearance at the surface of the water. It usually
snatches up its prey from the surface without immersing
itself, but occasionally it dips entirely under water,
when it seems to experience some difficulty in rising
again with its prey. Besides fishes, this bird feeds
upon many other inhabitants of the waters, such as
frogs, insects, and Crustacea, and, according to some
observers, will also seize upon young birds.
THE WHISTLING EAGLE (Haliastur sphenurus), or
WHISTLING HAWK of the Australian colonists, is an
abundant bird in all parts of New Holland, where it
inhabits alike the sea- coasts and the scrubs and swamps
of the interior. It obtains its name from its emitting a
shrill whistling cry when flying. Its plumage is of a
brown colour, pale beneath and dark on the back and
wings, the feathers of the latter parts being margined
with greyish white ; the bill and cere are greyish, and
the feet bluish, witlUblack claws. The tail is long and
wedge-shaped, and the whole length of the bird is about
two feet.
The Whistling eagle feeds upon carrion, small quad-
rupeds, birds, reptiles, insects, and fish, but does not
appear to display any of the energy which characterizes
the proceedings of some of the preceding species, in its
pursuit of the last-mentioned prey. It is said by Mr.
Gould to be destructive in the poultry yards of the
colonists ; but, on the other hand, it repays much of the
injury thus done by destroying vast numbers of cater-
pillars, which frequently descend in armies upon the
cultivated lands, and threaten to carry desolation with
them. The birds are generally seen in pairs; their
nest is constructed of sticks and fibrous roots, usually
in the branches of a tall tree ; and in this the female
lays one or two eggs, of a bluish- white colour, with
a slight tinge of green, upon which a few brownish
markings are obscurely perceptible.
254
AOOIPITRES. BIRDS. FAT-CONIC.*.
FALCONS.
WE now come to the consideration of the True or nolle
Falcons, as they were formerly called, from the circum-
stance that nearly all the species of birds employed in
the favourite ancient diversion of hawking belonged to
this group. These Falcons are distinguished from all
the other birds of prey, by having the margins of the
upper mandible not merely sinuated, but armed with
an acute tooth on each side not far from the apex.
The other species of the family Falconidse were denomi-
nated ignoble birds of prey, partly from their deficiency
of courage, as compared with the True Falcons, and
partly from the intractability displayed by most of
them, which rendered them unfit for the purposes of
the falconer. Arbitrary as this distinction seems, there
is no doubt that the True Falcons, to a great extent,
deserve the epithet noble thus applied to them ; there
is an elegance in their port and a boldness in their
aspect which distinguishes them at a glance from most
other birds of prey, whilst their astonishing power of
flight and great muscular strength render them the
types of predaceous birds.
Before proceeding to describe any of these birds, it
may not be amiss to furnish the reader with a brief
sketch of the mode in which the hawks are trained and
used in falconry. When they can be taken from the
nest, their training is comparatively easy; they are
kept in sheltered habitations in the open air, and fed
every morning and evening with beef or mutton cut
into shreds, until they are about six weeks old, when
their predatory instincts begin to show themselves, in
the capture of any weak animals that come within their
reach. They are then captured, their feet are confined
with leathern manacles, called jesses, by which they can
be fastened down in the dark prison to which they are
transferred, and their heads are covered up in hoods,
which effectually prevent their seeing what is taking
place around them. The nestling birds are denomi-
nated niais in the language of falconers ; older hawks
which are able to leave the nest, but can only hop
about, are called branchers; they qpe simply manacled
and placed in a dark prison, in the same hooded con-
dition as the niais, and their training presents little
more difficulty.
But when an adult falcon has been caught, the affair
assumes a very different complexion, for he does not
resign his desires of freedom without a long struggle.
The falconer, having first of all secured his prisoner's
feet by means of the leathern jesses above mentioned,
to which little bells are usually attached, takes the
hawk upon his gloved fist, and keeps him awake and
without food in a dark place until exhaustion begins to
break his spirit. When the falcon is very obstreperous
and attempts to use his beak, he is treated with a bath
of cold water ; but, notwithstanding these rigorous mea-
sures, it usually requires three days and nights to bring
him into a state of proper submission. His head is then
covered with a hood, and he is by degrees brought to
feed freely, his strength being at the same time kept
down by the administration of little pellets of hemp,
which have a purgative effect. When the bird takes
his food without difficulty, he is induced to leap upon
the hand by holding up his meat, with which he is then
fed, and afterwards his food is given to him .upon a rude
representation of a bird, called the lure, to which he is
thus attracted from gradually increasing distances, being
held all the time by a cord or string. When he
becomes familiar with the lure, by associating it with
his meals, he will pounce down upon it from almost
any elevation. He is then taught to know his game,
still kept from making his escape by means of a cord,
and at last, when sufficiently trained, is allowed to fly
freely in pursuit of birds and other animals. The train-
ing of the Gyrfalcon is the most arduous of all, the pre-
liminary exercises occupying a great deal of time ; the
Peregrine Falcon is more docile, but even its training
will require a month.
The sport of falconry, which was so great a favourite
with our ancestors, has now fallen into almost 'total
desuetude in European countries; but in the East,
especially in Persia and India, it is still followed with
great zeal. There, as in Europe in former days, it is
one of the favourite diversions of the princes and great
men, and numerous species of hawks and falcons are
trained for it with great care.
THE GYRFALCON (Falco Gyrfalco), also called the
Jerfalcon and the Iceland Falcon, is found in the nor-
thern parts of both hemispheres, but is most abundant
in North America. It is a native of this country, but
has become exceedingly rare here of late years ; in fact,
most of the British specimens must be looked upon as
stragglers from the more northern countries of Iceland
and Norway, where these birds occur in greater abun-
dance. If we may judge from the high value placed
upon the Gyrfalcon in the days when hawking was
a fashionable amusement, and the sums expended in
importing them from Iceland and Norway, we may
justly come to the conclusion that this bird was
never common in Britain. The Iceland falcons were
greatly preferred to the Norwegian specimens, their
strength and courage being described as greater, and
their flight more rapid and bold. Hence the falconers
generally considered that the two birds belonged to
distinct species, but this view is not adopted by
naturalists.
The Gyrfalcon measures from twenty to twenty-
three inches in length; its plumage is of a white colour,
while the whole of the back is marked with greyish-
brown spots ; the bill is bluish, the cere and feet yel-
low, and the claws black, exceedingly sharp, and much
curved. The young birds are brown, and the white
colour gradually encroaches upon this at each moult,
until in the adults the whole brown surface becomes
pure white, whilst the feathers of the back and wings
retain the spots above mentioned. In very old birds
even these disappear, when the plumage becomes nearly
pure white. In a wild state, as observed by Sir John
FALCONS. BIRDS. -THE PEREGRINE FALCOX.
255
Richardson, in the Hudson's Bay territories, " its
habitual prey is the ptarmigan, but it also destroys
plover, ducks, and geese ;" from its great strength and
courage it was employed by falconers in tho pursuit of
the largest quarries, such as cranes, storks, and herons.
The breeding places of the Gyrfalcon are all in the
high northern latitudes ; the best known are the rocky
coasts of Norway, Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador.
Mr. Anderson, who observed the nest in the latter
country, describes it as " composed of sticks, sea-
weeds, and mosses, about two feet in diameter and
nearly flat." lu defence of its young the Gyrfalcon
exhibits great courage, as is shown by the following
anecdote related by Sir John Richardson : — " In the
middle of June, 1821," says that distinguished natural-
ist, "a pair of these birds attacked me as I was climbing
in the vicinity of their nest, which was built on a lofty
precipice on the borders of Point Lake, in latitude 65j°.
They flew in circles, uttering loud and harsh screams,
and alternately stooping with such
velocity that their motion through the
air produced a loud rushing noise.
They struck their claws within an inch
of my head. I endeavoured, by keeping
the barrel ot my gun close to my cheek,
and suddenly elevating its muzzle when
they were in the act ot striking, to
ascertain whether they had the power
of instantaneously changing the direc-
tion of their rapid course, and found that
they invariably rose above the obstacle
with the quickness of thought, showing
equal acuteness of vision, and power of
motion."
THE PEREGRINE FALCON (Falco pere-
yrinus) is the next in point of size to the
gyrfalcon amongst the European species
of this group ; it is a far more abundant
bird in all the countries which it fre-
quents, and especially in Britain. It has
been noticed breeding on many parts of
the coast of these islands, from the Isle of
Wight to the Orkneys and Shetlands;
it occurs, like the gyrfalcon, over the
northern parts of both hemispheres, but
extends its range much further to the
south, being well known in the United
States, the south of Europe, and in India,
whilst its occurrence has been recorded
oy good naturalists even at the Straits of
Magellan, the Cape of Good Hope, and in Australia.
Mr. Gould, however, regards the Australian bird as a
distinct species, which he has described under the name
of the Black-cheeked falcon (.P. melanogenys).
The Peregrine Falcon usually measures from fifteen
to eighteen inches in length ; the plumage of the top of
the head and the back of the neck is nearly black, and
a spot of the same colour occurs on the cheeks beneath
the eyes; the back is of a bluish-ash colour, with darker
bars; the pi'imaries are brownish-black, with whitish
spots on the inner webs ; the front of the neck is
whitish, spotted with brown, and the rest of the lower
surface greyish-white, with numerous dark brown bars ;
the beak is blue, with a blackish tip and a yellow cere ;
the feet are also yellow, with acute black claws. The
female of this most elegant of the falcon tribe is con-
siderably larger than the male ; she was more highly
valued by the old falconers, by whom the name of
falcon was especially devoted to her, the male being
called a tiercel or tiercelet (sometimes corrupted into
tassel), from his being as they said one-third smaller
than his partner. From their docility and beauty the
Peregrines, notwithstanding their comparative abun-
dance, were always great favourites with the falconers ;
their qualities were studied with the greatest enthusiasm;
their persons and nests were protected by legislative
enactments ; and an extravagantly high value was set
upon those which combined in the highest degree the
qualities most in request. Thus, we are told, that in
the reign of James I., one Sir Thomas Monson paid a
thousand pounds (an enormous sum in those days) for a
single cast (or couple) of these hawks. The female of
Fig. 100.
The Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus.)
falcon, as she was termed, was flown at quarries of large
size and considerable strength, such as herons, ducks,
and wild geese, and from her great strength and courage
was well adapted for this pursuit. Sir John Sebright, the
great modern authority upon hawking, gives the follow-
ing interesting account of the chase of the heron as prac-
tised in Norfolk :— He says, " The herons go out in the
morning to rivers and ponds at a very considerable dis-
tance in search of food, and return to the heronry towards
the evening. It is at this time that the falconers place
themselves in the open country, down wind of the
heronry; so that when the herons are intercepted on
their return home, they are obliged to fly against the
'256
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCON-ID.*
wind to gain their place of retreat. "When a heron
passes, a cast of hawks is let go. The heron disgorges
his food when he finds he is pursued, and endeavours
to keep above the hawks by rising in the air ; the hawks
fly in a spiral direction to get above the heron, and thus
the three birds frequently appear to be flying in different
directions. The first hawk makes his stoop as soon as
he gets above the heron, who evades it by a shift, and
thus gives the second hawk time to get up and to stoop
in his turn. In what is deemed a good flight this is
frequently repeated, and the three birds often mount to
a great height in the air. When one of the hawks
seizes his prey, the other soon binds to him, as it is
termed, and, buoyant from the motion of their wings,
the three descend together to the ground with but little
velocity. The falconer must lose no time in getting
hold of the heron's neck when he is on the ground, to
prevent him from injuring the hawks. It is then,
and not when he is in the air, that he will use his beak
in his defence." From this animated description of the
scene, the sportsman will probably sympathize with the
enthusiasm for this diversion exhibited by our fore-
fathers. Indeed one can imagine few scenes of a more
exciting nature.
In a wild state the Peregrine Falcon tyrannizes
unmercifully over all the weaker part of the feathered
creation. In most districts grouse and partridges
seem to constitute his favourite food, and it is at
such game as this that the male or tiercel is trained to
fly ; but when the Peregrine has his dwelling-place in
the vicinity of water frequented by aquatic birds, he
preys freely upon these, pouncing down upon them
whilst swimming peacefully on the surface of the water,
and carrying them oft in his talons with the most
astonishing address. Rabbits and leverets are also
frequently destroyed by these falcons. Their boldness
is such that they have even been known to strike
grouse sprung by the sportsman's dogs, before the birds
had risen high enough to be shot at, and in several
cases wounded birds have been carried off by them.
The Peregrine Falcon usually builds its nest amongst
the nearly inaccessible rocks and cliffs of the sea-coast,
I but is also known frequently to select an inland station
i for this purpose. The nest, which is composed of sticks
and dried plants, is a bulky strncture, and in it the
female lays three or four eggs, of a dull light-red colour
with darker spots.
THE SULTAN FALCON, (Falco peregrinator) called
the Shahecn by the natives of Hindostan, is a species
nearly allied to the Peregrine, to which it is even pre-
ferred for the purposes of falconry in India. It is
found in all the Indian peninsula, and also in other
regions of Asia, especially to the south-west, breeding
amongst high rocky hills, usually in the vicinity of
jungle or forest. In the wild state it feeds principally
on partridges, quails, and similar game, and is also said
to have a strong predilection for the paroquets which
abound in India.
This falcon, according to Mr. Jerdon, is always
trained for what, in falconer's language, is called a
" standing gait;" that is to say, it is not carried on the
hand until the quarry is started, and then thrown off;
but is instructed to hover and circle at a considerable
height in the air, above the heads of the hawking party,
watching for the starting of the game, upon which it
immediately descends with a fatal swoop. " It is a fine
sight," says Mr. Jerdon, " to see this fine bird stoop
on a partridge or florikin ( Otis aiiritd) which has flushed
at some considerable distance from it, as it often makes
a wide circuit round the party. As soon as the falcon
observes the game which has been flushed, it makes
two or three onward plunges in its direction, and then
darts down obliquely, with half-closed wings, on the
devoted quarry with more than the velocity of an arrow."
The birds best adapted for this sport are those bred in
the vicinity of open country, as these acquire a greater
strength of wing; the forest-bred birds adopt a more
lazy mode of existence, perching quietly on the trees, and
thus watching for their prey. The mode of capturing
these and other falcons in India is peculiar. At the
season when the young birds are known to be about,
the falconers make their appearance in the district with
a little apparatus called an Eerwan, which consists of
a thin strip of cane, about equal in length to the expanse
of wing of the falcon to be captured, and having its
ends smeared with bird-lime for several inches. To
the centre of this stick the falconers tie a living bird,
usually a dove, the eyes of which are previously sewed
up; this is let loose in sight of the falcon, which imme-
diately pounces down upon it, smears his wings with
the bird-lime, and falls to the ground.
THE JUGGUR (Falco Jtigger) is another Indian
species; and, indeed, the most abundant of the large
falcons on the peninsula of Hindostan. It is, however,
a heavier and slower bird than either of the preceding,
and is consequently less valued by the falconers. It
is principally flown at crows, and the dodges of the
latter, when they find themselves the object of pursuit,
are described as exceedingly amusing. They use even'
artifice to make their escape, taking refuge amongst
horses, cattle, and vehicles, and even entering houses.
Mr. Jerdon mentions a case in which one of these
falcons struck a crow so close to a washerman's fire,
where it had taken refuge, that the wing feathers of the
falcon were burnt.
The Paddy Bird also affords great sport with the
Juggur; it is always found feeding amongst cattle, and
when pursued dodges its enemy with such dexterity
that the hawk is not unfrequently foiled, and some-
times even trodden under foot. In a state of nature
the Juggur differs somewhat from the preceding species;
it is always met with in cultivated districts, building its
nest in a tell tree. Its food consists of small birds, and
it occasionally steals a chicken from the cantonments.
THE LANNEE (Falco lanarius) is also allied to the
Peregrine falcon. It is a native of Nepal and South-
western Asia, from which countries it was formerly
imported into Europe for the purposes of falconry. It
also occurs in the eastern parts of Europe. This bird
was often flown at kites, which its great strength enabled
it to cope with; the Peregrine falcon, a smaller bird,
being unequal to this contest. In France this chase
of the kite was regarded as a royal amusement, and,
from this circumstance, the kite is still described by
some French writers under the names of Milan royal
and 3/YZrws regalis.
THE HOBBY. BIRDS THE KESTREL.
257
THE HOBBY (Fulco subbideo] is a small British
species of falcon, closely resembling the Peregrine.
It usually measures from twelve to fourteen inches in
length; the plumage of the upper parts is greyish-black,
or bluish-grey ; the quill feathers of the wings are black,
and those of the tail greyish-black, indistinctly barred
with a lighter tint. The lower part of the body is
yellowish-white, with dark brown patches; the beak is
bluish, the cere greenish-yellow, the feet yellow, and
the claws black. The Hobby has been met with in
many parts of this country, to which it is a summer
visitor, but is by no means an abundant British bird.
It is found hi all parts of the continent of Europe,
and also occurs in Northern Africa, and probably in
most parts of Asia, as specimens have been obtained
from Siberia, India, and even from China. It usually
inhabits wooded districts, where it builds its nest in a
high tree. Its powers of flight are very great, its
wings being so long as to reach beyond the end of the
tail when closed. In a state of nature its favourite
prey appears to consist of skylarks, in pursuit of which
it manifests great perseverance, whilst the unfortunate
lark exhibits wonderful dexterity in avoiding the fatal
stoop of its pursuer. The Hobby is also sometimes
trained to fly at larks, quails, and snipes. Besides
small birds, it feeds upon small beetles; and Mr.
Henry Doubleday found the stomachs of two speci-
mens examined by him, filled with the common dung
beetle (Geotrupes stercorarius).
THE MERLIN (Falco cesaloti), the smallest of the
Falcons inhabiting Britain, is usually regarded as a
winter visitor to this country, although several instances
are on record of its remaining here through the summer
and breeding. It is, however, more abundant in the
northern than in the southern parts of the British isles.
On the continent of Europe it appears to be generally
distributed ; it extends its range in Asia as far as Nepaul ;
and specimens have been obtained in the fur countries
of North America. According to Dr. Andrew Smith,
it is also met with at the Cape of Good Hope. It
measures only eleven or twelve inches in length ; the
plumage of the back is of a fine bluish-grey colour ;
the wing primaries are quite black ; the lower parts are
reddish, with brown patches and streaks. In the female
the back is liver-brown, and the lower parts brownish-
white. Notwithstanding his small size the Merlin is so
courageous and powerful that he has been known to
strike and kill partridges at least twice his own weight;
blackbirds and thrushes, and other small birds, are his
common prey ; and he was formerly trained to pursue
these for the amusement of his owners. In the palmy
days of falconry the Merlin was the Lady's Hawk.
Its nest, which is rude and scanty, is built upon the
ground in rocky places, or amongst heath ; the eggs
are four or five in number, and of a mottled reddish-
brown colour.
THE KESTREL (Falco tinnunculus), called the Wind-
hover in some localities, is the most abundant of the
British species of this family, occurring in all parts of
the country in considerable numbers. It is also gene-
rally distributed on the continent of Europe, and extends
in Asia as far as China, Japan and Java, and in Africa
to the Cape of Good Hope. The length of this beautiful
little Falcon is from thirteen to fifteen inches ; the colour
of the plumage of the back is a bright reddish fawn in
the male, reddish-brown in the female, marked in the
former with small triangular black spots, and in the
latter with transverse black bars. The lower surface
in both sexes is of a pale reddish fawn colour, with
dark longitudinal streaks and spots; the tail-feathers
are greyish, more or less distinctly barred, and exhibit-
ing a broad transverse black band near the tips, leaving
the tips themselves white ; the beak is blue, the cere and
feet are yellow, and the claws black.
The appearance of this pretty little Falcon must be
familiar to most of us, as it is commonly sold in our
markets, and may be seen almost everywhere hovering
over the fields in search of its prey. When thus en-
gaged, it may always be recognized by its movements.
After advancing for a short distance, it suddenly
remains perfectly stationary, suspended hi the air by
very short but rapid motions of the wings ; and dining
this halt its sharp eye is carefully inspecting the ground
beneath it in search of the small game which constitutes
its favourite food. Should there be nothing stirring
in one place,. the bird moves on to another, and there
resumes his inspection ; but should a mouse or any other
small animal make its appearance, the Kestrel closes his
wings, and dashes down upon it instantly. It is from this
habit that the bird has received the name of Wind-
hover. His favourite food, for the capture of which
the manoeuvres above described are indeed specially
adapted, consists of field-mice and other small Mammalia,
amongst which he causes a great destruction, so that he
is certainly to be regarded as a farmer's friend, and
should be encouraged rather than persecuted; but unfor-
tunately this bird is very commonly confounded with the
Sparrow-hawk, and often suffers the punishment which
the latter may perhaps deserve for his depredations in
the poultry yard. The Kestrel does not, however^
confine himself exclusively to quadruped game, but
occasionally kills and devours small birds ; insects and
earthworms also form a part of his diet. Mr. Selby
mentions, on the authority of an eye-witness, that a
Kestrel has been seen late in the evening hawking
after cockchafers. His informant says — " I watched
him with a glass, and saw him dart through a swarm
of the insects, seize one hi each claw, and eat them
while flying. He returned to the charge again and
again." The nest is built among rocks, or on old
towers and other rums, and in some places in trees.
Sometimes the Kestrel takes possession of the nest of a
crow or a magpie, and adapts them to its own purposes.
The eggs are four or five in number, of a reddish-white
colour, mottled or blotched with reddish-brown.
THE CREAM-BELLIED FALCON (Falco Berigora—
Plate 2, fig. 5). — This species is generally distributed
over Van Diemen's Land and Australia, where it is
known to the colonists by the name of the Brown Hawk.
It measures from fourteen to sixteen inches hi length ;
its plumage is generally of a brown colour, but the
throat and a large patch on the belly are pale buff.
The bill and feet are of a light lead-blue colour, and
the claws black. This bird, which is more sluggish in
its habits than the majority of the true Falcons, is
exceedingly abundant in the districts which it frequents,
258
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCOXIDJS.
so that, as stated by Mr. Gould, from ten to forty of
them may not unfrequently be seen reposing on a single
tree, after securing their morning meal. Their food
consists partly of carrion, partly of reptiles and insects;
and it is not often that they prey upon birds or small
Mammalia. The nest, which is about the size of that
of a crow, is composed of sticks, and lined with strips
of bark, leaves, &c. ; it is built amongst the highest
branches of lofty trees. The eggs are two or three in
number, usually of a buffy white colour, blotched or
mottled nearly all over with reddish-brown.
THE WHITE-NAPED FALCON (lerax eutolmus) . The
genus lerax, which is peculiar to the East Indies,
includes the smallest species of the family Falconidae;
but, notwithstanding their diminutive stature, these
little birds are by no means inferior in courage to the
largest and strongest of their allies. Their talons are
formed on the precise model of those of the larger
falcons ; their little beaks are strong and much hooked,
and the margins of the upper mandible armed with
large teeth, indicating predaceous propensities of the
very highest order. These little falcons, often smaller
than a thrush, are frequently trained by the Hindoos
for the purpose of falconry, when they are flown at
quails and other game of corresponding size. Captain
Mundy describes the mode of flying this falcon in the
following words : — " The mode of starting it is different
from that used with any other hawk. The falconer
holds the little well-drilled savage within the grasp of
his hand ; the head and tail protruding at either end,
and the plumage carefully smoothed down. When he
arrives within twenty or thirty yards of the quarry, the
sportsman throws his hawk, much as he would a cricket
ball, in the direction of it. The little creature gains
his wings in an instant, and strikes his game after the
manner of the Bhause (Goshawk)."
KITES.
THE COMMON KITE (Milvus
ris), although
formerly very abundant in this country, is now of
comparatively rare occurrence, especially in the south-
ern parts of the kingdom, the gradual clearing of the
Fig. 101.
The Common Kite (Milvus vulgaris).
extensive ranges of forest, which form his favourite
retreat, having exposed him to be all but exterminated
by the gamekeepers. The districts where the Kite is
now most frequently met with, are the lake country of
Cumberland and Westmoreland, and the south-western
part of Scotland On the continent of Europe it is not
THE COMMON KITE. BIRDS. THE BLACK-WINGED KITE.
259 !
uncommon, and extends eastward into Siberia; in the
more northern regions, it is a summer resident, migrat-
ing southwards in the autumn.
The Kite measures from twenty-five to twenty-seven
inches in length, including the long forked tail with
which it is furnished. The general colour of the
plumage of its back is reddish-brown, the feathers
being dark brown with broad reddish edges ; the head
and neck are greyish, and the whole lower surface
reddish-brown, as are also the tail feathers. The wing
primaries are black. The beak is horn colour, the cere
and feet are yellow, and the claws black. The wings
of the Kite are very long, and of immense extent as
compared with its body, and from this circumstance
and the great power of the tail, the flight of the bird
is singularly graceful and easy. The extended wings
seem to have the power of supporting their owner in
the air almost without the least exertion : it glides
smoothly along without effort, now rising gently, now
descending, to use the words of Buffon, " as if sliding
upon an inclined plane," now wheeling round in
graceful circles, and all with scarcely a perceptible
movement of the wings, but simply by the action of
the rudder-like tail. From this beautiful gliding
motion no doubt, the Kite has in some districts received
the name of the Gled or Glead, which has probably
survived from the days of our Saxon ancestors. During
his graceful evolutions, however, the Kite has usually
his eyes steadily fixed upon the ground beneath him,
with which he seems to have so little to do ; and the
moment his prey makes its appearance in the shape of
a mole, a mouse, a young rabbit or leveret, or any
other small terrestrial animal, the long wings are closed
in an instant, and the Kite descends with astonishing
velocity upon his devoted quarry. Lizards, frogs, and
snakes constitute a portion of the food of the Kite, and
he has been seen to capture fish with great address.
In some countries he takes his share of carrion with
the other feathered scavengers ; and in London, in the
reign of Henry VIII., there were, as we are told by
Clusius, vast numbers of kites always on the look-out
for the offal, with which the streets of the city were
polluted. He appears rarely to pursue birds upon the
wing, but the young of the gallinaceous birds not
unfrequently fall victims to his talons, and chickens are
sometimes carried off by him from the poultry yard,
although the hen by her vociferations and show of
resistance sometimes succeeds in driving off the
cowardly plunderer. La fact, the courage of the Kite
seems to be of very low quality, for he allows himself
to be attacked and even brought down by the Sparrow-
hawk, without making much show of resistance. In
France, as already mentioned, the Kite was pursued by
falcons for the amusement of the king; and the same
sport has been followed in our own country, as recorded
by Sir John Sebright. The Kite was attracted towards
the ground by means of a great owl, to the leg of
j which a fox's brush was usually attached ; this was
! thrown up into the air within sight of the Kite, and
the latter, no doubt wondering what strange creature
I this was, would gradually advance within the proper
| distance of the hawking party. The owl, having been
previously trained, was then brought down to the lure,
and a cast of hawks thrown up in pursuit of the Kite.
In captivity the Kite is said to become very tame and
familiar, and to display a most engaging amiability of
disposition.
The nest, which is usually built upon the forked
branch of a tree in the thickest part of a wood, is
composed of sticks and lined with soft materials. It
contains from two to three eggs, of a dirty white colour,
with a few reddish-brown spots at the larger end. In
defence of its nest the Kite seems to exhibit an unusual
degree of courage, for Mr. Yarrell tells us that " a boy
who climbed up to one had a hole picked through his
hat, and one hand severely wounded, before he could
drive away the parent bird."
THE BLACK KITE (Milvus niger), an inhabitant of
the south of Europe and of Africa, is still more
remarkable as a scavenger than our British species. It
is exceedingly abundant in Abyssinia, where it is con-
stantly seen clearing the streets and compounds in
company with crows. But the most extraordinary
part of the character of this bird is its wonderful impu-
dence. It frequents the towns and cities of the East in
great abundance, and will descend upon chickens, and
carry them off from under the very noses of their
owners, or even snatch away food from the hands of
men and women. Dr. Petit mentions his having seen
one of these birds at Cairo carry off a piece of bread
and cheese from an Arab woman as she was in the act
of putting it into her mouth ; and on another occasion,
as a black boy employed by him in preparing birds was
engaged upon the skin of a pigeon, a kite descended
upon him, tore away the head of the bird, which
alone contained any flesh, and left the skin in the
hands of the astonished young taxidermist.
THE GOVTNDA KITE (Milvus Govinda), an inhabi-
tant of India, and apparently of the entire southern
part of the Asiatic continent, agrees very closely with
the Black Kite in its habits, having an equal predilec-
tion for carrion and an equally bad character as an
impudent robber. These birds will descend upon garb-
age in the most crowded streets, and often seize it in
their talons at the moment of its being thrown out and
before it reaches the ground; and, according to Colonel
Sykes, they will even occasionally stoop upon a dish of
meat on its way from the cook-room to the house.
THE BLACK-WINGED KITE (Elanus melanopterus)
is a small species of this group, which appears to
be spread over nearly the whole of the warmer part
of the Old World. It is abundant in India and
the islands of the Eastern seas, and in Africa from
Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope; specimens also
occur, although rarely, in the south of Europe. Its
colour is an ashy grey on the upper parts, becoming
nearly black on the wings; the whole inferior sur-
face is pure white. It feeds principally upon insects,
which it often whips up with great address from
the ears of standing grain in the fields; in some
places it preys freely upon mice, pouncing down upon
these small quadrupeds with the rapidity of lightning.
Although it sometimes kills and devours small birds, it
does not usually capture them on the wing, but seizes
them when on the ground or the branch of a tree. Its
mode of flight, when hunting for food, is compared to
260
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCON-ID^.
that of the Harriers (Circus). The nest is built in the
forked branch of a tree, and lined with moss and
feathers ; it usually contains four or five eggs.
THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE (Nauderus furcatus)
is a handsome biri, inhabiting the warmer regions of
America, where, however, it seems to be a bird of
passage. Two specimens have been taken in Britain,
and hence it figures in our British Ornithologies as an
occasional visitor. It may be at once distinguished by
the great length of its very deeply-forked tail, which
exactly resembles that of the swallow ; its wings also
are extremely long and pointed, and the bird is evi-
dently constructed with a view to great activity in the
air. The head, neck, and the whole of the lower sur-
face of the body are snow-white ; the whole of the back,
the wings, and the tail feathers are deep black, glossed
with a metallic purple lustre — a contrast ' of colour
which gives the bird an elegant appearance. In the
air its movements are most graceful, and it spends most
of its time on the wing, capturing the insects on which,
like its analogues the swallows, it principally feeds. In
fact nearly the whole business of its life goes on in that
element, for which it is so pre-eminently fitted ; here
the courtships take place between the newly -mated
pairs, and here it devours all its prey, even carrying oft
the lizards and small snakes, which constitute a portion
of its food, to eat them while sailing through the air.
The Swallow-tailed Kite breeds in the southern states
of the American Union, building a nest of dry sticks
and moss, lined with grass and feathers, in the highest
branches of the tall oaks and pine trees. In this the
female lays from four to six eggs of a greenish-white
colour, upon which the parents sit alternately, feeding
: each other while thus engaged.
HAWKS.
THE SPARROW-HAWK (Accipiter Nisus), one of the
most abundant of our British hawks, is also found com-
monly not only in most parts of Europe, but also in
Asia, as far east as Japan, and in the northern parts of
Africa. The male and female in this, as in most
other species of the group of Hawks, differ greatly in
size ; the former measuring only about twelve inches
in length, whilst his partner is fifteen. The general
colour of the plumage consists of different shades of
brown, richer in the male than in the female ; in the
former the lower surface of the body, from the chin to
the tail coverts, is reddish, with many transverse bars
of reddish brown; in the female the same parts are
greyish- white, with brown bars; a somewhat similar
difference of colour prevails in the tail feathers of the
two sexes.
The Sparrow-hawk is exceedingly elegant in its
form, and active in its habits, its long wings enabling it
to fly with great rapidity, whilst its broad and powerful
tail renders it capable of performing the most astonish-
ing evolutions with ease. When hunting for its prey,
it usually glides swiftly along at a height of only a few
feet above the fields, occasionally passing up one side
of a hedge and down the other, its bright eye always
watching for an opportunity to dart upon its victim.
It sometimes pursues birds upon the wing, but usually
pounces down upon them when resting either on the
ground or on the branch of a tree or bush, and its
descent upon its quarry is performed with the most
surprising celerity. Mr. M'GDlivray mentions his hav-
ing seen a Sparrow-hawk "rush headlong into the
midst of a dense thicket, and suddenly emerge on the
other side carrying off a thrush in his talons ;" and he
adds, " How a bird at its utmost speed could thread
its way between branches and twigs seems almost in-
credible." But the Sparrow-hawk does not always
content himself with a diet of small birds and field-
mice ; young rabbits, leverets, and partridges are often
destroyed by him in the fields, and occasionally he
!pays a visit to the habitations of man, and carries off
chickens from the poultry-yard or pigeons from the
i dovecot with the utmost audacity. Even the presence
of man does not at all interfere with the predatory
plans of this daring little marauder ; he skinis along at
a little distance from the ground, snatches up his prey
in an instant, sometimes almost from under people's
feet, and dashes off with it before an alarm can be
given. When taken young the Sparrow-Hawk may
be trained to hawking; he may be flown at partridges
early in the season, and, according to Sir John Sebright,
" is the best of all the hawks for landrails." In rearing
the young, the sexes must be separated very early,
otherwise the females, being larger and stronger, will
kill and devour the males.
The nest of the Sparrow-hawk is usually built in
a tree, but in some of the Hebrides, where trees are
wanting, the bird builds among the rocks. The nest is
nearly flat, rudely composed of sticks and twigs, with a
little grass, moss, or wool in the centre for the recep-
tion of the eggs, which vary from three to five in num-
ber, and are of a bluish-white colour, with dark-brown
blotches and spots. Very often this hawk does not
take the trouble to build a nest, but seizes upon the
deserted dwelling of some other bird, usually a crow.
THE STREAKED SPARROW-HAWK (Accipiter vir-
gatus) is an Indian species, which, although not common,
is much used and highly prized by the native falconers.
It is an inhabitant of the forests, and is employed for
hawking in jungly districts, for which its habits specially
adapt it.
THE AMERICAN BROWN HAWK (Accipihrfuscus),
which is found abundantly in many parts of the United
States, especially those bordering the Atlantic, is an
active and elegant bird, which seems in its boldness to
represent our sparrow-hawk on the North American
Continent. It is described by Wilson as dashing
through the air with extraordinary velocity, often in a
zig-zag course, as if for the purpose of seizing its prey
by surprise. It feeds upon small birds, quadrupeds,
and lizards ; and as an example of its activity in pur-
suit of prey, Wilson mentions his having shot a speci-
men which had in its talons a small lizard, whose
lightning-like rapidity of movement is so remarkable as
to have obtained for it the name of the Swift.
THE GOSHAWK. BIRDS. THE SECRETARY BIRD.
THE GOSHAWK (Astur palumbarius). — The Gos-
hawk is the only species of this group, besides the
sparrow-hawk, found in Britain, where, however, it is
very rare. On the continent of Europe it is in many
districts not uncommon. It occurs in many parts of
Asia ; and in India, where it is called the JBhause, is
employed in falconry. It also inhabits the north of
Africa, and the United States of America. It is rather
a large hawk, the full grown female measuring about
two feet in length, whilst the males are often one-third
less ; the plumage of the upper parts is brown and that
of the lower surface nearly white — spotted, barred,
and lined with black ; the tail feathers are barred
transversely with light and dark brown; the beak is
horn-colour or bluish-black, the cere and feet yellow,
and the claws black.
In its general habits the Goshawk resembles the
sparrow-hawk; but its greater size and strength ren-
der it formidable to game of larger size than can be
attacked by that bird. Its flight is low, but rapid and
gliding, and it pursues its quarry with great pertinacity,
even through woods and thickets — a quality which for-
merly rendered it a great favourite with falconers. The
game at which it was flown consisted of pheasants,
partridges, grouse, ducks, and even herons, amongst
birds ; and hares and rabbits, amongst quadrupeds : it
pursues these in direct flight, not attempting to rise
above them in order to pounce down like the peregrine
and other falcons. When baffled by its quarry taking
refuge in a thicket through which it cannot penetrate,
it wih1 perch upon the branch of a tree, and wait
patiently until the game begins to move, when it
immediately starts in pursuit. The nest of this bird is
usually built in a high tree near the borders of a forest,
and the same nest frequently serves for several years
in succession. The eggs are three or four in number,
and of a pale bluish- white colour.
THE NEW-HOLLAND GOSHAWK (Astur Novas Hol-
landice), a fine species, rather smaller than the pre- i
ceding, found principally in the colony of New South ;
Wales, is remarkable for the pure white colour of most
of the specimens, only a few being occasionally met |
with in which the back is grey, and the feathers of the
chest marked with brownish transverse lines. The
grey birds are peculiar to New South Wales, but the
white specimens not only occur in that colony, but also
in Van Diemen's Land.
THE AUSTRALIAN GOSHAWK (Astur approximans)
is a far more abundant species than the preceding,
although occurring principally in the same range of
country. The general colour of its plumage is brown,
with numerous narrow transverse greyish bands on the
lower surface. It is an active, bold, powerful, and san-
guinary species, destroying great quantities of small
birds, quadrupeds, and reptiles. Its nest — which is of
large size, built with sticks, and lined with leaves of the
gum-tree — is usually placed amongst the boughs of a
large swamp oak (Casuarina), and commonly contains
three eggs of a bluish-white colour, covered with
patches of brownish buff.
THE CHANTING FALCON (Melierax musicus), an
inhabitant of the southern parts of Africa, is remarkable
in the whole series of birds of prey for the possession
of a musical voice. It is a bold, active, and sanguinary
bird, waging an incessant war of destruction with all
the smaller inhabitants of the forest, in which it takes
up its abode, usually near the course of a river. Its
song, according to Le Vaillant, is heard principally
during the breeding season, when the male perches
by the side of his mate up on the summit of a high
tree, or in the vicinity of the nest where she is
engaged in incubation, and pours out his feelings in
melody for hours together, particularly about sunset
and sunrise.
SERPENT-EATERS.
THE SECRETARY-BIRD (Serpentarius reptilicorus],
— Plate 3, fig. 8 — the only known species of this group, j
has been placed by different writers in the most various
positions in the classification, for which, indeed, its
remarkable structure may furnish some little excuse,
although it can hardly justify those who have made the
greatest blunders. The Secretary-bird or Serpent-
eater is distinguished from all other predaceous birds
by the extraordinary length of its legs, which give it an
aspect somewhat similar to that of a wading bird of
the order Grallce, amongst which some authors have
not hesitated to arrange it ; although one would think
that a glance at the feet and bill would have sufficed
to convince any ornithologist that this could not be
its proper place. Others have assigned it a posi-
tion amongst the gallinaceous birds, a view which is
equally untenable. In fact we have only to examine
the general character of the bird to become convinced
that it is simply a long-legged species of the predaceous
order; and when we come to inquire into its habits and
mode of life, we shall soon see that this peculiarity of
its conformation is strikingly in accordance with its
duties in nature. It has sometimes been called the
Secretary Vulture, and placed in the family Vulturidse,
for what reason it is hard to say; and the majority of
modern naturalists are agreed in arranging it in the
present family, of which it forms a subordinate group,
most nearly allied to the Hawks and Harriers, and in
some respects intermediate between those two groups.
The Serpent-eater is a large bird, attaining a height
of more than three feet when standing with its head
raised. Its plumage is of a bluish ash colour above, and
of a greyish white beneath ; at the back of the head is an
elegant tuft of long black feathers, which the bird pos-
sesses the power of elevating or depressing at pleasure;
and it was from a fancied resemblance of this tuft to the
pen of a clerk, stuck in a business-like fashion behind
his ear, that the old Dutchmen who first saw this curi-
ous bird gave him the name of the Secretary. The
tail is composed of long flexible feathers, of which the
two middle ones are much longer than the rest, and
nearly reach the ground; and the whole of these
262
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. FALCONID.*:.
feathers are variegated with black and grey, and tipped
with white. The great length and slenderness of the
legs have been already alluded to; these characters
indicate that the bird is constructed especially for walk-
ing and running on the ground, and in accordance
with this destination we find the toes comparatively
little developed, the hind one in particular being very
small, and the foot, like that of the Vultures, is incapable
of grasping and carrying off a prey.
All these peculiarities co-operate in adapting the
Secretary-bird to its place of abode and mode of life.
It is found upon the dry plains of Southern Africa,
where it wages an incessant and deadly war with the
infinite multitude of snakes and reptiles of all kinds
with which that region abounds. And here we have
to notice another peculiarity of this singular bird — a
further adaptation to its particular calling of snake-
destroyer. Its wings, which are of large size, and
covered with strong quill feathers like those of most
Falconidae, are further armed with blunt but strong
spurs at the wrist joint, and these wings the bird
holds before him like a shield, keeping them hi con-
tinual agitation — sparring, as it were, as he advances
sidelong towards his intended prey. His long legs,
which enable him to run with rapidity, also give
him a great advantage in this mode of attack, by rais-
ing his head to a safe height from the ground , and as
he gradually approaches the snake, he watches care-
fully for the moment when the latter is about to spring
upon him, and to fix its poisonous fangs in some vul-
nerable part of its adversary's body. But this is usually
a vain attempt ; as the reptile dashes upon its enemy, a
sudden and most violent blow from the bird's armed
wing throws him writhing upon the ground, and this
process is repeated if the snake be strong enough to
return to the attack. After reducing his foe to a help-
less condition by these tremendous blows, the bird, like
a victorious gladiator, proceeds to despatch his oppo-
nent, whom he swallows whole if of convenient size, or
tears to pieces if too large to be disposed of at a single
gulp. He has sometimes been seen to carry up a
snake, which refused to die easily, to a great height in
the air, and then let him fall to the ground. Some
notion of the voracity of this bird, and of the benefits
which he unconsciously confers upon the inhabitants of
a region so overrun with reptiles as Southern Africa,
may be obtained from a statement of Le Vaillant, to
the eifect that he found in the crop of a Secretary
eleven good-sized lizards, three snakes of the length
of a man's arm, and eleven small tortoises, besides a
considerable number of insects. It is no wonder then
that the Secretary-bird is regarded as a benefactor
by the inhabitants of his native country ; and we find
that he is not unfrequently domesticated at the Cape,
and kept among poultry, partly for the purpose of
destroying snakes, rats, and other injurious animals,
and partly, it is said, with the view of keeping order
amongst the other inhabitants of the yard. He is said
to live peaceably with the latter, notwithstanding his
accipitrine nature ; although, if he is not properly sup-
plied with food, he sometimes makes away with a
chicken or two. The bird has also been introduced by
the French into the colony of Martinique, with the
view of keeping down the numbers of the terribly
venomous Fer-de-lance serpent (Trigonocephalus).
The nest of the Secretary-bird is built of sticks in
a thicket, usually in the highest part of the district
inhabited by the birds. It is of large size, often three
feet in diameter, flat, and lined in the centre with
wool, hair, and feathers. The bird is said to have
the art of arranging the branches of the bushes sur-
rounding it, in such a way that their shoots speedily
form a rampart round it, and conceal it most effec-
tually. The eggs are two or three in number, and
of a bluish-white colour, family spotted or clouded
with brown.
HARRIERS.
THE COMMON HAEEIEE (Circus cyaneus). — The
group of hawks to which the name of Harriers is given,
makes the nearest approach of all the diurnal preda-
ceous birds to the family of the Strigidse, or Owls. The
characters which indicate this alliance are the softness
of the plumage, and the greater size of the eyes and
ears, accompanied, in some species, by a radiating
arrangement of the feathers of the face, presenting a
certain degree of resemblance to the well-known facial
discs which give the owls such a curious staring aspect.
The name of Harriers given to this group of hawks,
is supposed to allude to their mode of seeking their
prey ; when thus engaged, they fly slowly along at but
a little distance from the ground, apparently beating
over every part of the surface, somewhat in the manner
of a dog hunting for game.
The Common Harrier is generally distributed in
Britain, although now, like most birds of prey, becom-
ing far less common than it was but a few years back.
It inhabits the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, but
appears to become less abundant towards the north.
Specimens have been killed in some parts of Africa,
and a harrier occurs in North America which seems
to be identical with the European species. The male
of the Common Harrier measures about eighteen inches
in length, and is of a light bluish-grey colour on the
upper surface, with the primaries of the wings nearly
black ; the lower surface is ashy grey, becoming paler
on the belly. The female, which is about two inches
longer than her partner, differs from him completely in
colouring, being of a uniform brown colour above, and
reddish-buff beneath, whilst the lateral tail feathers are
barred transversely with two shades of brown. From
this latter character the female is sometimes called the
Ringtail, or Ring-tailed Harrier. The wings in both
sexes are about two inches shorter than the tail ; the
bill is black, the cere and feet are yellow, and the claws
black.
This bird is usually found in flat, marshy districts,
on low moors and commons. Its flight is buoyant and
THE COMMON HARRIKR. BIRDS. THE AUSTRALIA* HARRIER.
263
easy, and performed apparently with but little labour,
so that it is admirably adapted for the peculiar mode
of seeking prey adopted by the bird, as already de-
scribed, which often necessitates its being on the wing
for hours together. Its prey consists of small mam-
malia, such as young rabbits, leverets, rats, and mice,
Fig.
The Common Harrier (Circus cyaneus).
the smaller birds, and reptiles ; upon these it pounces
down suddenly when it spies them amongst the herbage
on the ground, and its courage and strength are such
that it does not hesitate to attack a partridge or grouse,
and has even been known to seize upon a pheasant.
Sometimes, but rarely, it will pursue birds upon the
wing, probably when they rise from under its stoop.
The nest of the Harrier is usually placed upon the
ground, and rudely built with a few small sticks and
pieces of coarse grass. In this primitive cradle the
female deposits four or five eggs, which are of a white
or very faint bluish colour.
THE MARSH HARRIER (Circus (eruginosus), which
is also frequently termed the Moor Buzzard, is another
British species, rather larger than the preceding, the
male usually measuring twenty-one and the female
twenty-three inches in length. It is pretty generally
distributed in this country, but by no means common
in any locality ; it occurs all over the continent of
Europe, in the north of Africa, and in Asia as far
as India. In its habits it agrees very closely with
the common Harrier, but it is said to prefer preying
upon aquatic birds — whence probably its name of the
Duck Hawk — and also occasionally to capture fish.
MONTAGUE'S HARRIER (Circus cineraceus), a third
British species, is a little smaller than the common
harrier, from which it may also be easily distinguished
by the great length of its wings, which reach quite to
the extremity of the tail. The difference of colour in
the two sexes is as great as in the common species.
In this bird the radiating feathers of the face are more
distinct than in the two preceding species, giving it
a still more owl-like aspect, but the habits of the birds
are precisely similar.
THE INDIAN HARRIER (Circus Swainsoni), which
is found abundantly in many parts of India, presents
a considerable resemblance in its habits to its English
relatives, which, indeed, are also met with in the plains
of Hindostan. It rarely perches on a tree, but fre-
quents open places and cultivated ground, beating over
the corn fields, and preying upon lizards, locusts, and
mice, or occssionally on small birds.
THE BLACK AND WHITE HARRIER (Circus mela-
noleucos), another Indian species, frequents low, marshy,
and inundated districts, feeding, in company with
wading birds, on frogs, mollusca, and even on fishes.
THE AUSTRALIAN HARRIER (Circus assimilis),
which is nearly allied to our Marsh Harrier, is an
abundant species in New South Wales and the south-
ern part of New Holland ; it also occurs, though less
numerously, in Van Diemen's Land. In its habits it
resembles the Marsh Harrier, evincing a great par-
tiality for marshy grounds and the vicinity of lagoons.
Its prey consists of reptiles, and small mammalia and
birds. Amongst the colonists this bird is known as
the Swamp Hawk.
2G4
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS. STRIGHXE.
JAEDDTE'S HARBIEB, (Circus Jardinii), another
Australian species, is remarkable for the great beauty
of its plumage, which is of a fine chestnut colour
generally, with the whole lower surface of the body and
the shoulders elegantly spotted with white. The tips
of the wings are nearly black, and the long tail is
marked with alternate bars of blackish-brown and pale
grey. Its habits exactly resemble those of the pre-
ceding species.
THE FEOG-EATIKG HARKTEK (Circus ranivorus),
discovered by Le Vaillant at the Cape of Good Hope,
is described by him as being so much addicted to that
diet which is sometimes said to be also a favourite
with his countrymen, that even the Dutch boors and
Hottentots had given it the name of Kikvors vanger,
or the " Frog-catcher." Gliding gracefully over the
marshes and pools, this bird watches intently for the
appearance of any unlucky frog amongst the reeds;
and the moment he catches a glimpse of his intended
prey he dashes impetuously down amongst the herbage,
seizes his victim, and devours him on the spot. He
also destroys water-fowl, especially when young, and
appears sometimes to catch fishes. The nest of this
species is made amongst the plants of the marshes
frequented by it, and composed of fragments of their
stems and leaves. The eggs are three or four in num-
ber, and, like those of all known Harriers, of a white
colour.
FAMILY III.— STRIGIDJ3.
The nocturnal birds of prey, or those whose princi-
pal period of activity is the darkness or twilight, form
only a single family, that of the Strigidse, or Owls.
These birds are distinguished from those of the pre-
ceding families by several sufficiently striking characters,
the most prominent of which are undoubtedly those
which bear a relation to their nocturnal mode of life.
Thus, the plumage is very soft and downy, rendering
the flight of the Owls perfectly noiseless, so that the
birds are enabled to execute the most rapid manoeuvres
in the air without producing any flapping sound to give
notice of their approach to the most wary of their prey.
Their eyes are of very large size, with immense pupils,
and consequently adapted to receive every ray of light
that may be available for vision. These organs are
placed in such a manner as to look almost directly
forward, and not, as in the day-flying hawks and eagles,
on the sides of the head. In both these particulars, as
previously stated, the harriers make a certain approach
to the owls; but these characters are exhibited by them
in a far less distinct form than in the birds of the pre-
sent family, and none of them are known to hunt their
prey in the twilight. Of course this structure of the
eye in the owls, however important to them in the
imperfect light in which they are destined to be abroad,
is by no means advantageous hi broad day-light, and
when exposed to the latter, they evince then- discom-
fort in the most evident manner. In a strong light
they can hardly see, but sit perfectly helpless and con-
fused, staring in a most ludicrous fashion at the objects
presented to them, and taking any opportunity of
withdrawing into some obscure corner. The ears also
are of larger size than in any other birds, and are
usually furnished with a sort of lid to cover the large
cavity in which they open.
The head is large, and there is no ridge over the
eyes, as in the Falconidae. The feathers of the face are
somewhat hair-like in their texture, and are arranged
in a radiating form round the eyes, constituting a pecu-
liar disc of irregularly circular form on each side of the
face. In some cases this disc completely surrounds the
eye ; in others the upper part of the face is clothed with
ordinary feathers, and the peculiar feathers of the disc
are only seen beneath and on the sides of the eye. The
feathers of the face bordering the inner margin of the
eye, which form the inner part of the facial disc, pro-
ject more or less forwards, and conceal the base of the
bill, which is short and hooked, and furnished with a
naked cere.
The wings are rather short, broad, and rounded,
indicating far less power of flight than is possessed by
any of the hawks and vultures ; but, on the other hand,
the legs are stout and powerful, and armed with sharp
claws, of which an eagle need hardly be ashamed.
The whole of the tarsi and the toes nearly to their tips
are generally clothed with feathers, which are usually
of a hair-like texture. The outer toe in each foot is
reversible, or capable of being turned backwards, in
the manner of that of a parrot.
These birds are solitary in their habits, living in
pairs in the holes of trees, rocks, old buildings, and
other retired places, where they conceal themselves
during the daytime, issuing forth in the evening to
seek their prey. This consists principally of the smaller
vertebrated animals, especially Mammalia, many of
which are nocturnal. The smaller owls also feed fre-
quently upon the insects, such as moths and beetles,
which come abroad in the twilight, and the indigestible
portions of all their prey are collected in the stomach
into little pellets, which are then disgorged. Their
voices are generally loud and discordant, and when
heard in the silence of the night, have, no doubt, had
much to do with the superstitious fear with which these
birds are commonly regarded by the vulgar in most
countries — a feeling probably enhanced by the noiseless
flight of the bird, and its often frequenting the church-
yards and other solitary places, such as ruins, which
are regarded with a certain degree of awe by the igno-
rant and superstitious. We shall now refer to some of
the more important species of this family, commencing
with —
THE SNOWY OWL (Surnia nyctea)— Plate 4, fig. 12.
— Although the birds of this family are generally cha-
racterized, as already stated, by their adaptation to a
nocturnal mode of life, there are some whose organiza-
tion enables them to bear the light of day, so that they
can go abroad in search of their prey even when the
sun is shining brightly. The most diurnal of these
exhibit a striking approach in some of their characters
to the hawks, and especially to the harriers; their
heads and eyes are comparatively smaller than in the
more typical owls, their facial discs are imperfect, and
their ears are smaller and less complicated than in
the strictly nocturnal species of this family. Hence
these owls have been denominated Hawk Owls. Their
THE SNOWY OWL. BIRDS. THE LITTLE OWL.
265
adaptation to a diurnal activity is evidently in intimate
connection with the necessities of their existence; they
are, for the most part, inhabitants of those regions of
both hemispheres which lie within, or close to, the
arctic circle; and as, during the summer, there is little
or no night in those latitudes, a nocturnal bird would
be but ill adapted to get his living there at that season.
Of these diurnal species the Snowy Owl is a well-
known example. It is generally distributed over the
extreme northern parts of both hemispheres, descending
more towards the south in the winter, when the inhos-
pitable climate of the arctic regions would leave it but
little chance of finding prey. In this way it visits the
United States in the western, and Germany and Great
Britain in the eastern hemispheres, but it is a very rare
bird in this country. ' Nevertheless it would appear,
that not very long since it was a permanent resident in
the Shetland islands, building its nest and breeding
amongst the rocky ledges of their wild hills.
The Snowy Owl is one of the largest species of this
family ; the male measuring twenty-three, and the
female twenty-six inches in length. It has a rather
long and rounded tail ; its plumage is white, with the
back spotted, and the wings, tail, and lower surface
barred, with dusky brown. These brown marks are
larger in the females and young birds than in the males.
The feet are thickly clothed with white feathers to the
extremities of the toes, which are armed with strong
black claws; the bill is also black. Its habits have
been observed principally in North America, where
they were carefully studied by Audubon and Sir John
Richardson. Both these authors state that it hunts
during the day, and, Audubon adds, also in the dusk.
It flies well, passing swiftly over its hunting ground,
and capturing its prey by dashing suddenly down upon
it. In pursuing birds on the wing, such as ducks,
grouse, and pigeons, it strikes at them somewhat in the
manner of the peregrine falcon. Its terrestrial prey
consists of lemmings and hares ; the latter it has been
seen to pursue for some distance, grasping at the
animal repeatedly with its foot ; and it generally de-
vours its victims on the spot, swallowing them whole
if not too large. It is also said to be dexterous in
fishing, often frequenting the borders of rivers for this
purpose, and capturing its finny prey most cleverly
by grasping with its foot as it sails along close to
the surface of the water. In the Orkneys, and other
places in the British islands where this bird has been
met with, it appears to haunt the rabbit warrens and
to feed on their inhabitants. In Sweden its habit of
preying upon hares is said to have given origin to the
name of Harfang, which it bears in that country. Dr.
Edmonston describes it as feeding upon sandpipers, on
which it pounces with great precision as it skims over
the marshes; and from his account it w.ould appear
sometimes to swallow these birds whole. The same
writer tells us that in the Shetlands " it affects solitary,
stony, and elevated districts, which, by the similarity
to it in colour of the rocks, renders it difficult to be dis-
covered." On leaving its haunt, which it does only at
the approach of twilight in the Shetlands, it is often
pursued by crows and other birds, whose attacks it
treats with the most contemptuous indifference. In
VOL. I.
captivity it appears to be gentle and tractable, and to
exhibit a considerable degree of intelligence.
The accounts given by naturalists of the nesting of
the Snowy Owl vary somewhat according to the nature
of the country in which the birds have been observed.
Thus, in Europe the birds have been found to breed
on the ledges of steep rocks and on the old pine trees
of the north ; but in the fur countries of North America,
Dr. Richardson describes them as making their nests
on the ground. Their eggs are three or four in num-
ber, and of a white colour.
THE HAWK OWL (Surnia Ulula), which is nearly
allied to the preceding, is also found in the high
northern latitudes of both hemispheres, descending
towards the south only during the winter. It is con-
siderably smaller than the snowy owl, the male mea-
suring only about fifteen inches in length, and the
female seventeen. It is of different shades of dark
brown and black, mottled and barred with dull white
on the back and wings; the lower surface is dingy
white with numerous transverse brown bars; the tail
feathers are barred with brown and white, the beak is
yellow, the claws horn-coloured, and the feet clothed
with long whitish feathers to the very extremities of
the toes.
The Hawk Owl is a bold and active bird, which, like
the snowy owl, flies and pursues his prey by day-light.
He feeds on partridges and grouse, and during the
summer to a great extent on mice and insects; and so
bold is this owl, that he will even descend upon a bird
which has just been shot, and carry it off before the
eyes of the sportsman. The snowy owl has also been
known to perform the same feat. The nest of the
Hawk Owl is built in a tree, and composed of sticks,
jrass, and feathers ; the eggs are two in number, and
of a white colour.
THE LITTLE RUFOUS OWL (Athene Noctua), the
Little Owl of some English ornithologists, is a rare bird
this country, but common on most parts of the
European continent, "it measures scarcely ten inches
in length, and is of a greyish-brown colour with a
•eddish tinge above, variegated with white spots of
different sizes. The throat, breast, and belly are white,
the two latter marked with longitudinal brown spots ;
the beak is yellowish-brown. The feathers with which
the feet of this bird— and of the other species of its
genus, which are numerous — are clothed, are very
slender and bristle-like, presenting a great contrast to
the thick plumage with which these parts are covered
n most species of the family. The Rufous Owl
ives in old houses and ruined towers, in the cavities of
which it builds its nest. It is nocturnal, or at least
crepuscular in its habits, and feeds upon mice, bats,
and insects, and also upon small birds, which it cap-
:ures while at roost The female lays two eggs of a
vhite colour.
THE LITTLE OWL (Athene passerina], the only
)ther European species of this genus, is still smaller
than the preceding, measuring only about seven inches
in length. It has the upper parts of a brownish-ash
colour, with white or reddish-white points and lines,
and the lower parts of dazzling whiteness with numer-
us longitudinal brown spots. The feet are white
2 L
266
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS STRIGID.E.
with reddish spots, and the beak lead-colour, with the
point yellowish. This bird does not appear to occur
in Britain, but some confusion has arisen between this
and the preceding species, in consequence of which the
Athene passerina has been recorded as a British bird.
It is found pretty commonly in Germany, and its habits
seem to agree with those of the A. Noctua. Scopoli
states that in Carniola this bird builds in chimneys ;
and two of the birds, to which the name of the Little
Owl has been applied in this country, were taken in
chimneys, so that it is just possible both species may
occasionally pay us a visit.
THE LITTLE INDIAN OWL (Athene Brama*), an
abundant species in Southern India, closely resembles
the A. Noctua both in size and plumage. It lives in
families of four or five together, usually roosting during
the day in large trees, but also about the eaves and
roofs of houses, where it is often exceedingly noisy. It
sallies forth from its retreat in search of food about
sunset, when it generally takes short undulating flights
from one resting-place to another, snapping up the
insects which constitute its principal food as they also
are taking their evening flight, or occasionally snatch-
ing one from its resting-place on the ground or the
trunk of a tree. It also sometimes captures mice. Its
flight is supposed, in some parts of the country, to prog-
nosticate the course of future events; and Colonel
Sykes saj s that amongst the Mahrattas, where this or
a similar superstition prevails, " a class of persons,
called from it, Peengleh, live on the credulity of the
people by pretending to consult it, and predict events."
THE RADIATED OWL (Athene radiata), an inhabi-
tant of India and China, is very common in thickly-
wooded districts in those countries, inhabiting the
largest trees, from which it sends forth its clamorous
cries often throughout the whole day. It also flies
actively in the daytime — at least when disturbed. Its
food consists of insects, principally large beetles.
THE HAIRY OWL (Athene scutulata), which is also
an inhabitant of India, and of the countries and islands
to the east of that peninsula, is a small species of a
reddish-brown colour above, and spotted with bright
red beneath. It is further distinguished by having the
toes fringed with stiff hairs, resembling the teeth of a
comb. It is nocturnal in its habits, passing tke day in
the thickest jungles, and coming towards the edges and
open parts at night. During its period of activity, its
cries are incessant, and may be heard at a great dis-
tance. They are said strongly to resemble those of
a cat undergoing the process of strangulation. Mr.
Elliott says that, " when seized, it cries like a child."
Its presence is regarded as ominous of misfortune by
the natives; and when one of them is heard crying in
the vicinity of a house, the inhabitants go out with
lights to frighten it away.
THE BOOBOOK OWL* (Athene boobook'), which is
exceedingly common all along the southern coast of
Australia, is a small species about ten or eleven inches
long, with the plumage of the upper surface and wings
reddish-brown, spotted in some places with white, and
that of the lower surface nearly white, reddish on the
throat, and streaked with reddish -brown. It flies in
pursuit of prey both by day and night ; but its pecu-
liar cry of buck-buck, from which its native name is
derived, is only heard during the period of twilight and
darkness. The note is said to bear some resemblance
to that of the European cuckoo, and hence the colo-
nists imagining that everything goes on by the rule of
contraries at their end of the globe, determined that
it was the cuckoo, which, in accordance with the law
above-mentioned, uttered his notes at night instead of
during the day. The food of this owl consists of small
birds and large insects. It breeds in the holes of large
old gum trees, laying its eggs upon the rotten wood
occupying the bottom of the cavity.
THE SPOTTED OWL (Athene maculata), a still
smaller species, measuring scarcely ten inches in length,
seems to replace the preceding in Van Diemen's Land,
where it inhabits the thickly-wooded gullies, and ap-
pears to seek its food principally at night, although
able to endure the light of day. Its habits resemble
those of the preceding species, and its food consists
principally of small birds and insects. Its colour is
brown, with numerous white spots on both the upper
and lower surfaces.
THE POWERFUL OWL (Athene strenua), which ap-
pears to be peculiar to New South Wales, is a large
and formidable species, measuring about eighteen
inches in length. It has a strong and prominent bill ;
the whole upper surface is dark-brown, spotted and
barred with paler brown ; the throat is buff and the
belly white, each feather bearing a transverse band of
dark-brown near its tip. It is an inhabitant of the
dense bushes, where it sleeps during the day, and
which afford it a plentiful supply of birds and small
mammalia during its nocturnal rambles. Its cry,
which is hoarse and mournful, is compared by Mr.
Gould to the " bleating " of an ox.
THE BURROWING OWL (Athene cunicidaria), which
is distributed over a great extent of country in America,
from the prairies of the Mississippi to Chili and
Coquimbo, is remarkable for some peculiarities in its
habits. Wherever it occurs, it dwells, at all events
during the breeding season, in burrows formed in the
earth either by its own labour or by that of some digging
mammal. At the bottom of its burrow the eggs are
deposited on a bed of moss, grass, and dry roots ; and
here the young remain during the downy period of
their existence, occasionally advancing to the entrance,
but retreating immediately on the approach of any
suspicious object. In the western prairies of the
United States the Burrowing Owl is a constant in-
habitant of the villages formed by the habitations
of the marmot, or prairie-dog, as it is called, liv-
ing on pretty good terms with the true owners.
In fact the mode in which the marmots sport about
near the entrances of their burrows, whilst the owls
move briskly amongst them is said to furnish a most
delightful and amusing spectacle. It is singular
that the cry of this bird resembles that of the
marmot, which consists of the syllables cheh-cheh
pronounced several times in rapid succession, and
that this note is also common to the individuals in-
habiting the West Indies and other parts of America
where no marmots occur. Hence, as Prince Charles
Bonaparte remarks, we cannot suppose the marmot to
THE SCOPS EARED-OWL. BIRDS. THE EAGLE OWL.
267
be the unintentional tutor of the young owl. In the
United States the food of the Burrowing Owls, accord-
ing to the writer just quoted, consists exclusively of
insects, and they seem never to touch the marmots
among which they reside ; but in the West Indies
they are said to prey not only upon insects, but also
upon rats, mice, and reptiles. The Burrowing Owl is a
small species, only measuring between nine and ten
inches in length. The plumage above is of a light
amber-brown, with whitish spots; that of the lower
surface is whitish with brown bands on the breast.
THE LITTLE AMERICAN OWL (Nyctale acadica) is
a very small species, measuring only seven inches and
a half in length. It inhabits the middle and northern
states of the American Union and extends as far north
as Nova Scotia and the Hudson's Bay territory. It
occurs most abundantly towards the sea-shore, and
amongst woods and pine swamps, in the shade of the
sombre foliage of which it dozes through the day.
The twilight is its period of activity, and its prey con-
sists principally of mice, which it catches with great
dexterity.
TENGMALM'S OWL (Nyctale funerea), another
abundant North American species, a little larger than
the preceding, is also found in the forests of Northern
Europe, and more sparingly in the more southern parts
of the Continent. It has also been met with in Egypt.
In this country it is rarely seen. In America it occurs
most abundantly in the Hudson's Bay territories, where,
according to Sir John Bichardson, it occupies all the
wooded country from the Great Slave Lake to the
United States, but is most plentiful on the banks of the
Saskatchewan. It is nocturnal in its habits, and can-
not bear the light of day. Its cry is a single melancholy
note, repeated at intervals of a minute or two, and the
Indians have a superstitious practice of whistling when
they hear it. They suppose that if the bird does not
reply it is a sign of the speedy death of the whistler,
and hence the Cree Indians call it the Death-bird.
Like the preceding species, it builds a nest about half-
way up a pine-tree, and lays two white eggs.
THE SCOPS EAEED-OWL (Ephialtes Scops), the Little
Horned Owl of some writers, is one of the smallest
species of the family, measuring little more than seven
inches in length. Like many other owls, its head is
adorned with two tufts of feathers, which in this species
resemble small pointed ears, projecting upwards and
backwards from behind the eyes. Its beak is short,
and the feet feathered only to the base of the toes,
which are naked both above and below. The colour
of the plumage of the back consists of two shades of
brown, mottled with grey, and barred with dark lines ;
the tail feathers are barred and spotted with brown
and black; the lower surface is greyish, mottled and
streaked with different shades of brown.
The regions inhabited by this little owl lie further to
the south than those which constitute the favourite
residence of the preceding species. It is found abun-
dantly in the southern countries of Europe, especially
in Italy and France, but appears to migrate even
thence into the warmer regions of Africa for the winter
season. In France it is said to appear and depart with
the swallows. It occurs in India, and breeds in the
Himalayas at an elevation of five thousand feet. It is
a rare visitor to Britain, but several specimens have
been taken in different parts of England. Its habits
are nocturnal, and, according to the late Mr. Spence, its
melancholy cry of kew, kew, may be heard in Italy at
intervals of about two seconds almost all night long. Its
food consists of mice, beetles, moths, and other insects.
When reposing on the branch of a tree during the day,
it does not, according to Dr. Gerbes, a French ornitho-
logist, sit transversely on its resting-place, as is usual
with birds, but almost always takes up a position paral-
lel to it. The nest of the Scops Eared-owl is formed
in the holes of trees and old walls ; it lays from three to
four white eggs. It may be tamed with great facility,
and is an interesting little bird in confinement.
THE BED EABED-OWL (Ephialtes Asio) is a North-
American species, and appears to be tolerably common
in the United States, especially towards the north. It
migrates southwards in the winter. It frequents the
high grounds, and feeds on mice, small birds, beetles,
and other insects. During the day this bird roosts in the
thick evergreen trees, and comes abroad in the even-
ing, when it may be heard uttering a peculiar cry,
described by Wilson as a " melancholy quivering kind
of wailing," from which it has acquired the name of the
Little Screech-owl. Its nest is made with a little hay
and a few feathers in the hole of a tree ; in this the
female usually deposits four white eggs.
THE EAGLE OWL (Bubo maximus), one of the largest
species of this family, is an inhabitant of Europe, where
it is tolerably common in the great forests of the Conti-
nent, but is only a rare and occasional visitor to the
British islands. It is also found in many parts of Asia,
even as far to the east as China. When full-grown
this bird measures from twenty- four to twenty- eight
inches in length, the females being the largest. The
colour of the plumage on the head, neck, and back, is
reddish-brown, streaked and mottled with dark brown ;
the quill feathers of the tail and wings are barred trans-
versely with dark brown; the feathers of the facial discs
are light brown, speckled with black, and below the face
are some white feathers, forming a more or less distinct
irregular white band ; the lower surface is pale brown,
spotted and barred with dark brown. '*he head is
ornamented with two large tufts of feathers which stand
up above the eyes like horns; and the feet are feathered
down to the extremities of the toes.
Although this magnificent owl is so common in some
parts of Europe, its habits appear to have been but
h'ttle studied. Its activity is principally nocturnal,
although it appears able to support the h'ght better than
some of its allies. Its prey consists of hares, grouse,
and partridges, which fall easy victims to a bird of its
strength and size. Some writers state that its courage
is equal to its powers, and that it has no fear of a dog ;
when hard pressed it is said to throw itself on its back
and defend itself vigorously with its claws. It has even
been described as contending successfully with the eagle,
and a French writer tells us that he witnessed an engage-
ment of this kind, in which the owl fixed himself so
firmly to his adversary with his talons, that both came
to the ground together, and were taken alive.
The nest of the Eagle Owl is a bulky structure, usu-
268
ACCIPITRES. BIRDS.-
ally placed upon the ledge of a rock, or the walls of old
ruins, but sometimes on the ground. The eggs are
two or three in number, and pure white. The parents
appear to attend to their young with great devotion, at
least if we may judge from the following anecdote
related by the late Bishop of Norwich, in his " Familiar
History of Birds." This instance of parental solicitude
" was witnessed by a Swedish gentleman, who resided
several years on a farm near a steep mountain, on the
summit of which two Eagle Owls had built their nest.
One day in the month of July, a young bird, having
quirted the nest, was caught by the servants. This bird
was, considering the season of the year, well feathered;
but the down appeared here and there between those
feathers which had not yet attained their full growth.
After it was caught it was shut up in a large hencoop,
when, to his surprise, on the following morning a fine
young partridge was found lying dead before the door
of the coop. It was immediately concluded that this
provision had been brought there by the old owls,
which no doubt had been making search in the night-
time for their lost young one — and such was, indeed,
the fact ; for night after night, for fourteen days, was
the same mark of attention repeated. The game which
the old ones carried to it consisted chiefly of young
partridges, for the most part newly killed, but sometimes
a little spoiled. On one occasion a moorfowl was
brought, so fresh that it was actually warm under the
wings ; and at another time a putrid stinking lamb was
deposited."
This bird is frequently seen in confinement, when it
hisses like a cat, and snaps its bill at any object which
annoys it, but rarely emits any regular cry. Sir
William Jardine mentions that a specimen kept by
him used to "bark" incessantly at night, making a
noise so exactly like the bark of some little cur, as
to irritate his large housedog, whose angry replies
disturbed the whole neighbourhood.
THE VIRGINIAN HORNED OWL (Btibo virginianus),
which was formerly supposed to be identical with the
European species, is a common inhabitant of the United
States of America, from which it appears to extend its
range to a considerable distance both north and south.
Its favourite residence is amongst the gigantic trees of
the swamps, where in the morning and evening it
startles the echoes by loud and sudden cries of Watigh
0 ! Waugh 0 ! sufficient, as Wilson says, to alarm a
whole garrison. The same writer gives the following
striking account of the varied vocal powers of this
bird : — " He has other nocturnal solos, no less melo-
dious, one of which very strikingly resembles the half-
suppressed screams of a person suffocating, or throttled,
and cannot fail of being exceedingly entertaining to
a benighted traveller, in the midst of an Indian wilder-
ness!" The American Indians, like many of their
more civilized brethren, on this side of the Atlantic,
entertain a strong superstitious feeling with regard to
owls;, and this Great American Horned Owl, which
appears to possess the properties necessary for inspiring
superstitious dread in a pre-eminent degree, is made
use of by the priests of some tribes of Indians as a
fitting symbol of the supposed mysteries of their office.
The Virginian Horned Owl is nocturnal in its habits.
sleeping during the day either in the hollow of a tree,
or under the shadow of the dense masses of foliage
of the cypress swamps. Its food consists of rabbits,
squirrels, rats, mice, partridges, and other small birds
and quadrupeds; and it occasionally steals chickens
from their roosting places in the farm-yard. The nest,
which is of considerable size, and composed of a great
mass of sticks, lined with a few dry leaves and feathers,
is built on the forked branch of a tall tree, and in it the
female deposits four eggs, which are nearly round and
of a pure white colour.
THE GOOGOO HORNED-OWL (Bubo bengalensis), the
most abundant and widely distributed of the large
owls of India, usually frequents rocky hills, ravines,
and old buildings, not unfrequently sheltering itself
for its diurnal slumbers in the numerous holes which
occur in such places. On the Neilgherries, how-
ever, it inhabits the wooded glens. In its general
habits it is nocturnal, but not so strictly so as some of
the preceding species ; it flies readily when disturbed
during the day, and commences its quest for food long
before dark. The Googoo preys principally upon rats
and lizards, but often diversifies its diet with small
birds, crabs, and large insects. Its usual cry is a single
long, clear, and loud hoot, but it sometimes indulges in
one of those imitations of the noise made by an animal
undergoing the operation of strangling, which appear to
be such a favourite mode of exercising their vocal
powers with many owls. The nest is always made in
a hole or burrow in a bank or rock, and the young are
said to be invariably two in number.
THE ORIENTAL HORNED-OWL (Bubo oiientalis}.
This, which is also an Indian species of great size and
strength, inhabits the recesses of dense and lofty woods
and forests, where the deep shade of the foliage makes
a sort of twilight even at noon-day, and thus enables
this bird to seek its prey at a time when most of its
relatives are taking their repose. Its chief activity is.
however, at night, when it issues forth into the open
country. The food of this owl consists principally of
pheasants, hares, rats, and snakes; but it sometimes
preys upon the fawns of the small Indian deer, and Mr
Jerdon was informed by an intelligent native that fish
also form a part of its diet, and that it will dive to some
depth for them.
THE YELLOW- TOOTED OWL (Ketupa flavipes).
Besides the preceding, several species of Horned-Owls
inhabit the East Indies and the adjacent islands, and
of these three have been formed into a peculiar genus,
which has been named Ketupa, from the Javanese name
of the species first described. The most striking dis-
tinctive character of these birds consists in their having
the whole of the feet bare of feathers, and covered with
a granular or irregularly scaly skin.
The Yellow-Footed Owl is a tolerably common species
in many parts of India, especially towards the north,
and also abounds in the Indian Islands and in Siam.
It is a large, heavy, clumsy, but powerful bird, which
flies well by day, and is usually found in the vicinity of
rivers, where it preys upon fish and crabs. Amongst
the Siamese, according to Mr. Finlayson, "the skull of
this bird is held in considerable estimation as a medicine
in small-pox, and chiefly to check and alleviate the
THE LONG-EARED OWL. BIRDS. THE SHORT-EARED OWL.
269
itching sensation which takes place in the curative
stage. For this purpose the head is rubbed upon a
stone with water, which, thus impregnated, is received
into a vessel, from which an attendant spurts a quantity
of it on the body from time to time."
THE CEYLONESE EAEED-OW1 (Ketupa ceylonensis),
a second species of the genus above referred to, is
found not only in Ceylon, but also in most parts of
India. It is a large and powerful bird, which resem-
bles the preceding species in its habits, and, like it,
sometimes flies by day. Its principal activity is dur-
ing the twilight, and at that time it emits its hoarse
cry, which is described as resembling a harsh repulsive
laugh, expressed by the syllables haw, haw, haw, ho !
The third species (K. javanensis) appears to be pecu-
liar to Java.
THE LONG-EARED OWL (Otus vulgaris)— Plate 4,
fig 10 — which is not an uncommon species in Britain,
occurs also in most parts of the northern hemisphere.
It inhabits the continent of Europe generally, and in
France is the most common of all the owls. Eastward
it extends its range as far as India, and towards the
south it is found in the northern parts of Africa. It is
also an abundant bird in the United States of America
and in Canada, reaching as far north as the Hudson's
Bay territory, but apparently only advancing to such
high latitudes during the summer. In other places it
does not appear to be migratory.
Wherever it occurs the Long-eared Owl always takes
up its abode in wooded districts, usually preferring thick
plantations of evergreen trees, or adopting the thick
covering of ivy which often covers old trees in large
woods, for its diumal hiding-place. Unlike the gene-
rality of the owls, which are rather noisy birds, the
Long-eared Owl rarely lets his voice be heard, at least
after he has arrived at the age of discretion ; the young
birds, however, are rather clamorous, emitting a loud
and rather shrill, but somewhat plaintive cry, even after
they have quitted the nest. This species is strictly
nocturnal, rarely moving in the daytime except when
disturbed in its retreat, but at night it is active in search
I of its prey, which consists of rats, mice, moles, and
similar small four-footed game, together with insects and
small birds. The latter it is said to capture by snatching
them from their roosting-places, and, indeed, it is dif-
ficult to imagine how it could obtain them in any other
way. However this may be, the finches, warblers, and
other small birds seem to regard the owl in the light
of an enemy, and show the greatest animosity towards
him whenever they have an opportunity for such a dis-
play of their feelings. If he should by chance prolong
his predatory excursions, so as to be surprised by the
garish light of day when still at a distance from his
favourite haunts, and thus be compelled to take refuge
in some such imperfect shelter as a hedge or bush
affords — the discovery, almost certain to take place, of
the unfortunate sleeper in his temporary lodging, is the
signal for a simultaneous rising amongst all the small
birds in the neighbourhood, who flock to the place and
raise such a commotion as rarely fails to cause the owl
to change his quarters ; and should he be at such a
distance from the thick woods and plantations as to
render his reaching them very difficult, or even im-
possible, while his senses are dimmed by the unwonted
glare, the disturbance will sometimes last until the
shades of evening put a stop to it. by dismissing the
little persecutors to their roosting-places, and placing
the owl in a position to avenge himself for their insults
if they still ventured to continue their annoyance.
The Long-eared Owl builds early in the season ; the
young being frequently hatched in April. It rarely
builds a nest for itself, being content to lay either in
the hole of a tree, or more commonly in the deserted
nest of some other bird of suitable size — such as the
rook, the crow, or the' woodpigeon — which it usually
repairs roughly by the addition of a stick or two. The
eggs are four in number, and, like those of the owls in
general, pure white.
THE SHORT-EASED OWL (Otus brachyotus), like
the long-eared owl, is met with pretty abundantly
in the northern parts of both hemispheres, inhabiting
the higher latitudes during the summer, and migrating
southwards as the cold weather approaches. In this
country the Short-eared Owl is a permanent resident,
that is to say, many individuals remain with us through-
out the year, and build in some parts of the kingdom ;
but their numbers receive a great increase in the
autumn by an immigration from the northern parts of
Europe, especially the Scandinavian peninsula. This
immigration occurs at the same period with that of the
woodcocks, and hence this bird is sometimes called the
Woodcock Owl. In the spring there is a migration in
the opposite direction, many individuals returning to
their northern home, to pass the summer and breed.
This species measures from fourteen to fifteen inches
in length. It has a small head, adorned with a pair
of little tufts, which, like those of the other Eared-
owls, can be elevated or depressed at pleasure. The
facial discs are complete, and composed of light-brown
feathers, which are nearly black at their base, forming
a dark ring round each eye ; the plumage of the head,
neck, back, and wings is dark brown, with the edges
of the feathers fawn-colour ; the primaries of the wings
and the tail feathers are pale, barred with dark brown ;
and the lower surface of the body is pale buff, with
patches and streaks of dark brown.
Unlike the long-eared owl, this species does not
shelter itself in the woods and plantations, but frequents
the open country, and rests upon the ground in fields,
and on commons, heaths, and moors. Here it lies close
amongst the herbage and stubble of the turnip and
corn fields, and the heath and other plants of its wilder
haunts ; in the former situations it is frequently flushed
by sportsmen, when partridge -shooting late in the
autumn. In the winter, when the frost has cut off
much of the vegetation on the open grounds, this owl
takes shelter at the bottom of the hedge-rows. Its
ordinary food consists of small quadrupeds and birds,
which it captures at night ; although, when disturbed
during the day-time, it does not seem to be so much
inconvenienced by the glare as some of its allies. In
the Orkneys, indeed, according to Mr. Low, it even
pursues its prey during the day. That writer says, " It
is impudent in breeding-time, sometimes catching up
chickens from the doors — -I have likewise seen it in chase
of pigeons in daylight, which is not ordinary with the
270
ACCIPITRES.-
-BIRDS. STKIGID.E.
owl kind." He adds that, in a nest which he found in
Hoy, there " were the remains of a moorfowl, two
plovers, besides the feet of several others, and the
birds, two in number, ready to fly." The nest is made
upon the ground amongst the heath and other plants ;
it is a rude habitation, often consisting only of a hole
scraped in the ground, upon which the eggs are laid,
without even the slightest attempt at a lining. The
eggs are usually two or three in number.
THE BROWJT OWL (Syrnium aluco}— Plate 3, fig 9
— often called the Tawny Owl, which is not an un-
common bird in wooded districts in England, is nearly
allied to the preceding species, but diifers from them
in the total absence of the ear-like tufts upon the head.
It measures about fifteen or sixteen inches in length.
This owl appears to become rarer towards the north,
so that in the Orkneys it is only met with in the sum-
mer, and it is less abundant in Scotland generally than
in England ; it is common in most parts of the continent
of Europe, and also occurs in Asia and the north of
Africa.
In its habits the Brown Owl is strictly nocturnal ; the
glare of day dazzles and bewilders it so much as to
render it perfectly helpless, and it shows the wisdom
which might be expected from the favourite of Minerva,
by retreating during the day to the cover of some thick
wood, where it reposes amongst the dense foliage. But
as the sun sinks below the western horizon, and the
shades of evening gradually steal over the open country,
the Brown Owl prepares to quit its place of concealment,
in order to satisfy an appetite which, as it is somewhat
indiscriminate, is perhaps appeased with but little dif-
ficulty. Flitting along with noiseless wings the owl
finds it easy to surprise the smaller quadrupeds, such as
rats, mice, and moles ; but he is not content with these,
and boldly seizes on young rabbits and leverets when
they come in his way. Small birds, also, constitute a
portion of his diet, and to this varied supper he often
adds frogs, insects, and even fish. Of the latter,
he has been known to capture both those species
which often swim near the surface of deep water, and
those which, like the bullhead and the loach, dwell
amongst the stones, at the bottom of shallow brooks.
Mr. M'GiUivray mentions that he found the stomach of
one of these birds nearly filled with earthworms, torn
into fragments of about half-an-inch in length. With
so many resources, the Brown Owl can hardly ever
want a good supper. While engaged in its predatory
excursions, it emits a loud and doleful hooting cry, re-
sembling the syllables hoo-hoo-hoo, and occasionally
gives utterance to a shrill scream.
The Brown Owl does not appear to build a nest of
its own, but deposits its eggs, and hatches and brings
up its young, either in the hole of a tree, or in the
deserted nest of some other bird. The eggs are three
or four in number, and pure white ; they are hatched
in April.
THE BAERED OWL (Syrnium nebulosum), one of
the commonest owls in the United States of America,
is considerably larger than the preceding ; for although
the male is only sixteen or seventeen inches in length,
the female often measures twenty-two inches, or even
two feet. It is of a reddish-brown colour above,
streaked and spotted with white ; the neck and breast
are whitish, with transverse brown bars, and the belly
is yellowish, streaked longitudinally with brown.
The Barred Owl is an inhabitant of the woods and
forests of North America, where its loud discordant cry,
which is compared by Audubon to the syllables whah-
whah-whah-whah-aa, is constantly to be heard as the
shades of evening descend upon the earth. According
to the author just mentioned, the effect of this cry is
very strange and ludicrous, so that he says it would not
be surprising if the hearer were to compare it " to the
affected bursts of laughter which he may have heard
from some of the fashionable members of our own
species." Proceeding in this cynical strain, Audubon
gives us to understand that the gestures of the bird are
as ludicrous as his voice, and says, " The liveliness of
his motions, joined to then* oddness, have often made
me think that his society would be at least as agreeable
as that of many of the buffoons we meet with in the
world." It is not, however, at night only that this owl
is active ; it flies freely by day, and, when the weather
is lowering, its cry is heard all day long. When ap-
proached by any intruder on its solitudes, its gestures
are very curious. It lowers its head, puifs out the
surrounding feathers so as to form a sort of ruff, fixes
its eyes in a broad stare upon the intruder, and, whilst
watching his movements, moves its head to and fro in
so extraordinary a manner as almost to lead one to the
belief that that part is dislocated from its body. If the
object of its suspicions approach it too closely, it flies
off to a short distance, and alights with its back to the
person, but immediately turns round with a single jump
to recommence its scrutiny. If it be shot at and missed,
it flies off to a considerable distance, and, on alighting
in a safe place, utters its cry in a pompous tone, which
seems to indicate some degree of triumph over the
unsuccessful marksman.
The food of the Barred Owl consists of young rabbits,
leverets, mice, and small birds; it is also a great
destroyer of chickens, and is said by Audubon to be
" especially fond of a kind of frog of a brown colour,
very common in the woods of Louisiana." On the
other hand the owl itself is made use of as food by man;
and it " is very often exposed for sale in the markets
of New Orleans. The Creoles make gumbo of it, and
pronounce the flesh palatable." The eggs are laid
either in the holes of trees upon the dust and rotten wood
with which they are covered at the bottom, or in the
deserted nest of a crow or hawk ; they vary in number
from four to six, and are of almost the same size as a
hen's egg, but nearly globular in form.
THE BAEN OWL (Strix flammea}— Plate 4, fig. 11—
which is also frequently called the White Owl and the
Screech Owl, is the commonest species of the whole of
this family in the British isles, and is likewise very
generally distributed in all parts of the eastern hemi-
sphere. The Barn Owl of the United States, which is
very similar to the British bird, was formerly regarded
as identical with it, but it is now generally admitted to
constitute a distinct species.
The Barn Owl measures from fourteen to fifteen inches
in length, the females being usually about an inch
longer than the males. Like the preceding species, it
THE BARN OWL. BIRDS. THE JAVANESE OWL.
271
has the facial discs complete, that is to say, they entirely
surround the eyes ; and the two discs meet in the
middle of the face in such a manner as to form a straight
ridge, running upwards from the beak. The whole
upper surface of the bird is of a light reddish-yellow
colour, minutely mottled with ashy grey, and marked
with combined small black and white spots ; the facial
discs and the whole of the lower parts are white, the
latter sometimes marked with a few dusky spots. The
tail feathers are of the same colour as the upper surface,
but marked with five transverse grey bars ; the beak
is nearly white, and the claws brown.
Unlike most of the owls to which we have previously
referred, the Barn Owl does not take up his residence in
the wilder parts of the country, but approaches boldly
to the dwelling-places of man, and seeks his food in the
midst of towns and villages, and in the cultivated fields
surrounding them. His chosen retreat is some dark
hole or corner of an old building, the tower of a church,
or the roof of a barn ; sometimes, however, he takes up
his quarters in a hollow tree. Strictly nocturnal in his
habits, he passes the whole day in his retreat, dozing
away the bright hours, whose glare would be insup-
portable to his eyes ; and if by any chance he is driven
from his concealment at this time, he is so dazzled by
the unwonted light as to become quite bewildered and
helpless. To add to this misfortune when it happens,
all the small birds within reach make a point of attacking
him whenever he appears abroad during the period
of their activity, and the unfortunate owl gets no rest
until he reaches some friendly shelter. Even when he
has resorted to a wood, in order to enjoy his day's rest
under the shadow of the thick foliage, he does not always
escape the malevolence of his little tormentors ; should
a small bird discover him, the alarm is immediately
given, and in a very short time the owl is surrounded
by a troop of vociferous enemies. But when the sun
goes down in the west, and the twilight begins to enve-
lope the face of nature with its dusky mantle, the owl
assumes a very different character ; from being the sport
of the weakest inhabitants of the grove, he becomes a
tyrant, and, gliding forth on noiseless pinions, goes to
seek his prey. He may then be seen dashing round
the stacks and buildings in the farm -yard, perching now
and then upon a cart or waggon, or skimming rapidly
over the fields and along the hedgerows, carrying
destruction to all the weaker creatures which venture
forth at night. The moment he perceives his prey
upon the ground, he drops suddenly down, seizes it in
his claws, and uttering a shrill cry, or screech, flies off
with it to his nest. In this way rats and mice of all
kinds, and other small mammalia, including even very
young hares and rabbits, are captured by this noctur-
nal marauder, who also destroys larks and other small
birds which may be met with on the ground. He often
catches the moths and beetles which fly so abundantly
during the summer evenings, and, according to Mr.
Waterton, will also capture fish, by diving boldly into
the water. But the principal food of the Barn Owl
undoubtedly consists of the mice of different species,
which abound to such an extent about the stack-yards
and corn-fields, and these, when captured for the owl's
personal benefit, are generally swallowed whole, some-
times without even their bones being broken. These,
and other indigestible parts of all its prey, are afterwards
collected into pellets in the stomach, and finally disgorged
in its resting-place, where these pellets often accumulate
to an astonishing amount. Mice also constitute the
great bulk of the food brought by these owls to their
young ones ; and it is upon this fact that Mr. Waterton
relies in his plea for considering this bird as a bene-
factor to the farmer. While the young are in the nest,
which is the case throughout the greater part of the
year, as several broods are produced in the season, the
owls will bring a mouse to the nest every twelve or
fifteen minutes ; and in the course of sixteen months,
Mr. Waterton's owls accumulated in their dwelling-
place a deposit of more than a bushel of pellets, each
of which seems to represent on an average about five
mice. In the face of such facts as these, the Barn Owl
should certainly be pardoned for any depredations that
he may commit amongst the young of our game-birds,
as these must be infinitely more than counterbalanced
by the benefit he confers on the husbandman by the
destruction of vermin.
The nest of this bird is placed in its ordinary dwelling,
and consists simply of a few sticks and straws, upon
which the eggs are deposited. The eggs are said to
vary from two to five in number ; and it appears, from
a notice published many years ago by Mr. Blyth, that
a fresh laying takes place before the first brood is able
to quit the nest. He says that a nest was found in the
neighbourhood of Tooting, which "contained two eggs,
and when they were hatched, two more were laid,
which latter were probably hatched by the warmth of
the young birds ; a third laying took place after the
latter were hatched, and the nest at last contained six
young owls of different ages, which were all reared."
The screeching cry of the Barn Owl, which is often
heard about ruined buildings and church-yards, can
hardly break suddenly on the ear during the silence of
the night without producing some effect upon the imagi-
nation, and this sound has been regarded in almost all
ages and countries with a certain degree of superstitions
dread. This equivocal honour is shared by the Barn
Owl with many other species ; but, according to Pennant,
the Barn Owl has the advantage over his brethren, in
that the Mongols of Tartary "almost pay it divine
honours, because they attribute to its species the pre-
servation of the founder of their empire, Genghis Khan.
That prince, with his small army, happened to be
surprised and put to flight by his enemies, and forced
to conceal himself in a little coppice ; an owl settled
on the bush under which he was hid, and induced his
pursuers not to search there, as they thought it im-
possible that any man could be concealed in a place
where that bird would perch."
THE AMERICAN BAEN OWL (Strix perlata), which
closely resembles the preceding, and was regarded by
Wilson and other writers as identical with our British
species, is by no means common in the United States,
but occurs more abundantly in the West Indies and
South America. Its habits appear to resemble those
of its European relative ; its favourite food consists of
field-mice, of which it devours great quantities.
THE JAVENESE OWL (Strix javanica), which has
272
PASSERES. BIRDS. PASSEKF.S.
been found both in Java and on the continent of India,
has similar habits to our Barn Owl, and, like it, inhabits
the vicinity of villages and farms. It is not, however,
regarded with much favour by the natives on this
account, as they entertain various superstitious notions
regarding it, and in some places its appearance is con-
sidered of evil omen. Colonel Sykes, who met with
this species in India, says that one of his specimens "was
captured alive, while lying on its back on the ground,
defending itself against the attacks of a body of crows."
THE AUSTRALIAN BARN OWL (Strix delicatulus) .
Although this bird is a native of Australia, where it
is very abundant and generally distributed, it very
nearly resembles our European species in size, form, and
colouring ; in habits, also, the two birds are precisely
similar. Several other nearly allied species are also
met with in Australia ; and one, the S. castanops, which
is of considerably larger size, appears to be peculiar to
Van Diemen's Land.
THE BAY OWL (PJiolidus badius), Wowo-'NYiwi,
or, KALONG-WIWI of Java, is the last species of this
family, and of the order Accipitres to which we shall
allude. It is a rare bird in Java, residing in the darkest
forests ; and it is principally remarkable from the belief
entertained by the Javanese that it lives in a state of
the closest familiarity with the tiger, venturing even to
aligbt on the back of that formidable quadruped, which,
like itself, inhabits the recesses of the forest.
ORDER II.— PASSERES.
THE order of the Passeres or passerine birds, which
may be regarded as including the types of the whole
class, is of very great extent; and the birds composing
it exhibit a vast variety both of structure and habits.
Amongst the Passeres we find species almost as pre-
daceous as many of the preceding order; others whose
food consists entirely of insects ; others, again, which
manifest a predilection for carrion nearly as strong as
that of the Vultures ; and others which content them-
selves with vegetable food. Even amongst the last
there is, as may easily be supposed, a great variety ;
some feeding solely upon soft fruits, whilst others derive
their nourishment from the hardest seeds and nuts.
As might be expected, this want of uniformity in one of
the most important conditions of. life, causes a corre-
sponding variety in the structure of those parts which
are in any way concerned in the business of eating,
and this even in a greater degree than could be fore-
seen from the mere differences in the nature of the food ;
for many birds of this order, which agree generally in
the nature of their nutriment, differ from each other in
their mode of obtaining it, and thus the modifications
of the bill become almost endless. The mode of life of
the birds also varies greatly, and by this means further
modifications are introduced into the general organiza-
tion; so that it becomes a matter of considerable diffi-
culty to indicate the general characters by which the
present order is circumscribed. This difficulty is cer-
tainly not lessened by the fact that eome members of
the following order appear to differ only in a single
character of somewhat uncertain value from the pas-
serine birds ; in fact, although we have left the forms
just alluded to amongst the Scansores, in order to
present the reader with a view of the classification
generally adopted, it has long been our opinion that
this portion of the system requires to be remodelled.
But we shall return to this subject hereafter.
To speak in general terms, the birds belonging to
the present order may be denominated Perchers par
excellence; that is to say, they of all birds are best
adapted for a life amongst the branches of trees, as
they exhibit the greatest facility in perching and hop-
ping from one branch or twig to another. Hence
Cuvier, and after him many other authors, denominated
these birds Insessores or Perchers. For this purpose
their feet are well adapted. The tarsi are of moderate
length, and the feet consist of four well developed toes,
placed, as in the preceding order, three in front and one
behind, furnished with claws of moderate length, and
endowed with a sufficient grasping power to secure the
bird firmly upon its perch ; whilst at the same time the
general structure of the foot and leg is not so decidedly
prehensile as to prevent its readily quitting its hold.
In the predaceous birds, on the contrary, the long
grasping toes are arranged specially to enable their
possessor to secure and carry off its prey ; and for
the same purpose they are terminated by large and
powerful claws. The whole organization of the hinder
limb is also directed to the same object, and thus the
predaceous birds, although they perch, are by no means
at home amongst the branches, and exhibit but little
grace or agility in their movements upon them.
Although this arrangement of the toes, three before
and one behind, constitutes one of the principal cha-
racters of the order Passeres, it must be confessed that
it is liable to certain exceptions, which render it espe-
cially difficult to draw the Hue between this and the
following order. The latter is distinguished, as indi-
cated in the table of orders — (p. 235) — by having the
toes placed two in front and two behind. Now
several passerine birds have the power of reversing
one of the toes, so as to reproduce, temporarily, the
scansorial foot ; whilst, on the other hand, some of the
scansores, such as the cuckoos, are able to turn one
of the hind toes forwards. In the swifts, also, which
belong to the present order, all the toes are turned
forward.
The other general characters of the feet, taken in
conjunction with the arrangement of the toes, will
generally enable us to determine whether or not a bird
belongs to this order. The tarsi which, as already
stated, are of moderate length, are scutellated or
covered with shield-like homy plates; of these there
are generally several on the anterior surface, whilst the
hinder surface is usually occupied by a single long
shield. The whole upper surface of the toes is pro-
tected by series of similar but smaller and more
numerous plates ; and in most cases the only part of
PASSKKKS. BIRDS. PASSKRKS.
273
the foot which exhibits a granular or reticulated
appearance, is the lower surface of the toes. The toes
are not furnished at the base with a distinct membrane
or small web, such as is usually found at this point in
other birds ; but, on the other hand, the outer toe of
each foot is generally united to the middle one for a
greater or less extent ; sometimes only at the base, but
sometimes nearly to the extremity. The claws with
which the toes are armed are either of moderate length
and strength, or very long and slender; they never
emulate the formidable talons of the predaceous birds,
nor do they degenerate into the flat scratching nails
characteristic of the gallinaceous birds.
This structure of the hind limbs renders the Passeres
very active on their feet, whether they disport them-
selves amongst the branches and twigs of the trees, or
hop, as is their usual manner of progression, on the
ground. Their wings or anterior members are also
well developed, and they generally possess the power
of flight in a very high degree of perfection. In this
respect, indeed, we find a considerable variety amongst
the members of this group, some of them furnishing
most remarkable examples of rapid and long-continued
flight; others enjoying the power of moving through the
air with more moderation, but few deserving the char-
acter of being feeble flatterers. In accordance with these
variations in the volitant power, the form of the wings
also varies, being long and pointed in those which fly
best, and broader and rounded at the tip in proportion
as the power of flight diminishes ; but the number of
primary quill feathers in the wings is tolerably uniform,
being generally ten, although the first of these is fre-
quently very small, or even altogether wanting. The
quill feathers of the tail are generally twelve in number.
The form of the bill, as may be supposed from
the statement already made with regard to the great
difference of food, is very variable ; but it is to be
remarked that it never partakes of the strongly-hooked
character which prevails in the preceding order, nor is
its base covered by anything like a cere. The bill is
ordinarily conical ; sometimes short and stout ; some-
times elongated and slender; in many of the long-billed
forms, the whole of the organ is more or less curved ;
and a considerable number of those with short bills
have the upper mandible slightly arched, and bent
down at the tip, near which the margins are armed
with small teeth. The object of these various forms of
the bill, and of others to which we need not refer here,
will be readily seen when we come to treat of the his-
tory of the species belonging to this order, in the classi-
fication of which they are also of great importance.
With regard to the internal structure of these birds,
we need only state that the ossophagus is dilated into
a small crop ; that the walls of the stomach are very
thick and muscular, forming a gizzard; and that in many
of them the inferior larynx, situated at the point of union
of the two bronchial tubes coming from the two sepa-
rate lungs, is provided with a complicated apparatus ot
small muscles, by the action of which the birds are
enabled to modulate their notes in a surprising manner,
so as to produce that delightful music which charms
the ears of all wanderers in the country throughout the
spring and summer.
From the vast variety of forms included in this order,
and the gradual manner in which their distinctive char-
acters blend one with the other, the division of these
birds into subordinate groups presents no small diffi-
culties ; and the opinions of authors upon their classifi-
cation are almost as various as the authors themselves.
It is impossible for us to travel through these minutiae
of classification, the discussion of which, moreover,
would be neither interesting nor instructive to the
reader; the system here followed is nearly identical
with that of Mr. G. R. Gray, which in its turn is
founded upon that of Cuvier. The latter great natu-
ralist divided his order of passerine birds into five great
families, to which he gave the names of Dentirostres,
Fissirostres, Conirostres, Tenuirostres, and Syndactyli;
the first four being characterized by peculiarities in the
conformation of the bill, and the last by the structure
of the feet, the outer toe in each foot being united to
the middle one throughout nearly the whole of its length.
Of the birds thus distinguished, the majority are now
generally admitted to be nearly allied to those forming
Cuvier's group of the Fissirostres, with which they may
well be associated in a single tribe or suborder ; the
remainder (the Hornbills) approach the Crows in their
general structure, and may be placed with them in the
tribe of Conirostres. This leaves four divisions which
may be briefly characterized as follows : —
1. FISSIKOSTRES, with the bill usually more or less
depressed at the base, and the gape wide, opening as
far back as the eyes— see Plates 5 to 7.
2. TENUIROSTRES, with the bill much elongated and
slender, and the gape not so wide as in the preceding
group — see Plates 8 and 9.
3. DENTIROSTKES, with the upper mandible more
or less curved, hooked at the tip, and armed with a
single tooth on each side — see Plates 10 and 11.
4. CONIROSTRES, with a stout and usually straight
conical bill, in which the upper mandible is either
smooth at the edges or toothed throughout— see Plates
12 and 13.
It is to be observed, however, that the characters
above given are only to be regarded as appertaining to
the groups generally ; as from the gradual passage of
the one into the other, it sometimes becomes necessary,
in order to avoid violating evident affinities, to place a
given bird rather arbitrarily in the group to which it
belongs by its general characters, although it may
not distinctly present those expressed in the name of
the group.
VOL. I.
2M
274
PASSKRKS. BIRDS. CAPRIMUI.GID^.
TRIBE I.— FISSIEOSTRES.
THE tribe of the Fissirostral birds, with which we
commence the long series of Passeres, is distinguished,
as already stated, by the great extent of the gape,
which, in the most typical or characteristic forms,
reaches as far back as the hinder margin of the eye.
The birds thus characterized constituted the whole of
the group as established by Cuvier ; but most modern
ornithologists are agreed in referring to the same
position in the system several families which, in the
classification of Cuvier, occupied a very different
place. Nevertheless, the distinction between these
birds is so well marked, that we may regard this tribe
as consisting of a typical and an aberrant group of
families, rather than of a nocturnal and a diurnal one,
as is usually done ; for the nocturnal forms — the Goat-
suckers— are very nearly allied to the Swifts and
Swallows, and form with them a perfectly natural group ;
whilst the remaining families are almost equally closely
related to each other in their general conformation.
The typical families correspond with the order Cheli-
dows of Vieillot and Temminck.
FAMILY L— CAPRIMULGID^E.
The Caprimulgidse, or Goatsuckers, are distinguished
by the intensity with which they exhibit the fissirostral
characters : the bill is very short and much depressed,
and the gape uncommonly wide, extending quite
beneath the eyes. The upper margins of the gape are
Head of Goatsucker (Caprimnlgus europajus).
generally Ordered by very long stiff bristles, which in
some species betray their analogy with feathers by
bearing a few barbs upon their sides. The legs and tarsi
of these birds are rather short, but the anterior toes are
long and stout ; and the hinder toe, which is shorter,
is turned somewhat forward, and slightly united at the
base to the inner anterior toe. The wings are usually
long, and rather pointed, but far inferior in both these
respects to those of the other families of typical
Fissirostres, which scarcely yield to any other birds in
length and power of wing. A further distinction of the
Goatsuckers consists in their adaptation to a nocturnal
mode of life, in which they resemble the Owls, with
which we concluded the preceding order. Like all
nocturnal birds, they have a soft plumage, which
enables them to fly noiselessly through the air ; and
large eyes, adapted for the perception of objects in
the dim twilight. They are insectivorous birds, feeding
principally upon the moths and beetles which fly
at night. These they capture on the wing, and
the long spreading bristles with which the mouth is
fringed are of the greatest service to them in capturing
this active kind of prey.
THE COMMON GQA.TS\JGKER(Caprimulgusenropa!tts},
—Plate 6, fig. 17, and woodcuts 103 and 104— may be
first referred to, as it is almost the sole representative
of the family in Europe, and is not an uncommon bird
in this country. It is, however, a bird of passage,
retiring to the warm regions of the South, from the
colder and temperate countries of Europe and Northern
Asia, in the autumn, before the inclemency of winter
has destroyed its insect food; and returning again to its
summer quarters in the month of May, when the mild
weather of spring has begun to vivify the insect world.
The Common Goatsucker measures about ten of
eleven inches in length, including the tail, which "25
rather long. The plumage is dusky in its general tint,
presenting when closely examined a mixture of grey,
red, and brown ; but the whole of the upper parts are
streaked and spotted with blackish-brown, and the tints
of the lower surface are arranged so as to form a series
of alternately dark and light undulated bars. The eyes
are dark, and very beautiful. In common with nume-
rous allied species of the family, the Goatsucker has a
very short and weak bill, and the feet also short and
weak, so that it appears to have some difficulty in
perching in the ordinary manner of the passerine birds ;
but when resting on the branch of a tree, places
itself in the direction of the length of the latter,
and crouches down closely
upon it, as if fearful of Fig, 104.
falling off. The middle anterior
toe is considerably longer than
the lateral ones, and terminated
by a long claw, which is singu-
larly pectinated (fig. 104), or
toothed like a comb along its
inner edge. The number of
teeth or serrations in a perfect
claw are about ten, but the tip
generally appears to be worn
away, and thus the number is
reduced to six or seven. The
use of this pectinated claw has
long been a puzzle to naturalists, Foot of Goatsucker,
and we can hardly say that its
object has yet been thoroughly ascertained. White
of Selborne, in one of his charming letters, writes
as follows regarding an observation which he made
upon one of these birds "as it was playing round a
large oak that swarmed with Scaraboei solstitiales,
TIIK GOATSUCKER. BIRDS. THE GOATSUCKER.
275
or Fern-chafers. The powers of its wing," lie says.
" were wonderful, exceeding, if possible, the various
evolutions and quick turns of the swallow genus. But
the circumstance that pleased me most was, that I
saw it distinctly more than once put out its short
leg whilst on the wing, and, by a bend of the head,
deliver somewhat into its mouth. Tf it takes any part
of its prey with its foot, as I have now the greatest
reason to suppose it does these chafers, I no longer
wonder at the use of its middle toe, which is curiously
furnished with a serrated claw." Mr. Atkinson also
takes this view, and mentions his having seen the
Goatsucker taking its prey with its feet ; adding, " Pro-
bably its serrated claw may assist this operation."
Considerable doubt is thrown upon this view, however,
by the position and nature of the serrations, and by the
fact that the Goatsucker has never been seen, when in
confinement, to seize insects with the foot. Moreover,
the conformation of the mouth itself, so admirably
adapted as it is for seizing insects on the wing, must
be regarded as an additional argument against this view.
The opinion has been put forward by several orni-
thologists, and very generally received, that the middle
claw of this bird was intended to be used for combing
its moustaches, if we may use the expression, so as to
free them from any fragments of its prey ; but this
notion is negatived by the fact, that the teeth are too
close together to admit the bristles between them.
Other opinions have been advanced by various natu-
ralists ; but the only one that deserves notice is that of
M. De la Fresnaye, which indeed appears likely to be
the true one. That distinguished ornithologist calls
attention to the fact, that the Common Goatsucker, and
all its immediate allies in which this form of claw
prevails, rest upon the branches of trees in the direction
of their length, so that they as it were ride upon the
convexity of the branch. The structure of the feet,
as M. De la Fresnaye points out, is wonderfully adapted
to this peculiar position. The posterior toe is articu-
culated to the inside of the extremity of the tarsus,
and, as already stated, has a forward tendency. By
this means the small sharp claw with which it is termi-
nated is rendered available, like that of a thumb, for
clinging to the back of a branch. This is also the
case with the inner anterior toe ; and the teeth of the
inner margin of the middle claw will also evidently
come into play, and give the bird a secure hold upon
its seemingly precarious resting-place. If this explana-
tion, which is certainly very plausible, be the true one,
there can be no doubt that the Goatsuckers are espe-
cially organized for holding their peculiar position upon
the branches ; but the object of their taking such a
position is still to be discovered.
The Goatsucker usually arrives in this country about
the middle of May ; so that it is, with one exception,
the latest of all our migratory birds. It is also very
early in taking its departure, quitting our shores at the
end of August or the early part of September. Never-
theless, in this short period it finds time to distribute
itself very widely over the country, as it is by no means
confined to the southern parts of Britain, but is a
common bird in Scotland, extending even to the most
northern parts of that country. Occasionally, speci-
mens are known to linger in the southern counties of
England long after the main body has taken its
departure ; for individuals have been shot in Cornwall
and Devonshire as late as the month of November.
In this country the Goatsucker is usually met with
about moors, heaths, and commons ; but it also fre-
quents young woods. It is very fond of basking upon
the ground in the sun, under the shelter of a bush ;
and when thus engaged, it lies very close, so that it
may almost be trodden upon before it offers to move.
Its period of activity is the twilight, when it may be
seen hawking about after its favourite food ; sweep-
ing swiftly round the trees frequented by beetles and
moths, of which it destroys great numbers. It is
frequently asserted by ornithologists that the Goatsucker
flies with its mouth wide open, gaping for its prey ; and
hence the French have given it the name of Engou-
leveni. This notion, however, appears to be erroneous,
and the bird probably does not open his mouth until
he is just about to seize his prey. The note of the
bird, which is only emitted by the male, is a sort
of whirring sound, compared by many writers to the
noise made by a spinning-wheel ; hence he is known as
the Wheel-bird in some districts, and in others as the
Night-churr, Night-jar, and Churn-owl. The Goat-
sucker is also called the Night-hawk and Dor-hawk ;
the latter name having reference to his predilection for
night-flying beetles, which are often called dors ; and
likewise the Fern-owl, from his liking for fern brakes
as a place of abode. The name of Goatsucker— which
js applied to this bird in almost all languages, from the
time of the Greeks and Romans, whose names ^Egotheles
and Caprimulgus had the same meaning, down to the
present time— refers to the bird's supposed habit of
sucking the milk of goats and other domestic animals
during the night ; a suspicion which has doubtless given
the bird a bad character in the minds of many farmers,
whilst, by the destruction of vast numbers of cock-
chafers, it is in reality one of their best friends. The
cause of this opinion has been indicated by Le Vaillant.
He says that there is no doubt that the Goatsuckers
frequent the folds in which goats and sheep are penned
up for the night, but that this is by no means with the
felonious intention usually ascribed to them ; on the
contrary, they are attracted to such places solely by
tlie numerous insects which are to be met with there,
attracted in their turn by the accumulation of impu-
rities. The shepherds and herdsmen noticing the birds
descending among the animals under their charge, but
not knowing their object in so doing, unfortunately
put a wrong construction upon their proceedings, and
thus fixed a somewhat libellous appellation upon a very
harmless bird. Another curious notion has prevailed
with regard to the Goatsucker, namely, that it not only
flies with its mouth wide open, as already stated, but
that in order to enable it to do this, the roof of the mouth
is rendered transparent, so that the bird, whilst flying
in pursuit of its insect prey, is enabled, by turning its
eyes downwards, to see through the palate and thus
direct its course. It is scarcely necessary to say that
this idea is quite destitute of foundation. The roof of
the mouth is indeed very thin and membranous, but
by no means sufficiently translucent to allow any object
27G
PASSIVES. BIHDS.-
JAPKIMULGID.E.
to be seen through it ; and, on the other hand, the eye
is too completely fixed in its orbit to be capable of
performing the singular movement, which would be
necessary to enable it to take any part in such an
unusual proceeding.
The eggs of the Goatsucker are usually two in
number, of a white colour, clouded with bluish-grey.
They are deposited in a depression or cavity on the
surface of the ground under the shelter of a bush,
generally with scarcely any attempt at a nest. In this
country the eggs are deposited about the first week in
June.
THE BOMBAY GOATSUCKER (Caprimulgus asiaticua).
— Several species of the genus Caprimulgus are found
in India, and of these that called the Bombay Goat-
sucker by Latham is the commonest and most widely
distributed, occurring abundantly in all parts of the
peninsula. It also occurs in the Transgangetic countries.
In its habits it resembles our British species, sheltering
itself under hedges and bushes, and laying its eggs on
the ground without a nest. The eggs are pink, spotted
with brown. " The note of this species," according to
Mr. Jerdon, " resembles the sound of a stone scudding
on ice ;" and Mr. Elliott compares it with the words
tyook, tyook, tyool'.
THE LARGE INDIAN GOATSUCKER (Caprimulgus
indicus), which is as widely distributed as the preceding
species, but far less abundant, is a large species of an
asli colour, with numerous transverse black lines, and
spotted with rusty red on the cheeks, breast, and wings.
The tail is banded with black. This bird is found
chiefly in the wooded districts of the Indian peninsula,
where it passes the day under the sheLer of the trees,
and comes forth into the open country in the evening
in pursuit of its prey. Its habits resemble those of the
European species, and its note is something like that of
the Bombay Goatsucker, being compared by Mr. Jerdon
to the syllables tew-yo-yo frequently repeated.
THE COLLARED GOATSUCKER (Caprimulgus pec-
toralis), a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is dis-
tinguished by having an ash-coloured band on the
breast. During the breeding season, which commences
in the month of September, the male indulges in a
very loud and singular song, which he begins about an
hour after sunset, and often continues all night, if the
weather be fine and light. Le Vaillant says that when
he happened to encamp in the vicinity of these birds,
the incessant song of the male rendered it impossible
for him to sleep. The habits of the bird are very
similar to those of the European species ; the eggs are
deposited on the ground, frequently even in the midst
of a path, a custom which is not peculiar to the present
species. Both the male and the female sit upon the
eggs, and when thus engaged in an exposed situation
they will remain at their post until the wayfarer is on
the point of treading on them, when they rise almost
from under his feet. Notwithstanding the little care
which they seem to take to conceal their eggs, they are
very jealous of these treasures, and remove them
immediately on perceiving that they have been touched.
Le Vaillant states that this removal is effected by the
parents taking each an egg in their mouths, and flying
o!V with them.
THE WHIP-POOR-WILL (Caprimulgus vocifcrus},on<3
of the commonest American species of this genus, in
found in most parts of the United States, where, how-
ever, it is a bird of passage, usually arriving from the
south towards the end of April, and departing for
its winter abode about the beginning of September.
It measures nine inches and a half in length, and
exhibits in its plumage a mixture of black, pale cream
colour, brown and rusty red, " sprinkled and powdered
in such minute streaks and spots," to borrow Wilson's
words, "as to defy description." The tail, which is
rounded, has the three outer feathers on each side
blackish brown for half their length, and the remainder,
to the tips, pure white ; the four middle feathers are
marked with herring-bone lines of black and yellow.
The Whip-poor-will usually resorts to elevated and
dry situations, and is rarely seen or heard in low
marshy districts. Like the preceding Goatsuckers, it
is nocturnal in its habits, sitting close during the day
in the most retired and shady spots to be found in the
woods, or on the steep bushy banks of a creek or river.
When disturbed in the day time, it sails slowly through
the wood to a short distance, and then settles generally
on a low branch of a tree. At dusk these birds issue
from their concealment, and hawk about in the manner
of their European congener in pursuit of night-flying
insects ; they are also said by Wilson to feed upon
" grasshoppers, pismires, and such insects as frequent
the bark of old, rotten, and decaying timber." Their
note, which is emitted in the evening and night, espe-
cially during the breeding season, is described as
distinctly resembling the syllables whip-poor-will, the
first and last syllables being uttered with great emphasis,
and the whole occupying about a second in its emission
Between each repetition of the note a sort of cluck
may often be heard by a person in the immediate
vicinity of the bird ; and when two males meet, their
notes are reiterated rapidly and incessantly, as if each
were straining to overpower and silence the other.
Amongst the Indians this bird, from its nocturnal and
noiseless activity and its singular note, became the
object of some superstitious dread, in this respect
sharing the evil repute of the owl. With the white
settlers in the United States, however, the Whip-poor-
will appears to be rather a favourite ; for although
Wilson tells us that the shrill and confused clamours of
these birds, as evening draws on, are very surprising to
a stranger, he adds that " they soon become extremely
agreeable. The inhabitants lie down at night lulled by
their whistlings, and the first approaches of dawn are
announced by a general and lively chorus of the same
music ; while the full-toned tooting, as it is called, of
the pinnated grouse, forms a very pleasing bass to the
whole."
The female begins to lay about the second week in
May, and, like her European relative, takes no trouble
in preparing a nest, but deposits her eggs either on the
bare ground or on a few dry leaves. She always
selects a dry situation, in the most sequestered part of
the wood.
THE CHUCK- WILL'S- WIDOW (Caprimulgus caro-
linensis), is another American species, the somewhat
singular name applied to which has been derived from
THE CHUCK-WILL'S WIDOW. BIRDS. THE VIRGINIAN GOATSUCKER.
277
its note. This remarkable cry is said by the American
writers to resemble the words Chuck- will's- widoiv,
each syllable being slowly and distinctly pronounced,
with the principal emphasis laid on the last word. It
is so loud that in a still evening it may be heard at a
distance of nearly a mile ; and in those districts where
the birds are numerous, their incessant vociferation
makes the mountains ring with echoes during the whole
evening. In general the note is heard only in the
morning and evening, but on moonlight nights it is
continued throughout the whole night.
Like the preceding species, the Chuck-will's-widow
is a migratory bird, arriving in the southern states of
the American Union about the middle of March, and
gradually extending itself towards the north. It retires
from the United States early in September. In its
habits it resembles the Whip-poor-will, passing the
day in concealment in thick woods and wooded glens,
and issuing forth at sun-down in pursuit of insects. It
flies low, and frequently settles on old logs or on fences,
from which it dashes off again after its prey. The
eggs, two in number, are laid on the ground, without
any nest, and the birds exhibit the same jealousy of
having them touched which we have already described
in the case of the African Collared Goatsucker, and
which is probably common to most birds of this group.
In illustration of this peculiarity, we may quote the
following account given by Audubon :— " The negroes,"
says that celebrated ornithologist, " some of whom pay
a good deal of attention to the habits of birds and
quadrupeds, assured me that these birds push the eggs
or young with their bill along the ground. Some
farmers, without troubling themselves much about the
matter, imagined the transportation to be performed
under the wings of the old bird. The account of the
negroes appearing to me more likely to be true than that
of the farmers, I made up my mind to institute a strict
investigation of the matter. The following is the
result : — When the Chuck-will's-widow, either male
or female — for each sits alternately — has discovered
that the eggs have been touched, it ruffles its feathers,
and appears extremely dejected for a minute or two,
after which it emits a low murmuring cry, scarcely
audible to me as I lay concealed at a distance of not
more than eighteen or twenty yards. At this time I
have seen the other parent reach the spot, flying so
low over the ground that I thought its little feet must
have touched it, as it skimmed along ; and after a few
low notes and some gesticulations, all indicative of
great distress, take an egg into its large mouth, the other
bird doing the same; when they would fly off together,
skimming closely over the ground, until they disappeared
among the branches and trees." From an observation
of Wilson's it would appear that the Whip-poor-will
also removes its young from a spot where it appre-
hends that they are in danger.
THE SPOTTED- WINGED GOATSUCKER (Eurostopodm
guttatus). — The true Goatsuckers are represented in
Australia by two species belonging to a peculiar genus,
to which Mr. Gould has given the name of Eurosto-
podus, in allusion to its stout feet. The Spotted- winged
Goatsucker is about eleven inches long, and its plumage
it? generally of a grey colour, minutely freckled with
black, and having many of the feathers edged with
buff. The quill feathers of the wings are brownish
black, the secondaries with numerous buff, and the
first four primaries with large pure white spots, forming
a band upon the wing. On each side of the throat
there is a large streak of white, which also occurs in
the other species. Little is known of the habits of
this bird, which is distributed over all the southern
parts of the Australian continent. Like the preceding
species, it breeds on the ground, and is nocturnal in its
habits. Mr. Gould states that when flushed in the day-
time, it mounts rapidly into the air, performs a few
zigzag evolutions, and then pitches down again upon
the earth at a distant spot.
THE WHITE-THROATED GOATSUCKER (Eurosto-
podtts alboyularis), has only been met with in New
South Wales, where it is not uncommon, but appears
to be a summer bird of passage. It measures about a
foot in length, and is of a far more dusky plumage than
the preceding species, which it also exceeds in the
length of the wings, the tips of the primaries reaching
as far as the end of the tail. In accordance with this,
Mr. Gould says that its flight is more powerful than
that of any other goatsucker that he has seen ; it
dashes through the air with great rapidity, and rises or
descends almost perpendicularly whenever an insect
comes within its reach. Its food consists principally of
beetles and locusts, some of them so large as to render
it surprising that they can be swallowed by the bird,
especially as they are sometimes so little injured by the
process, that Mr. Gould preserved them for his ento-
mological collection.
THE LEONA GOATSUCKER (Macrodipteryx longi-
pennis) — Plate 6, fig. 18 — is remarkable for having an
exceedingly long feather, measuring sometimes twice the
length of the body, springing from each wing, but fur-
nished with barbs only at the extremity, the remainder
of the feather constituting a bare shaft. This curious
appendage, which is peculiar to the male, is not,
according to Mr. Swainson, one of the ordinary quill
feathers of the wing, of which the same number exists
in both sexes, but a supplementary feather, arising
from the bend of the wing, between the primaries and
secondaries. Its object — if, indeed, it serves any
special purpose — is quite unknown, and it seems pro-
bable that, like so many other extraordinary develop-
ments in animals, they are to be regarded solely as
ornaments ; but, in the absence of information upon the
habits of the bird, the question cannot be decided.
The Leona Goatsucker usually measures about eight
inches in length, and in its general appearance resembles
our European species.
THE VIRGINIAN GOATSUCKER (Chordeiles virgini-
anus), called the NIGHT HAWK by many American
writers, is a well-known migratory bird in the United
States, where it arrives in the month of April, returning
again towards the south about the middle of August.
It measures rather more than nine inches in length,
and is of a general blackish-brown colour, thickly
sprinkled above with minute spots and streaks of cream
colour and pale red. The tail is forked, and all the
feathers composing it, with the exception of the two
middle ones, are barred with white nearly to the tip.
-BIRDS. CAI'KIMULGIDJE.
where they are crossed by a broad white band ; the
first five primaries of the wing are also marked with a
broad while band, and there is a triangular spot of
white on the throat. The gape is destitute of bristles.
The Virginian Goatsucker is met with in all parts of the
United States, and also in Canada and Nova Scotia,
where it appears to be very abundant. Its habits
resemble those of the other Goatsuckers, the evening
being its principal period of activity, except iu wet
gloomy weather, when it often comes abroad in the
daytime, generally flying at a considerable height. It
is strong on the wing, and executes the most varied
movements in the air with great agility, as it becomes
necessary to change its course in order to capture its
insect prey. Unlike the preceding species, which gen-
erally reside wholly in rural districts, the present bird
will venture boldly into the towns and cities, where it
may be seen sitting on the chimney tops. Whilst
engaged in the pursuit of insects in the air, this bird
emits a singular cry, compared by different hearers to
the syllables piramidig or gi1 me a bit, or, according to
Mr. Gosse, wittawitawit. In descending perpendicu-
larly, which this bird will often do to a distance of
sixty or eighty feet with great rapidity, it produces a
loud booming sound, very much resembling that caused
by blowing strongly into the bunghole of an empty
cask. This manoeuvre is frequently repeated. The
eggs are deposited about the middle of May, and, as
with the other Goatsuckers, are laid upon the ground
without any nest.
THE NACUNDA GOATSUCKER (Podager Nacunda),
a Brazilian species, which migrates southwards in the
summer, is usually met with in the open country,
where it is said by Azara to prefer moist pkces. It
often pursues its insect prey by daylight, whence it has
been called the DIURNAL GOATSUCKER by some orni-
thologists.
THE GEEAT IBIJAU (Nyctibiris grandis).—T]ns bird,
which is a native of South America, belongs to a genus
strikingly distinguished by several very peculiar char-
acters from the group formed by the preceding
species. In these birds, of which seven species are
known, the bill is considerably longer than in the
true Goatsuckers, but almost entirely membranous in
its structure ; the only horny parts being the ridge of
the upper mandible, and the somewhat hooked tip
with which it is terminated. The margins of the
upper mandible are furnished with a soft process or
tooth, and the whole of the lower mandible is com-
pletely concealed beneath the upper one when the
mouth is closed. The tarsi are shorter than even in
the true Goatsuckers, scarcely equalling in length one
of the joints of the toes ; they are stout, and clothed
with feathers. The toes are better adapted for grasping
than in the preceding species, the posterior one in par-
ticular being much longer and stronger, and articulated
at the back of the tarsus instead of at the side. The
claw of the middle toe is slightly dilated, but not
denticulated on the inner side. The habits of the birds
are in accordance with this striking difference in the
construction of the feet. Instead of dwelling on the
ground, they take up their abode amongst the branches
of trees, and, singularly enough, usually attach them-
selves, iu the manner of the Woodpeckers, to the
extremity of a broken branch. Here they remain with
the body in a vertical position, and supported on the
tail, the feathers of which are always more or less
worn, with about half the body projecting beyond the
branch ; by which means, as their plumage is nearly of
the same colour as the bark, and they remain for a long
time quite motionless, it becomes very difficult to dis
cover them.
The Great Ibijau measures nearly twenty inches in
length, and is of a brown colour, spotted with black,
buff, and white. It is nocturnal in its habits, flying
about like the ordinary Goatsuckers in pursuit of
night-flying insects. It lays its eggs and brings
up its young in a small hollow in a tree, without
making any nest. Azara mentions that it is a common
opinion that these birds not only make no nest, but
that they stick their eggs to trees by means of some
sort of glue or gum, and that, when the young are
ready to be hatched, they or their parents break off the
upper half of the egg, leaving the lower part sticking to
the tree.
THE JAMAICA IBIJAU (Xyctibhis jamaicensis), or
POTOO, which is found not only in Jamaica, but also in
Brazil and other parts of the South American continent,
is a smaller bird than the preceding, which it somewhat
resembles in the tints of its plumage. In Jamaica it
sometimes flies by day, but its regular period of activity
is the evening, when it flits about with noiseless wings,
or takes its station on a dead tree or fence. Mr. Gosse,
judging from the habits of a specimen which he had
alive, thinks that the bird, riotwithstanaing its large
and powerful wings, flies but little, and that it watches
for the insects on which it preys from a resting-place,
and dashes after them when they come in sight, some-
what in the manner of the Flycatchers. According to
the writer just quoted, this bird feeds upon the large,
hard, and horned beetles which abound in tropical
countries, as the well-known dung-beetles do here. Its
cry is a loud and hoarse ho-hoo. The eggs of the
Potoo are deposited on the ground, but, unlike the
ordinary Goatsuckers, it makes some little attempt at
nest-building. Mr. Gosse says, "I have seen that
which serves this bird for a nest : it is simply a round
flat mat, about four inches wide, composed of the
fibrous plant called Old Man's Beard ( Till and sia
usneoides}." This is a singular moss-like plant which
grows upon the branches of trees, from which it hangs
down like a great white beard.
THE GUACHARO (Steatornis caripensis), also known
as the OIL-BIRD and the TKIXIDAD GOATSUCKER, is
another very remarkable species of this family, which
inhabits the tropical regions of America. For our know-
ledge of the natural history of this bird, we are princi-
pally indebted to the celebrated traveller Humboldt.
It is- about the size of a pigeon, measuring eighteen
inches in length including the tail, which is long ; the
bill is long, hooked, and robust, although very broad
at the base and depressed; the nostrils are large,
pierced near the middle of the sides of the bill, and
overarched by some long stiff hairs springing from its
base ; Ihe tarsi exhibit no scales or plates, the toes are
of moderate length and strength, and the middle claw
THE GUACHARO. BIRDS. THE NEW HOLLAND GOATSUCKER.
279
is neither dilated nor serrated on its inner margin. The
general tint of the plumage is sombre, consisting, as
usual in the present family, of a mixture of minute
dots of black, brown, grey, and reddish, but marked on
the head and neck, and on the wing and tail feathers,
with white spots of variable form and size.
These birds are found in Trinidad, and in several
parts of the north of South America. They are noc-
turnal birds, and pass the day in the recesses of caverns
in the mountains, where they collect in vast bands.
Unlike the other species of this family, the Guacharos
feed entirely upon fruits and seeds, no insects having
ever been met with in their alimentary canal ; the food
of the young also consists of the same matters, and
hence a great accumulation of fat is produced in them,
especially in the peritoneum. This furnishes an excel-
lent oil; and the Indians of those parts of South
America where the birds occur, destroy great quan-
tities of the young every year in order to obtain a
supply of this grease. The most noted locality for this
oil-harvest is a cavern at Caripe, called from this
circumstance the Cuei-a del Guacharo. Into this cave,
as Humboldt tells us, the Indians enter once a year,
about the festival of St. John. They take with them
long poles, with which they destroy all the nests within
reach, and thus kill many thousands of the young
birds. The nests are found in holes of the walls of
the cave. During this process the old birds, as if to
defend their broods, sail over the heads of the Indians
uttering the most discordant cries. The young birds
are immediately opened, and the fat removed from
them : it is afterwards melted in clay pots at the
entrance of the cavern. The oil thus obtained is
semi-fluid, transparent, and inodorous, and so pure that
it may be kept more than a year without becoming in
the least rancid. It is employed in cooking.
The annual destruction of these birds is so great,
that, as Humboldt remarks, the whole race would soon
be extinct, were it not for certain circumstances which
favour the preservation of the species. The birds
doubtless breed in many caverns which are never visited
by the oil-gatherers ; and even in the cavern of Caripe,
the voices of these birds are heard in galleries to which
the Indians never penetrate, partly perhaps from their
inaccessibility, but principally on account of certain
superstitious notions connected in their minds with the
cave and its inhabitants. Humboldt, describing his
visit to the cavern of Caripe, says — " We had much
trouble in persuading the Indians to pass the anterior
portion of the cave, the only part which they frequent
in their annual collection of fat. It required all the
authority of the padres to make them advance as far
as a spot where the ground rises suddenly at an aisgle
of sixty degrees, and where the torrent forms a small
subterranean cascade. The natives attach mystical
ideas to this cavern, inhabited by nocturnal birds.
Man, they say, should dread places which are lighted
neither by the sun nor by the moon. To go to the
Guacharos, is to join one's fathers, to die."
This celebrated cavern is pierced in a vertical rock :
its entrance measures eighty feet in width, and seventy-
two feet in height ; and through the cave there runs,
as indicated in the above extract, a subterranean
torrent. For a distance of upwards of four hundred
feet, the daylight still struggles with the darkness of
the cavern ; and the seeds brought in by the birds to
feed their young, but accidentally dropped by the way,
germinate in the scanty soil of the floor, producing
etiolated plants, which, as Humboldt remarks, might be
taken for the phantoms of plants banished from the
outer world. Further in, the loud and discordant cries
of the Guacharos were heard, repeated and increased by
the echoes on every hand. The seeds found in the
crops of the young birds opened in the cavern are
supposed by the Indians to possess medicinal virtues,
and are carefully preserved under the name of Semilla
del Guacharo.
THE NEW HOLLAND GOATSUCKER (^Egotheks
Nova; Holkmdm) — The remainder of the birds of this
family form three genera, the members of which are
almost entirely confined to Australia and the islands
intervening between that continent and Asia, the
majority of the species being natives of Australia.
The New Holland Goatsucker is a charming little
species, measuring only about nine inches in length.
It has a very broad depressed bill, of which, however,
only the tip projects beyond the forehead, and the
whole gape is bordered above with numerous long
bristles, many of which are furnished with little barbs.
The plumage is mottled with grey and brown, paler
beneath ; a greyish white collar runs round the neck,
and there is a crescent-shaped spot of the same on the
back of the head. The tarsi are long and slender.
This species is met with all over the southern parts of
Australia, and also in Van Diemen's Land, where it is
known, according to Mr. Gould, as the Little Morepork,
a name which will be explained when we come to
describe the Podargi. It is a somewhat solitary bird,
more than two being rarely found together ; its habits
are nocturnal, and it feeds upon night-flying or cre-
puscular insects, being especially fond of mosquitoes,
according to M. Jules Verreaux. During the day it
dwells in the spouts or hollow branches of the trees,
and when disturbed in its retreat, makes a hissing
noise like the owl, which it also resembles very closely
in its carriage. When the trunk of the tree on which
it has taken up its abode is tapped with a stone, the
little inmate will ascend in his spout and peep out to
see whether he is threatened with any danger. If the
tree be lofty, he again descends in his dwelling ; but if
the noise be repeated, or the disturbance about the
tree continue, he flies off to another tree which offers
a similar refuge. It is in these cavities, without
making any nest, that the female deposits her eggs and
brings up her young. The eggs are four or five in
number ; and Mr. Gould states that at least two broods
are reared by each pair of birds in the year.
THE TAWNY-SHOULDERED PODARGUS (Podargits
humeralis). The Podargi, which are peculiar to Aus-
tralia and New Guinea, in which countries about eight
species have been discovered, are amongst the largest
species of this family, and distinguished from the pre-
ceding species by a much greater strength of bill. The
head is of large size, and the gape enormously wide ;
the feet are stout, and the outer toe has a certain power
of being reversed. The Tawny-shouldered Podargus,
280
PASSEKES. BIRDS. CYPSELIDA.
wliich is one of the commonest Australian species, is
about seventeen inches in length, including the rather
long tail ; it is of a greyish-brown colour, mottled and
spotted with brown, and the wing coverts are spotted
with white and tawny, the spots forming irregular
bands across the wings when these are closed. The
bristly feathers above the base of the bill are more or
less plumose.
This bird is found abundantly in New South Wales,
and also in Van Diemen's Land, where it dwells
amongst the trees, sleeping during the day upon a
branch in so lethargic a condition that it is almost
impossible to arouse it ; it may then be taken by the
hand, or knocked down with a stick or stone, and Mr.
Gould says that he has even shot one without disturb-
ing its mate sitting by it. At night, however, it
becomes active and animated, but its powers of flight
seem to be inferior to those of the goatsuckers in
genera], and from the nature of its food, which consists
to a great extent of insects which do not move at night,
such as Ci 'adce and Phasmidce, we may judge that it
finds much of its sustenance by creeping about the
stems and branches of trees, in the crevices of the bark
of which these insects conceal themselves at night.
This view is borne out by the subscansorial character
of the feet, and the worn state in which the feathers
of the tail are usually found. The stomach, according
to Mr. Gould, is " lined with a thick hair-like substance,
like that of the common cuckoo," and as the latter is
known to consist of the hairs of caterpillars, we may
infer that these insects form a portion of the food of
this Podargus. During the winter season it feeds upon
beetles and, when other resources fail, also upon small
terrestrial Mollusca. According to M. Verreaux, in
the breeding season th*ir tastes become carnivorous;
they devour small birds, which they seize upon the
nest. M. Verreaux says that when the birds are
rather large, he has seen the Podargus take his prey to
a large branch, seize it by the head, and beat it right
and left against the branch so as to break its bones,
when he swallows it whole, commencing with the head.
The cry of this species is a loud hoarse note, which,
Mr. Gould says, cannot be accurately described. Dur-
ing the pairing time the male uses a note which, as
described by M. Verreaux, resembles the cooing of a
dove more than the cry of a night bird, and which
appears to have a great attraction for the female. The
males also fight fiercely at this season. The eggs,
which are usually two or three, of a pure white colour,
are deposited in September, in a flat nest composed of
small twigs, and placed on the fork of a horizontal
branch, at about five or six feet from the ground.
CUVIEE'S PODABGUS (Podargus Cuvieri) is a rather
smaller species than the preceding, measuring only
fifteen or sixteen inches in length ; it is also destitute
of the large tawny spots on the shoulders, and the
bristles over the base of the bill have only a few dis-
tant barbs upon them. This species, although met
with on the continent of Australia, is more especially
an inhabitant of Van Diemen's Land, where it is known
to the colonists as the More Pork Bird, its curious cry
being considered to bear a close resemblance to the
words "more pork." In its habits it resembles the
preceding species, but its nest is said to be more neatly
formed.
Of the remaining species of this genus we need only
mention the MOTH-LIKE PODARGUS (Podargus pJm-
IcEnoides), a small species found at Port Essington, and
in other parts of North Australia; and the PLUMED
PODARGUS (P. plumiferus), which is remarkable for
a large tuft of light feathers springing from above the
base of the bill. The latter is rather a large species,
measuring eighteen inches in length, including a long
tail slightly forked at the tip ; it is found in New South
Wales. The NEW GUINEA PODARGUS is called P.
papuensis ; it is a large species.
HORSFIELD'S GOATSUCKEE (BatracJtostomus ja-
vensis). The islands of the Eastern Archipelago are
inhabited by several species of this family, nearly allied
to the Podargi, but possessing a still more strongly
developed bill. The Javanese species, known as Hors-
field's Goatsucker, inhabits the recesses of large forests,
but nothing is known of its habits. In another species,
the GREAT EARED-GOATSUCKER (B. auritus), the
face is ornamented with a pair of large tufts of light
feathers, projecting horizontally, and giving the bird a
very singular and grotesque appearance.
FAMILY II.— CYPSELID.E.
The birds forming the family of the Cypselida;, or
Swifts, are very commonly placed in the same family
as the Swallows, which they closely resemble in most
of their external characters. They have a very short,
weak, and depressed bill, with the gape opening back
as far as the hinder margin of the eyes, and entirely
destitute of bristles. The nostrils are of very large
size, situated on the upper surface of the base of the
bill, and surrounded by raised margins. Their feet are
very short and weak ; and in the typical species,
forming the genus Cypselus,
all the four toes are directed Fi&- 105-
forwards. This arrangement
of the toes adapts the feet
admirably for clinging to walls,
rocks, and similar objects, about
which the Swifts commonly
take up their abode ; but the
weakness of their hinder limbs
renders them all exceedingly
helpless on the ground, to
which indeed they rarely de- Foot of Swift,
scend of their own accord.
When driven to the earth by any accident, they
remain crouching where they fall, or creep along
lamely until they can reach some slightly elevated
object on which they can climb, and thus obtain
a point of vantage from which to start into the
air. In the last-mentioned element, however, their
means of locomotion are perfect ; in fact, they pro-
bably exceed ah1 other birds in power of flight. Their
wings are excessively long and pointed, and moved by
strong muscles attached to an enormously-developed
sternal keel; and by the rapid vibration of these
vigorous pinions, the little birds are enabled to perform
the most astonishing aerial evolutions. Nearly their
THE COMMON SWIFT. BIRDS. THE COMMON SWIFT.
281
whole time is passed in the air in pursuit of the insects
on which they feed. Their behaviour in this incessant
flight is very similar to that of the still better known
swallows, although they display even more activity.
To show the rapidity of flight possessed by some of
these birds, we may quote a calculation made by Le
Vaillant with regard to an African species which he
calls the Martinet Velocifere. " In flying," says the
African traveller, " it passes over a space of one hundred
toises in five seconds, as I have ascertained several
times upon a measured ground. Thus, supposing that
the bird would or could continue its flight with the
same rapidity, it wpuld be scarcely a minute in travelling
half a league ; and, consequently, would only take a
fortnight in going round the world."
The Swifts also present some anatomical characters
which seem to corroborate the justice of their separation
from the Swallows. In the first place, the inferior
larynx is destitute of those muscles, by the agency of
which singing birds are enabled to modulate their notes,
and which are present in the swallows; hence, with
those authors who adopt the division of the passerine
birds into two great sections, according as they do or
do not possess the organs of song, the separation of
these two families would become still wider than we
have made it. Secondly, there is a difference in the
form of the sternum : the Swallows, like all the other
singing birds, having the posterior margin of this bony
plate deeply notched, whilst in the Swifts it is entire—
a character which is strongly in favour of the view held
by some ornithologists, that the Swifts are really allied
to the Humming-birds, which possess a very similar
sternum, and present other resemblances too striking
to be overlooked.
The Swifts, like the Swallows, and indeed like most
purely insectivorous birds, are migratory in the colder
and temperate climates. Our European species arrive
here later, and leave earlier, than the Swallows. They
usually frequent old walls and buildings, or rocks, in
the holes or crevices of which they breed, often without
any attempt at building a nest. We now proceed to
notice a few of the most remarkable members of this
family, commencing with —
THE COMMON SWIFT (Cypselus apus) — plate 5, fig.
15— as the best known species. In this bird the typical
characters of the Swifts are well shown: the small weak
bill, the large, oblong nostrils, the extremely long,
curved, nearly sabre-shaped wings — reaching when
closed far beyond the extremity of the slightly-forked
tail — and the small weak feet, are all exhibited most
distinctly by our Common Swift, which also presents
another character already referred to, but not common
to the other genera of the family, namely, that all the
four toes are directed forwards (fig. 105). These charac-
ters belong to the typical genus Cypselus. The Common
Swift is of a uniform blackish-brown colour, slightly
glossed with green, except on the chin, which is occupied
by a greyish-white patch. The total length of the bird
is about seven inches and a half, and the wings usually
extend fully sixteen inches — an immense stretch, when
we consider the small size and lightness of the body.
The Swift, as already indicated, is a summer visitor
to Europe, and usually arrives in this country about the
beginning of May. It leaves us again generally by the
middle of August, so that its stay in Britain hardly
exceeds three months ; and it is remarkable that the
birds quit even Italy towards the end of August to cross
the Mediterranean on their way to their African winter-
quarters. On the continent of Africa our Common
Swift is said to advance even to the Cape of Good
Hope, although the majority probably stay within the
tropics as asserted by Temminck. In Asia these birds
are met with as far to the east as lake Baikal, and
specimens have been killed in India. Like some other
migratory birds, the Swifts will often return after an
absence of eight or nine months, and a voyage of
several thousand miles through the trackless fields of
air, to the very same spot where they had built their
nests and reared their young the year before. Dr.
Jenner ascertained this with regard to the Swift by an
experiment which he describes in the following words :
— " At a farm-house in this neighbourhood" (Berkeley
in Gloucestershire), he says — "I procured several
swifts ; and, by taking off two claws from the foot of
twelve, I fixed upon them an indelible mark. The
year following, their nesting-places were examined in
an evening when they had retired to roost, and then I
found several of the marked birds. The second and
third year a similar search was made, and did not fail
to produce some of those which were marked. I now
ceased to make an annual search ; but, at the expira-
tion of seven years, a cat was seen to bring a bird into
the farmer's kitchen, and this also proved to be one of
those marked for the experiment."
On its arrival the Swift takes up its abode in holes and
other sheltered places in church-steeples, towers, ruins,
and under the eaves of houses. From these concealed
nooks and corners, it dashes forth in fine weather to
wheel about in the air with inconceivable rapidity in
pursuit of insects, accompanying its headlong flight
with loud screaming notes ; but when the day is
unfavourable, and especially when there is a high
wind, the Swifts, notwithstanding their power of wing,
usually keep close within their snug retreats. Their
food consists entirely of insects, which they capture and
devour, as previously stated, on the wing. They do
not indeed appear always to swallow then* insect prey
as soon as it is caught ; but as it usually consists of
gnats, midges, and other small compressible insects,
they seem to prefer collecting a sufficient number in
their mouths before swallowing them, to make it worth
their while to do so. The insects caught for the nour-
ishment of the young are also carried and collected in
the same way, so that it is rarely that a Swift is killed
without some insects in its mouth.
The nest is built in one of the ordinary holes in-
habited by the birds. It is composed of fragments of
straw, dry grass, and bits of rag, with a few feathers ;
and these materials are glued together by degrees,
especially after the nest has been inhabited for several
successive seasons, by means of a sort of glutinous
secretion produced by the largely-developed salivary
glands with which the Swifts in general are endowed.
The eggs are usually two in number, but vary from
two to four, the latter number being rare. The young
are hatched about the end of June, but do not leave the
2N
282
PASSERES. BIRDS. CYPSELID.E.
nest till the end of July. During all this period the
parents attend to and feed thetn with great care, supply-
ing them with abundance of food, although they allow
rather longer intervals to elapse between their visits to
the nest, than is usual with birds when bringing up
their young. After the young birds have come out,
they receive little attention from their parents, but
are left pretty much to shift for themselves ; this, how-
ever, they are well able to do, and, indeed, within a
very short time after their first initiation into the cares
and perils of the outer world, they are strong enough
to undertake a long journey into unknown regions. It
sometimes happens that the first eggs are destroyed by
some accident; and in this case, the Swifts lay a second
time. Some curious examples of this have been re-
corded. Gilbert White, writing in 1781, says—" Our
swifts in general withdrew this year about the first day
of August — all save one pair, which, in two or three
days, was reduced to a single bird. The perseverance
of this individual made me suspect that the strongest
of motives, that of an attachment to her young, could
alone occasion so late a stay. I watched, therefore,
till the twenty-fourth of August, and then discovered
that, under the eaves of the church, she attended upon
two young which were fledged, and now put out their
white chins from a crevice. These remained till the
twenty-seventh, looking more alert every day, and
seeming to long to be on the wing. After this day
they were missing at once ; nor could I ever observe
them with their dam coursing round the church, in the
act of learning to fly, as the first broods evidently do.
On the thirty-first, I caused the eaves to be searched ;
but we found only two callow dead swifts, on which a
second nest had been formed." In this instance, it is
evident that by some accident the first brood had been
destroyed, that a second nest had been made over them,
and a second brood produced ; that th« male, yielding to
the strong impulse to migration, coolly took his depar-
ture, leaving the cares of the family to his mate ; and
that the latter, faithfully discharging the duty thus
imposed upon her, remained for nearly a month, after
the main body of her species had started on their
journey southward.
In another case recorded by Mr. Salmon in the
Magazine rf Natural Hi-story, the male bird behaved
in a manner more consistent with his duty, and remained
to share with his partner in the trouble of rearing their
little family. In this instance also his forbearance was
far more severely tried than it could have been in
that observed by White, for on the second of Septem-
ber the young birds found in the nest did not seem to
be more than a week old, and it was not until the first
of October that they were ready to fly; three days
afterwards the whole family disappeared. Single speci-
mens, probably detained much in the same way as
those just mentioned, have been met with even later in
the season in various parts of this country ; thus Mr.
Blackwall records his having seen one on the 20th
October; one was seen in Perthshire on the 8th Novem-
ber, 1834; and another in Devonshire in 1835, as late
as the 27th November.
THE ALPINE SWIFT (Cypscltts melba), also called
the WHiTE-BEi,LiEr> SWIFT, is recorded as a second
British species, some half a dozen specimens having
been killed at different times in this country. Its true
European home, however, is amongst the Swiss Alps
and other high mountain ranges of the South of Europe :
it ranges eastward through Greece and Turkey into
Asia, where it has even been met with in India, and in
Africa it migrates southwards to the vicinity of the
Cape of Good Hope. Its coloration is very different
from that of the Common Swift. The whole of the
upper surface is of a greyish-brown colour, as are also
a band round the neck, the thighs, chest, and unc'er
tail-coverts ; the chin and throat, the lower parts of the
chest and the belly are white. The length, to the
extremity of the tail, is from eight to nine inches, and
the expanse of the wings about twenty or twenty-one,
so that in this respect it exceeds even the Common
Swift. The rapidity of its flight is also described as
greater than that of the preceding species, with which
it agrees in its general habits.
THE WHITE-RUMPED SWIFT (Cypsehis affinis) is
a common species in India, where it is very generally
distributed. It is called the Ababeel by the Hindoos.
It haunts pagodas, choultries, and other buildings, and
makes its nest — which is composed of straw, grass,
feathers, and other soft substances, mingled with clay
— in the numerous crevices with which these edi-
fices usually abound. The nests are usually built
close together, but so as to be concealed wholly or
partially by a beam, rafter, or some similar object lying
before them.
THE BATASSIAN SWIFT (Cypselus batassiensis),
another abundant Indian species, is said by Dr. Bu-
chanan Hamilton, to be " a nocturnal bird, appearing
at sunset, and going to rest at sunrise." According to
the same authority, its Bengalee name, Batassia, " sig-
nifies a bird resembling wind, and is bestowed on this
species on account of its swift flight." It frequents the
groves of palms, especially those of the Palmyra or Tal
(Borassusflabelliformis), on the fan-like fronds of which
it builds its nests. These little birds are sociable in their
habits, as many as twenty or thirty pairs being often
met with upon a single palm-tree ; and they also live in
great harmony with their feathered neighbours of other
species, for Mr. Blyth states, that it is " rare to meet
with one of the same palms clustered with the pensile
nests of the Baya (Ploceus philippensis), that does not
also harbour two or three pairs of this elegant little
Palm Swift."
THE JAMAICA PALM SWIFT (Cypsflus phcenico-
bhts), regarded by M. Gosse, its first describer, as the
type of a new genus which he denominates Tachortiis,
appears to be peculiar to the magnificent island of
Jamaica, where it resides all the year round. The
plumage of the upper parts of this interesting bird is of
a smoky black colour, becoming brownish on the head ;
the sides of the body beneath are also smoky black ;
but the chin and throat, and the middle line of the
belly, are white, and there is also a broad white
band crossing the rump above, but this is often nearly
divided into two spots by a black line descending from
the back.
Mr. Gosse's account of the habits of this Palm Swift
is so admirable, that we cannot do better than extract
THE JAMAICA PALM SWIFT. BIRDS. THE ACULEATED SWIFT.
283
it. He says — " Over the grass-pieces and savannas of
the lowlands, the marshy flats at the seaward mouths
of the valleys, as well as the pens of the mountain
slopes, this swift-winged sylph daily urges its rushing
course, in parties of half a dozen to fifty or a hundred,
often mingled with other swallows, performing mazy
evolutions, circling and turning, crossing and recross-
ing, now darting aloft, now sweeping over the grass,
till the eye is wearied with attempting to follow them.
The length of its wings, which is scarcely less than
that of the whole hird, renders it a fleet and powerful
flyer ; an attentive observer will be able to identify it,
when mingling in aerial career, by a more frequent
recurrence of the rapid vibration of the wings, the
momentary winnowing, by which a fresh impetus is
obtained." But the most curious part of the history of
this bird is its nidification, which is described by Mr.
Gosse as follows. After mentioning the mode in which
his attention was called to a cocoa-nut palm, by his
noticing these swifts about it, some of them clinging
to masses of cotton projecting from the spathes, he
says, that although several other cocoa-nut trees were
about, none of them appeared to be tenanted, so that
this swift, like the preceding, is evidently sociable in
its habits. The first tree could not be climbed, but at
the foot of another " lay the dead fronds, spadices, and
spathes, which had been, in the course of growth,
thrown off, and in these were many nests. They were
formed chiefly in the hollow spathes, and were placed
in a series of three or four in a spathe, one above
another and agglutinated together, but with a kind of
gallery along the side, communicating with each. The
materials seemed only feathers and silk-cotton (the
down of the Bombax] ; the former very largely used,
the most downy placed within, the cotton principally
without, the whole felted closely and cemented together
by some slimy fluid, now dry, probably the saliva."
Mr. Gosse afterwards procured some nests of this bird,
which were composed almost exclusively of the silk-
cotton, and which, when separated, had a curious hairy
appearance, not unlike a doll's wig. These nests were
attached to the fronds of the cocoa palms, and resem-
bled in form those watch-pockets which are often
suspended at the head of a bed.
THE ACULEATED SWIFT (Acantfiylift pelasgia) is a
native of the United States, where it is known as the
CHIMNEY SWALLOW, from its habit of building in the
chimneys in the summer, like our Common Swallow. It
is, however, a member of the family Cypselidae, although
differing from the species of the group previously
described, in the structure of the feet, which have three
toes in front and one behind ; this character also pre-
vails in the remaining species of this family. The
genus Acanthylis is distinguished from the other Swifts
by the peculiar construction of the tail, which is short
and somewhat rounded at the extremity, where the
shafts of the feathers project for some distance beyond
the barbs in the form of bare spines, which serve to
support the bird by pressing against the walls or other
objects to which it clings. These birds are also remark-
able for the great extent of their wings in comparison
with their bulk ; the Aculeated Swift of North America,
which measures only about four and a half inches in
length, having wings extending twelve inches from
point to point ! The whole of the plumage is of a deep
sooty-brown colour, with the exception of the chin and
a line over the eye, which are of a dull white ; the tail
is black, and the short but muscular feet are of a
purple colour.
The Aculeated Swift, like the majority of the insec-
tivorous birds of temperate climates, is migratory in its
habits, arriving in the United States about the end of
April or early in May, and taking its departure again
towards the south in the first or second week in Sep-
tember. On their arrival they appear to take up their
abode in multitudes in the interior of hollow trees,
from which they are seen emerging with great noise in
the morning, returning to then* resting place at night
in similar crowds. This circumstance led some of the
earlier observers of the habits of American birds to the
conclusion that these Swifts passed the winter in a
torpid state in these hollow trees, which hence acquired
the name of Swallow-trees, and at the first glance
there is some plausibility about this notion. Thus,
the birds were first observed about the trees early in
May, that is to say, in the spring, and they were last
seen entering in September; so that as the trees were
always respected by the settlers, it was perhaps natural
for them to suppose that the Swifts remained in this
comfortable abode throughout the winter. It was
found, however, even in Wilson's day, when the uppei
portion of one of these swallow-trees was blown down
in the winter, that there were no Swifts in the part ol
the tree broken off; and the birds never returned tc
the remaining stump. It is evident therefore, inde-
pendently of our knowledge of the migratory habits oi
birds of this kind, that these Swifts do not pass the
winter in their hollow trees, and that the notion that
tlrey did so originated simply from their making their
way directly, and in considerable numbers to their
ordinary places of abode, and departing again as sud-
denly in the autumn. Wilson supposes that before
the arrival of Europeans in America, this bird must
have built its nest in such hollow trees as those above
mentioned, and adds that this is still its practice in the
remote western districts where chimneys are compara-
tively unknown luxuries ; but in the older states, the
Aculeated Swift quits the rustic abode in which it takes
up its residence on its first arrival, and proceeds to
build its nest within the chimneys, which are, of course,
disused during the summer. The nest resembles those
of most Swifts, in being composed of small twigs and
similar articles united together by a glutinous matter.
It is small and shallow, and attached by one side to the
wall of the chimney ; its cavity has no soft lining of
feathers, and it usually contains four white eggs. The
birds generally have two broods in a season. They
feed their young with great care, and even continue
therr attentions to them throughout the night. Some-
times when there has been a long continuance of
heavy rain the nest becomes softened and loosened from
the wall, when it, with its contents, is precipitated to
the bottom. If it contains eggs they are of course
destroyed ; but when this accident happens after the
hatching of the young, these, although they may be
still blind, frequently climb up again into the chimney,
284
-BIRDS. CYPSELID.E.
clinging like squirrels by means of their strong feet and
sharp claws. The young birds are indeed so conscious
of the power of their feet, that it is not uncommon for
them to quit the nest voluntarily long before they can
fly ; they then cling firmly to the wall, and are fed there
until they can dart off in pursuit of their own prey.
Wilson says that " the Chimney Swallow is easily
distinguished in the air from the rest of its tribe, by its
long wings, its short body, the quick and slight vibra-
tions of its wings, and its wide unexpected diving
rapidity of flight ; shooting swiftly in various directions
without any apparent motion of the wings, and uttering
the sounds tsip tsip tsip tsee tsee in a hurried manner.
In roosting, the thorny extremities of its tail are thrown
in for its support. It is never seen to alight but in
hollow trees or chimneys ; it is always most gay and
active in wet and gloomy weather ; and is the earliest
abroad in the morning, and latest out in the evening of
all our swallows."
THE NEEDLE-TAILED SWIFT (Acantlnjlis cauda-
cuta) of Australia, is a considerably larger bird than
the preceding, measuring seven inches in length to the
extremity of the tail, whilst the wings are of immense
extent, measuring no less than nine inches from the
wrist-joint to the tip, and thus extending at least three
times the length of the bird. Its general colour is
brown : the wings, tail, and crown of the head, are
deep, shining green ; the throat and chin, a band above
the bill, the inner webs of the innermost secondaries,
and the hinder part of the abdomen, with the lower tail
coverts, are pure white. It is an abundant summer
bird in New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,
and its rapidity of flight, as might be expected from
the great length of its wings, is so extraordinary, that
as Mr. Gould remarks, it might be engaged in hawking
for flies on the continent of Australia and on the island
of Van Diemen's Land within half an hour. It flies
in large flocks at a great height in the air, at least on
the Australian continent, where the clear dry air causes
the insects to rise to a great elevation ; in Van Die-
men's Land, on the contrary, where the air is moist,
and the insects fly low, this Swift also skims along not
far from the surface of the ground. The nidification of
this bird is not known.
THE SHAEP-TAILED SWIFT (Acanthylis oxyura) is
an inhabitant of South America, especially of Paraguay,
where, according to D'Azara, it is called by the Indians
Mbiyuimbopi, or the Bat-Swallow, from a resemblance,
both of its colour and mode of flight, to those of a
bat. It flies principally above the highest trees of
the woods of Paraguay, and when it passes to the
open country rarely descends within thirty or forty
feet of the earth, even then rising again speedily to its
ordinary elevated position. It is a very shy bird.
Like all the Swifts it drinks on the wing, flying rapidly
over the surface of the water, and taking up a little sip
in passing. It passes with great rapidity, but with the
utmost precision, amongst the branches of trees, and
when thus engaged often carries off spiders from the
webs which they have spread there ; and it is in the
cavity of a hollow tree that it passes the night. In
flying this bird produces a sound which is compared by
D'Azara to that of a very small pair of castanets.
THE HOODED SWIFT (Dendrochelidon comatus).
The genus, to which the name of Dendrochelidon, or
Tree-swallow, has been applied, consists entirely of
eastern species, peculiar to India and the islands of the
Indian Archipelago. They have the hinder toe non-
versatile, the tail forked, and the head usually adorned
with an erectile crest or with tufts of feathers. The
Hooded Swift, which is an inhabitant of the numerous
islands of the Eastern Sea, is a beautiful little species,
measuring only about five inches and a half in length ;
the general colour of the plumage is a bronze green ;
but on the head there are some long white feathers,
which form a sort of hood or crest when erected. The
belly and under tail-coverts are also white.
THE BEARDED SWIFT (Dendrochelidon mystaceus),
which is found only in New Guinea, is another elegant
species, the contrast of its colo.urs producing a most
pleasing effect. The colour of the crown of the head,
of the wings, and tail, is blue-black ; a portion of the
wing-coverts and the outer web of the external tail
feathers are white ; a white band, originating at the
nostrils, passes above each eye ; and beneath the lower
mandible there springs a tuft of small white feathers,
which borders the gape, and terminates on the sides of
the neck in two long slender white plumes, exactly
resembling a white moustache of the true military cut.
The other parts of the bird are of a brownish slate-
colour, except the inferior tail-coverts, which are grey.
THE ESCULENT SWALLOW (Collocalia esculenta}—
Plate 5, fig. 16 — which we might with more propriety
call the Esculent Swift, is one of the most remarkable
birds of the whole tribe of the Fissirostres. This bird,
with several others belonging to the same genus, is
found in many parts of India, both on the continent
and on the islands. Their nests, which are built in
fissures and caverns of the rocks, are the celebrated
edible birds' nests, so highly prized by the Chinese for
the preparation of soups and sauces. The nests are
composed almost entirely of the glutinous matter which
in the other Swifts assists so materially in binding
together the materials of which the nests are composed,
and which, as we have previously stated, is secreted by
the greatly-developed salivary glands. These, in the
species of the genus Collocalia, or at all events in those
which are regarded as the principal manufacturers of
the edible nests, are of very large size. Although this
view is now generally received, it was long a matter of
considerable doubt amongst naturalists where and how
the so-called Esculent Swallows obtained the materials
of their nests, the most general opinion being that these
were derived from sea-weeds picked up and eaten or
masticated by the birds. Hence Thunberg described
one of the species under the name of Hirundo fuci-
phaga. There is, however, still considerable doubt as
to the number of species which make the edible nests.
According to Linnaeus, his Hirundo esculenta had white
spots on all the tail feathers, a character which does
not occur in any species known to modern naturalists.
Thunberg describes his Hirundo fuciphaga as being of
a black colour; ash colour, dull brown, orwhite beneath ;
and with the tail, wings, and feet entirely black. We
have placed the name^ given by Linnseus at the head
of this article, as it seems pretty certain that one of the
THE ESCULENT SWALLOW. BIRDS. THE ESCULENT SWALLOW.
285
species engaged in the production of the edible nests
will be found to correspond with the description of the
illustrious Swede ; there being several concurrent testi-
monies in the works of the older travellers and natu-
ralists, to the effect that the Esculent Swallow has
white spots on the tail feathers. Should this prove
correct, there will be at least three known species of
these birds, namely —
CoUoculia esenlenta of Linnseus ;
CoUoealia fuciphuga of Thunberg (since described by Mr.
G. R. Gray as C. nidifica, on the ground that Thun-
berg's name is erroneous) ; and
CoUoealia Linctii of Horsfield and Moore, a species very
nearly allied to C. fuciphaga.
Although, as already stated, Thunberg had adopted
the notion that these Swifts procured the materials oi'
their nests from the sea-weeds cast upon the shore by
the waves, and other writers maintained a somewhat
similar opinion, namely, that the glutinous matter
was derived from the spawn of fishes or the bodies
of mollusca, the Rev. J. Hooyman published in 1781
a paper, in which he completely disproves these
views, and approaches very nearly to the true solu-
tion of the problem. He declares that the food of
the birds consists of insects — a statement which has
been confirmed by subsequent observations. He de-
scribes the habits of the birds as very similar to those
of the other Swifts; they resort during the day to
marshes, inland lakes, and plains, over which they
hover in pursuit of the insects which abound in such
situations; and it is difficult to suppose that those
numerous individuals which inhabit the interior of such
large islands as Java and Sumatra would undertake
a journey to the sea-coast and back in search of the
materials for their nests. Mr. Hooyman's idea of the
mode in which the glutinous material of the nest is
procured is, that it is elaborated from the food of the
bird, by a peculiar organic effort resembling secretion.
In this it will be seen that he was not far from the
truth, for Sir Everard Home and Mr. Blyth both state,
that the glutinous matter is undoubtedly a secretion
from the enormously-developed salivary glands, and
chemical analysis of the nests has confirmed this
conclusion.
We have stated above that the Collocalice producing
edible nests are found in great numbers both on the
Indian continent and in the islands ; but it is principally
in Java that any information as to the natural history of
the birds and the mode of collecting the nests has been
obtained. This island appears to be peculiarly adapted
for the dwelling-place of these birds, which congregate
in large nocks in caverns and fissures of the rocks, and
build their nests upon the walls of these. Both in the
interior and on the coast extensive hollows are formed
abundantly in the rocks, probably caused to a consider-
able extent by the volcanic action to which the island
is so subject. Here the Swifts swarm in vast flocks, and
the management of the nests, especially in the caverns
of the southern shore of the island, is laid down by
regulations established by the government. So well
is this singular harvest regulated, and so well has
experience taught its managers .the conditions under
which it is to be realized, that the average quantity of
nests to be expected from each cave may be estimated
before the season for gathering them, with remarkable
accuracy.
The collection of the nests is undertaken in Java at
three periods in the year. The principal harvest is
gathered in the month of October, after the birds have
been left undisturbed for about six months ; the other
two gatherings are in December and March, so that
there are two intervals of three, and one of six months,
between the gatherings. The shorter periods scarcely
allow the birds time to build their nests and bring their
progeny to mattirity, so that both in December and
March great numbers of young birds are necessarily
destroyed ; on the other hand, the nests obtained at
these gatherings are of superior quality, clean and
white, and very free from any extraneous matters.
During the longer interval of six months the birds are
enabled to rear two broods ; thus the quantity of nests
becomes very large, and the maintenance of a sufficient
number of the birds is provided for. In collecting the
nests, various contrivances in the shape of ladders
and scaffolding are necessary; and notwithstanding
these aids, the gatherers appear to be exposed to con-
siderable risk.
The number of nests collected in Java is very great,
the quantity passing annually through the market of
Batavia on its way to China being estimated by both
Raffles and Craufurd at two hundred peculs, or two
hundred and fifty hundredweights ; but this is nothing
in comparison with the Sooloo Archipelago, which
produces no less than five hxmdred and thirty peculs.
The total value of the edible birds' nests imported into
China is said to be 1,263,570 Spanish dollars, or
£284,290 sterling. This, however, can give us but an
imperfect clue to the actual quantity of this article of.
luxury which finds its way to the Chinese markets ;
the price paid for the nests varying greatly according
to the quality of the different samples. Thus the best
and purest sorts fetch 3500 Spanish dollars per pecul,
or about £5 10s. per pound ; the second quality will
not bring more than 2800 dollars ; and the third only
fetches about 1600 dollars. These prices will give
some notion of the way in which these birds' nests are
prized in China, but they still only indicate the value
at the place of importation. This value increases to a
very considerable extent as the delicacies are conveyed
away from the coast, and we are told that in some
parts of China, a catty, or about one pound and a
quarter of these nests, has fetched no less than 40
Spanish dollars, equivalent to £9 sterling.
FAMILY III.— HIRUNDINID^E.
In this family, which includes the well-known species
of true Swallows, we meet with characters very similar
to those presented by the Swifts, which form the pre-
ceding family. The differential characters of these
two groups were, to a certain extent, indicated under
the head of the Cypselidse, so that we need not dwell
upon them here at any length. In their general form
the Swallows closely resemble the Swifts, as they do
also in their mode of life ; but their wings are shorter
and broader, their nostrils of small or moderate size,
PASSERES. BIRDS. HIKUXDINID.K.
and the gape of the bill is surrounded by short bristles.
The tail is more or less forked, and the feet are always
of the ordinary structure, having three toes before and
one behind. The difference in the structure of the
sternum and trachea has already been alluded to.
The Swallows, like the Swifts and Goatsuckers, are
all insectivorous birds which capture their prey on the
wing, and those species which frequent cold and tem-
perate countries are also birds of passage. Their
appearance in the spring, and disappearance at the
approach of winter, has been observed in Europe from
time immemorial, and these birds have consequently
been always regarded with a friendly eye by mankind,
as serving in some sort as the harbingers of the sum-
mer. The habit of our common species of building
about the habitations of man, and perhaps some indis-
tinct notions of the benefits conferred upon us by these
birds, by the destruction of immense numbers of insects
— many of them injurious to us, directly or indirectly —
have considerably increased this feeling. The ancients
considered the Chimney Swallow to be under the direct
protection of the household gods, and believed that
when any injury was inflicted upon this familiar bird,
it revenged itself by pecking the udders of the cows,
causing them to become dry. The Ostiaks consider it
a crime to kill swallows ; and in most places it is looked
upon as an act of inhospitality to kill or disturb these
pleasing little strangers.
With regard to the nature of the retirement of these
birds from their usual summer haunts, some very curious
notions formerly prevailed, it being supposed by some
naturalists that the Swallows concealed themselves in
holes and similar places, where they slept during the
winter ; whilst others maintained a still more singular
opinion, namely, that the birds passed the winter in the
mud at the bottom of ponds and rivers. How this
curious fancy could ever have been entertained it is
difficult to conceive, but it was a very generally received
opinion as late as the end of the last century. Never-
theless Frisch, a German naturalist, had long previously
ascertained beyond doubt, by an ingenious experiment,
that this notion could not be true. He attached to
some swallows pieces of thread coloured with water
colours, which would inevitably have been washed out
had the birds passed the winter under water, in accor-
dance with the popular opinion. The birds returned
in the following spring with the thread still coloured-
proving that they, at all events, had not been under
water. These experiments, repeated by Spallanzani
and others, served also to prove another singular fact,
namely, that the Swallows generally return to the same
spot and even to the same nest year after year. The
actual migration of the Swallows has now been et
beyond doubt by positive observations, made both on
our own southern coast and on the northern shores of
the Mediterranean ; here they are seen taking their
departure for the warm regions of Africa in the autumn,
and also making their way back in the spring. In
crossing the sea, they usually fly either singly or in
small parties of two or three ; and it is remarkable,
that they arrive on the further side in a condition of
exhaustion apparently as great as that of other birds of
passage whose power of wing is far inferior. The
channel fishermen state, that in hazy weather the Swal-
lows very frequently alight in their boats when they
are a little way out to sea, so completely fatigued, that
it is with some difficulty that they muster strength to
fly from one end of the boat to the other when an
attempt is made to seize them. In fine calm weather
they are often seen to descend upon the smooth surface
of the water, with their wings widely extended, rising
again after a short time, seemingly much refreshed by
this partial bath.
Like the Swifts, the Swallows exhibit great activity
on the wing, and in pursuit of the gnats, midges, and
other insects, which constitute their sole prey, they per-
form numerous evolutions with much grace. They are
very commonly seen hovering over the water, doubt-
less attracted by the many insects which swarm in such
situations. They drink without alighting, by sweeping
swiftly over the surface of the water and taking up a
little of the fluid in their bills as they pass ; they also
occasionally bathe in the same way, by plunging a little
deeper. Most of them breed twice in the season —
sometimes nestling in holes, sometimes building a nest,
usually composed wholly or in part of mud, against the
cliff of a rock or the wall of a building. The species
of this family are found in all parts of the world, but
they are not very numerous. Three species occur in
Britain.
THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW (Hirundo rustica}— Plate
5, fig. 13 — is one of the British species. It is a small
bird, for although it measures about eight inches and
a half in length, the tail occupies nearly five inches of
this, and thus the body of the bird is very small. The
colour of all the upper parts, together with the upper
part of the breast, is black, with violet tints ; the fore-
head and throat are chestnut brown ; the lower part of
the breast and the abdomen are rusty red; and the
inner webs of the tail feathers, except the two middle
ones, are spotted with white. The outer tail feathers
in the male are twice as long as the rest. They are
rather shorter in the female ; but in both sexes nearly
the whole of the inner web of these feathers is white.
The Chimney Swallow is a very abundant bird in all
parts of Europe during the summer, and in some parts
of the Mediterranean district a few individuals even
remain through the winter. But by far the greater
part of our European swallows migrate in the autumn
into Africa, where they pass the winter, and return to
us in the spring. They arrive in this country early in
April (about the 10th, as stated by Mr. Yarrell, from
an average of many seasons), and take their departure
again towards the end of October. From Europe the
Swallow seems to extend its range eastward into Asia
as far as Nepal and Calcutta, and probably still further,
whilst in Africa it has been noticed certainly as far
south as the equator ; and in Sierra Leone it is said to
reside all the year, although it becomes less plentiful in
the rainy season, from June to September.
On its arrival in its summer quarters, the Swallow
usually selects a spot for its place of abode, where the
habitations of man lie in the vicinity of water ; for, in
common with a considerable majority of the members
of this family, it has a great fondness for hovering over
the surface of large ponds, lakes, and streams. The
THE CHIMNEY SWALLOW. BIRDS. THE PAXAYAN SWALLOW.
287
partiality exhibited for human habitations by this bird,
as well as by many other species of the family, is very
remarkable ; and it is no less striking, that of the two
familiar British species, one, the Swallow, frequents de-
tached country places, villages, and farm-houses; whilst
the other, the Martin, takes up its abode in towns. This
may perhaps be, to a certain extent, accounted for by
the fact, that the situation very commonly chosen by
the Swallow for building its nest is the interior of a
chimney, and the chimneys of old-fashioned houses in
the country may be better adapted for this purpose than
those to which we are accustomed in towns ; but, what-
ever be the cause, the fact is quite certain, both as
regards this and other countries, so that Linnaeus deno-
minated the two species H. rustica and H. urbica.
Although the Chimney Swallow has received its most
general name from the somewhat peculiar position in
which it builds its nest, it by no means confines itself
to a habitation of this nature, but builds readily in
almost any suitable sheltered position. Thus the dis-
used shafts of mines, and the sides of old wells, are
sometimes resorted to by it; occasionally it will build
in the roof of a barn or shed, attaching the nest to the
rafters, or in a garret or passage to which it may find
easy access. In almost all cases it selects a point
where some projection from the wall or other sheltering
body forms a buttress on which its nest may be sup-
ported. Some curious examples of the selection by
these birds of rather anomalous places for their nests,
are cited by Mr. Yarrell. He states that he had heard
of the nest being built " in the half-open drawer of a
small deal table in an unoccupied garret, to which
access was obtained by a broken pane of glass." He
mentions that he had in his collection a nest described
by Pennant, built by a pair of swallows upon the body
and wing of an owl which was nailed against a barn,
and quotes from a provincial paper the following most
singular instance of eccentricity on the part of a pair of
these birds : — " A small steamer, the Clarence, lies at
Annan Waterfoot, and plies between it and Port Car-
lisle, in the way of tugging vessels. A pair of swallows
built their nest last year under the sponsons of one of
the paddle-wheels, not more than three feet above the
water, and succeeded in bringing forth their young.
There they are this summer again (1845). During
neap tides the Clarence plies every other day, and often
every day. When she leaves the Waterfoot, the
birds leave her and keep on the Scotch side ; and when
she returns, and is nearing Annan, the swallows inva-
riably meet her, and accompany her to her berth."
The nest of the Swallow is built principally of mud
or soft earth, collected in small pellets from the edges
of ponds and other wet places. These are carried
home in the bird's bill and plastered on to the spot
selected for the nest; fresh pellets are then brought
and added, together with numerous straws and leaves
of grasses, and the whole is gradually moulded into the
form of an open saucer, attached by one side to the
wall of the chimney or other place of retreat. A lining
of feathers is then put into the nest, and upon these
the eggs are laid ; they vary from four to six in num-
ber, and are of a white colour, speckled with ash grey
and dark red. Two broods are reared in the course of
the summer ; of these the first is usually ready to fly by
the end of June, and the second at the end of August.
During the infancy of their offspring, the old birds are
most assiduous in attending upon them, and have been
observed to visit the nest about every three minutes
throughout the day. When the young birds are nearly
ready to fly, their parents still attend upon them, and
gradually instruct them in the art of flying. Gilbert
White says : — " The progressive method by which the
young are introduced into life is very amusing. First,
they emerge from the shaft, with difficulty enough, and
often fall down into the rooms below ; for a day or so
they are fed on the chimney-top, and then are con-
ducted to the dead leafless bough of some tree, where,
sitting in a row, they are attended with great assiduity,
and may then be called perchers. In a day or two
more they become flyers, but are still unable to take
their own food; therefore they play about near the
place where the dams are hawking for flies ; and when
a mouthful is collected, at a certain signal given, the
dam and the nestling advance, rising towards each other,
and meeting at an angle — the young all the while utter-
ing a little quick note of gratitude and complacency."
This process of instruction may be constantly observed
both with the Swallow and the Martin, and the curious
way in which the young bird, when just ready to fly,
may be seen apparently to hesitate about throwing
itself off from its elevated position on the house or
chimney top, and yet evidently most anxious to try the
strength of its pinions, is very amusing. Notwith-
standing their affection for then- young, the Swallows,
as well as the Martins, have been known to desert their
second brood, when the young birds have been unable
to fly at the period of the southern migration. When
the young birds are able to fly, they roost in great
flocks amongst the osiers and reeds in marshy places,
and continue to do so until the time arrives for their
departure for the South, and as they are fat and of
good flavour at this time, they are captured in great
quantities in some parts of Europe, by means of nets
spread at night over their roosting-places.
The note of the male swallow is very sweet, and he
sings both flying and perching. Both the swallow and
the martin are exceedingly bold and courageous birds,
and appear to be actuated by an intelligence which
enables them to co-operate in anything which may tend
to the common good. Thus, when a hawk makes its
appearance in their vicinity, the swallow which first
catches sight of this dangerous, or at all events sus-
picious intruder, immediately sounds a shrill alarm,
when all the swallows and martins in the neighbour-
hood flock together to expel the common enemy, by
pecking at him and annoying him in every possible
way.
THE PANAYAN SWALLOW (Himndo panayana).
which is the most abundant and generally distributed
of the Indian swallows, is also found in the countries
beyond the Ganges as far east as China, and in the
islands of the eastern seas, including even the Philip-
pines. It is very closely allied to our Chimney Swallow,
both in its appearance and general habits. It is during
the winter months that these birds are most abundant
in the peninsula of Hindostan, and probably in their other
288
PAS.SEKES. BIRDS. HIRUXDINIDJE.
southern stations, and it is not known with certainty that
they ever breed in Southern India. Mr. Jerdon notices
that it disappears from some places during the hot
season, and suggests that it may breed in the north of
India, or spread still further over the Asiatic continent.
It seems not improbable that both these suppositions
may be correct; for, according to Captain Hutton, these
birds breed freely at Candahar during the summer,
building their nests in temples, open rooms, verandahs,
and similar places. They seem to arrive at Candahar
very early in the spring, as Captain Hutton says he has
observed them there on the 5th of February, flying
about with the thermometer at 36°. They leave the
region of Candahar in October.
THE WIRE-TAILED SWALLOW (Hirundo filiftra},
another Indian species, distinguished from the pre-
ceding by having the extremity of the tail nearly even,
with the two outer feathers very long and almost
thread-like, is one of the most elegant of the Swallows.
It is not common in the southern parts of the Indian
peninsula, where it is always seen about water ; but in
the north it is very common, frequenting fields and
gardens, as well as the vicinity of water. It usually
flies in small parties of four or six, and builds a small
saucer-like mud nest in holes of old walls and build-
ings, and on the sides of walls. Colonel Sykes describes
this bird as. presenting a very beautiful appearance
when flying, with its thread-like tail feathers floating
behind it.
THE CAPE SWALLOW (Hirundo capensis), which is
a summer inhabitant of the Cape of Good Hope, and,
indeed, of the southern part of the African continent
generally, is another species very nearly allied to our
Chimney Swallow, for which, indeed, it might easily
be mistaken when flying. Like the common English
Swallow, it is met with principally about inhabited
places, and is so familiar as to enter the houses and
build its nest against the walls and rafters. This pro-
ceeding is viewed with great satisfaction by the human
inhabitants of the dwellings, who regard the swallows
as birds of good omen. The nest is built with clay,
worked in the same way as that of the Common
Swallow, but the architectural powers of the South
African bird are far greater than those of its European
relation, for the nest, instead of being a mere cup, is
closed on ah1 sides, so as to form a hollow ball, to the
interior of which access is obtained through a long
tunnel. This cosy dwelling is lined with a profusion
of the softest feathers.
THE AUSTRALIAN CHIMNEY SWALLOW (Hirundo
frontcdis), called the WELCOME SWALLOW (H. neoxena)
by Mr. Gould, is a most beautiful representative of our
Chimney Swallow at the very opposite side of the globe.
Indeed this species was formerly supposed to be
identical with the Panayan Swallow above referred to,
and this again has been confounded with the Chimney
Swallow of Europe, so that it will easily be seen that,
notwithstanding its station at the antipodes, the Aus-
tralian Swallow is very nearly related to our well-known
Jittle visitor. The plumage of the upper part of this
bird is deep steel blue ; the forehead, chin, throat, and
upper part ot the chest, rusty red ; the remainder of
the lower surface is nearly white : the wings and tail
are brownish black, and all the feathers of the latter,
except the two middle ones, have an oblique spot of
white on the inner web.
Like our own swallows, this bird is migratory, passing
the summer, and breeding in the southern parts of
Australia and in Van Diemen's Laud, but departing on
the approach of winter to the more genial climates of
the north. It arrives in New South Wales at the end
of August or early in September, where it is welcomed
by the colonists as the harbinger of spring ; and one
can easily understand that the sight of a creature so
like a familiar friend of the old country, cannot but be
pleasant to the eyes of those who are separated from
the scenes of their youth by half the circumference of
the globe. Hence Mr. Gould proposed to call it the
Welcome Swallow.
The habits of the Australian Chimney Swallow agree
very closely with those of our common species ; like
this it breeds twice in the season, and builds a nest of
a cup-like form, composed of mud bound together with
straws and grass. The interior of the cup is lined with
fine grass, and finally with a layer of soft feathers,
upon which four spotted eggs are laid. The natural
breeding places of these birds are clefts and caverns in
the rocks; but it is a remarkable circumstance that
since the colonization of Australia by Europeans, the
swallows have acquired the habit of associating them-
selves with man, building their nests about the sheds
and outbuildings, and even evincing a decided liking
for the chimneys.
THE TREE MARTIN (Hirundo nigricans), another
Australian species, migrates like the preceding, and
arrives in the southern colonies about the same time.
It is also a familiar bird, taking up its abode in the
towns without the least fear ; but, unlike the preceding
swallow, it builds no nest, but breeds in the holes of
trees, where it lays its eggs on the soft dust usually
met with in such places.
THE FAIRY MARTIN (Hit-undo arid} is a beautiful
little Australian species, in which, as in the preceding,
the tail is short, and rather notched than forked at the
end. The Fairy Martin has the crown of the head
rod ; the plumage of the back deep steel-blue ; the
rump and all the lower surface wThite or whitish. Each
feather of the throat has a very fine brown line down
its centre, so that this part has a delicately streaked
appearance. This charming little martin arrives in the
south of Australia in the month of August, and departs
again to the northward in February or March ; in the
interval it produces from two to three broods. It is
remarkable that, according to Mr. Gould's observations,
this bird seems to bear an antipathy to the sea-coast.
He says that he never heard of its being within twenty
miles of the sea, although at that distance inland it was
to be met with in profusion. In its habits it resembles
our Martin, and when it builds about houses selects
similar positions for its nest. The nest, however, is of
a different form, being shaped somewhat like a bottle,
attached by its bottom, with a more or less curved
neck protruding horizontally.
THE AMERICAN BARN SWALLOW (Hirundo cry-
throgaster), one of the most abundant of the North
American Swallows, was formerly supposed to be
THE AMERICAN BARX SWALLOW. BIRDS. THE PURPLE MARTIN.
289
identical with our chimney swallows, although the dif-
ferences even in the plumage, are quite sufficient to
distinguish the two birds at first sight. The American
bird is about seven inches in length, and thirteen in
extent of wing ; the whole of the upper parts are steel
blue, as is also the breast; the forehead and the rest of
the lower surface are chestnut-coloured, paler on the
abdomen. The wings and tail are brownish black,
with a slight greenish gloss ; the tail is much forked,
the outer feathers in the male being an inch and a
half longer than any of the rest, and each feather of
the tail, except the two middle ones, is marked with
an oblong white spot.
This swallow makes its appearance in the United
States in the month of March, and by the beginning
of April is generally dispersed all over the country to
the east of the Alleghanies, often ascending to a con-
siderable elevation on high mountains. Like the
European swallows, these birds have a predilection for
the habitations of man, and, according to Wilson, they
take up their abode in every bam to which they can
have access. The feeling of the farmers is so strongly
in their favour, that they are seldom molested, and
Wilson mentions two superstitions which are enter-
tained regarding them, and which must strongly con-
duce to their preservation. A German farmer assured
him, " that if a man permitted the swallows to be
shot, his cows would give bloody milk, and also that
no barn where swallows frequented would ever be
struck with lightning ; and," says Wilson, " I nodded
assent. When the tenets of superstition lean to the
side of humanity, one can readily respect them."
The nest is not built until the beginning of May.
It is of the form of an inverted cone, with one side
cut off where it is applied against the rafter or other
point of support; like the nests of the European
swallows, it is composed of mud mixed with fine hay
to bind it together. The conical hollow of the nest
is stuffed with fine hay, upon the top of which a layer
of downy feathers is placed, and upon this scientifically
constructed bed the eggs are laid. These are usually
five in number, of a white colour, speckled all over
with reddish-brown. The birds generally have two
broods in the season, and although twenty or thirty
nests are often established in the same barn, and
the nests are often placed close together, no
squabbling takes place amongst the inmates. In the
air this species has ah1 the sprightly vivacity and
agility of its congeners, and its song is a pleasing
warble.
About the middle of September the barn swallows
quit the United States, on their way to their winter
quarters in the warm regions of the south. They take
up their abode during the winter in the West Indian
islands and in the tropical parts of the continent of
South America ; specimens in the British Museum
are recorded from Nevis and Para.
THE SEVERN SWALLOW (Hirundo bicolor), another
American species, the WHITE-BELLIED SWALLOW of
Wilson, is less abundant than the preceding in the
United States, and also considerably smaller. It
measures less than six inches in length ; the whole of
the upper parts are light, glossy, greenish blue, with the
VOL. I.
wings and tail uniform brownish black ; and the lower
surface of the body is pure white. This species arrives
in the United States a few days later than the pre-
ceding one, and takes its departure southwards a
little earlier. It breeds in hollow trees, or in the
boxes often put up for the accommodation of the
Purple Martin ; and, unlike most of the swallows, it
uses no mud in the composition of its nest, which is
formed of fine dry grass, with a thick lining of soft
downy feathers. The eggs are four or five in number,
and pure white. These birds are said to quarrel more
in their flight than the Barn Swallow, and in the
spring they are seen fighting in the air for a quarter of
an hour together, keeping up a low chattering noise all
the time. They frequent the same localities as the
barn swallows, and like them feed on insects; but
Wilson states that " for some time before their
departure, they subsist principally on the myrtle
berries (Myrica ceriferd), and become extremely fat."
THE PUBPLE MARTIN (Progne purpurea). Certain
species of this family, all peculiar to America, are dis-
tinguished from the other swallows by a far more
strongly developed bill, this being more than half as
long as the head, and considerably compressed at the
sides. The tail is slightly forked, and the tarsi, as
in the preceding swallows, are scutellated, or covered
with horny shields. The species presenting these
characters form the genus Progne.
The Purple Martin is an abundant and well-known
bird in the United States and in Canada, through
which it continues its migrations as far as the Hudson's
Bay territories ; .it reaches the southern states of the
American Union as early as the end of February 01
the beginning of March, but occupies considerable
time in its dispersion over the more northern parts of
the continent. It does not reach its northern limit
until the month of May. Wherever it appears, the
Purple Martin is a great favourite with the inhabitants
of the United States, many of whom even put up
boxes, often containing a dozen or more compartments,
to induce these birds to build about their houses ; which,
indeed, they are by no means loath to do ; for, like
almost all the swallows, they always seek the habitations
of man. In return for this general favour, the swallows
destroy vast quantities of insects, and according to
some accounts, they also serve the purpose of an
alarum, for, as daybreaks, they commence an incessant
musical chattering, which is said to be quite sufficient
to awaken the most sleepy person. But a still more
valuable quality possessed by the Purple Martin, is its
inveterate hostility to all birds of prey, so that the
vicinity of a colony of this species, is a most excellent
protection to the poultry yard. " The Purple Martin,"
says Wilson, "like his half-cousin the King-bird
(Tyrannus intrepidus), is the terror of crows, hawks,
and eagles. These he attacks, whenever they make
their appearance, and with such vigour and rapidity,
that they instantly have recourse to flight. So well
known is this to the lesser birds and to the domestic
poultry, that, as soon as they hear the Martin's voice
engaged in fight, all is alarm and consternation. To
observe with what spirit and audacity this bird dives
and sweeps upon and around the hawk or the eagle is
20
290
PASSERES. BIRDS. HIRUXDIXID.E.
astonishing." Under these circumstances, it is no
wonder that the bird is a universal favourite, and
Wilson gives us a ludicrous account of the only man
he ever met with who disliked the martins. " This,"
he tells us, "was a penurious, close-fisted German, who
hated them, because, as he said, ' they eat his peas."1
I told him he must certainly be mistaken, as I never
knew an instance of martins eating peas; but he
replied with coolness, that he had many times seen
them himself ' blaying near the hife, and going schnip
schnap,1 by which I understood that it was his bees
that had been the sufferers; and the charge could
not be denied." In fact, the Purple Martin has
the somewhat singular taste of preferring wasps and
bees for his food, and his diet is principally made up of
these insects and large beetles. Of the latter, Wilson
states that he has taken four from the stomach of a
Purple Martin, all of them in a perfect state.
The Purple Martin is about eight inches in length,
and the general colour of the plumage in the male is
a deep, rich, purplish blue, with the exception of the
wings and tail, which are brownish-black. The female
is blackish-brown above, with a slight bluish or violet
gloss ; the chin and breast are greyish-brown, and the
belly whitish. The birds begin to build about two
days after their arrival, taking up their residence in
any convenient cavity, frequently where no accom-
modation is specially prepared for them, taking pos-
session of some of the compartments of a pigeon house.
The nest, which is rather bulky, is composed of dry
leaves, straws, hay, and feathers ; the eggs are four in
number, and pure white. There are two broods, of
which the first (in the middle States) appears in May,
and the second late in July. These birds by no
means confine themselves to country places, but like
the martins of our own country, come freely into the
towns and cities, and sweep about boldly even in the
most crowded streets. Their flight is exceedingly swift
and easy, and they sail much with the wings expanded.
They leave the United States for the South about the
end of August. The Purple Martin has been recorded
as a British bird, on the ground of several specimens
having been killed at different times in this country ;
the most striking instance being that of two specimens
shot at Kingsbury in Middlesex, in September, 1842 ;
one of which was an old male, and the other a young
bird of the year ; hence, it would appear that the birds
must have bred in this country.
Several other species of the genus Progne are found
in the West Indian islands, and on the continent of
South America ; most of them have the same habit of
building about the abodes of man ; and one of them,
which is common in the region of the Kio de Plata and
Paraguay, has been described under the name of
Progne domestica. They generally migrate southward
in the summer, from the tropical into the more
temperate parts of the South American continent,
returning to the warm regions at the approach of cold
weather.
THE SAND MARTIN (Cotyle riparia), a common
British species, belongs to a group in which the feet
are very slender and scutellated, the bill of moderate
size, and slender, and the tail nearly even, or merely
notched at the extremity. It is a very small species,
measuring less than five inches in length ; the upper
parts are of a uniform light brown colour, with the
quill feathers of the wings and tail very dark or black-
ish-brown ; the lower surface is pure white, with the
exception of a brown band, which crosses the upper
part of the breast ; the feet and bill are dark brown ;
the wings, when closed, reach a little beyond the end
of the tail.
The Sand Martin, or Bank Martin as it is sometimes
called, is very generally distributed over the British
islands, but is still rather a local bird, and by no
means so abundant as the chimney swallow, or the
house martin. It arrives in this country rather earlier
than either of those species, having been noticed once
or twice before the end of the month of March. It is
well known in all parts of Europe, ranging as far north
as Norway and Sweden; in Asia, it is met with in
summer in the more temperate parts of Siberia, and it
also occurs in India and even in the Philippine Islands,
whilst the European specimens retire into Africa like
our other swallows. But this species is more cosmo-
polite than any of the preceding, for it inhabits both
hemispheres, migrating from central and tropical
America, to the northward, as far even as the 68th
degree of latitude. Wherever it occurs, its habits are
the same ; it frequents the banks of rivers, the sides of
sand-pits, and similar places, where a perpendicular
bank of soft earth affords it the opportunity of burrow-
ing without much difficulty. In these situations it
scoops out the earth to a depth of about two feet in a
horizontal direction, forming a beautifully regular
cylindrical tunnel — a labour which, considering that its
bill and feet are the only tools which it has to work
with, is certainly most surprising. In its mining opera-
tions, the bird clings with its feet to the surface of the
sand or earth, in every possible position, and uses its
little bill as a pickaxe in digging, as vigorously as the
most experienced navigator. The inner extremity of
the burrow is usually more or less crooked, and here
a bed is prepared for the reception of the eggs, by
the accumulation of a little loose hay and a few soft
feathers. In a suitable situation, great numbers of
these little galleries are excavated side by side,
and the birds may be seen constantly going in and
out of the holes. The eggs are from four to six in
number, and pure white. The habits of the Sand
Martin, in all other respects, are similar to those of the
swallows in general ; like the preceding species these
birds skim through the air with great ease and celerity,
in pursuit of the insects on which they and then-
young are fed ; and like them they are fond of the
neighbourhood of water, into which they dip when on
the wing, both to drink and wash themselves.
According to White, the young are sometimes fed
with dragon flies almost as long as themselves, and
on leaving the nest they are to be seen perched in
a row upon a rail.
THE CRAG SWALLOW (Cotyle rupestris), which is
nearly allied to our sand martin, is an inhabitant of
the southern parts of Europe and Asia, and of the
north of Africa ; its migrations being less extensive
than those of the English species. The general colour
THE AFRICAN HOUSE MARTDJ. BIRDS. THE HOUSE MARTIN.
291
of its plumage is ash-grey above and whitish beneath.
In its habits it exhibits none of that engineering skill
which is possessed by the sand martin, but builds a
mud nest, lined with fine straw and feathers, amongst
the clefts of the rocks, where it always takes up its
habitation. It flies more slowly than the other
swallows, but rises to a great height in the air ; its
home being amongst the mountains, it is rarely seen
in the plains, except when stormy weather in the
upper regions drives it to seek its insect prey near the
surface of the earth. The eggs, which are of a pure
white colour, are five or six in number. This species
is the earliest visitor to the south of Europe of all the
pwallows, and is also the last to take its departure.
THE AFBICAN HOUSE MABTIN (Cotyk fuligula)
differs from both the preceding species in building its
mud nest under the eaves of houses ; the nest is of
a cup-like form. This species is found from Abys-
sinia to the Cape of Good Hope.
THE SMALL SAND MABTIN (Cotyk sincnsis), and
the BROWN SAND MABTIN (C. concolor), are eastern
species, of which the former burrows into banks in the
same way as our British species, whilst the latter
builds its nest about houses, high walls, and other
buildings. Both these species are found in India, but
they do not appear to be very numerous.
THE HOUSE MAETIN (Chelidon urtica}— Plate 5,
fig. 14 — is distinguished from all the other species of
the present family by having the feet clothed with
very small feathers, instead of shields or scales. It is
a small bird, measuring less than five inches and a hah0
in length ; the plumage of the upper parts is of a rich,
glossy bluish-black colour, except on the rump, which
is white ; the whole lower surface of the body is pure
white, and the quill feathers of the wings and tail are
black. The wings are long and pointed, reaching
quite to the extremity of the tail, which is moderately
forked.
The Ilouse Martin is a common summer visitor to
all parts of Europe, extending its migrations even
as far north as Lapland and Iceland. In Asia it is
common in Siberia. The European martins mi-
grate southwards iuto Africa like the swallow, and
their times of arrival and departure seem nearly
to coincide with those of that species. In fact, the
martins and swallows are said to leave the African
shores at the same time ; but as the latter possess rather
greater powers of wing, they leave the martins behind
them, and arrive in their European homes a few days
earlier. The martins appear to have some sort of
instinctive consciousness of their inferiority in power of
flight, for they depart from our shores on their return
journey, a few days sooner than the swallows, and thus
both will probably arrive in then: winter quarters about
the same time.
In their general habits, in their mode of life, and
their fondness for building about the habitations of
men, the martins exactly resemble the swallows, and
they share with them in the favour which seems to be
universally regarded as their due, both from the fami-
liarity of their habits, and then- character as the har-
bingers of summer. Like the swallows they pass
nearly all their time on the wing in pursuit of insects ;
they are also very fond of the vicinity of water, over
which they may constantly be seen skimming, now
sweeping about in wide circles, now flying straight
along, with their wings nearly touching the surface,
and dipping their little beaks into the fluid, for the pur-
pose of drinking. Like the preceding species also,
they are found to return with great constancy to their
former places of abode, and to make use of the same
nest for several years together.
The House Martin, as well as several other members
of this family, nourishes a most inveterate enmity to
all birds of prey, which he endeavours to drive away
from his haunts. In this object ah1 the individuals of
this species inhabiting a locality will co-operate, and on
other occasions they beem to have some sort of intelli-
gence with each other, which enables them to com-
bine their efforts to effect some desired purpose. An
interesting example of this is related by Dupont de
Nemours. He says — "I once saw a martin which had
unfortunately, I know not how, caught its foot in the
running knot of a thread, the other end of which was
attached to a gutter of the College des Quatre Nations.
Its strength being exhausted, it hung and cried at the
end of the thread, which it raised sometimes by trying
to fly away. All the martins of the great basin between
the bridge of the Tuilleries and the Pont Neuf, and
perhaps from a still greater distance, collected to the
number of several thousands. They formed a cloud,
all emitting cries of alarm and pity. After much hesi-
tation, and a tumultuous consultation, one of them
invented a mode of delivering their companion, made
the others understand it, and commenced its execution.
All those that were within reach came in turn, as if
running at the ring, and gave a peck to the thread in
passing. These blows, all directed upon the same
point, succeeded each other every second, or even still
more frequently. Half an hour of this work was suffi-
cient to cut through the thread, and set the captive at
liberty"."
The House Martin, as alreadj- stated, generally takes
up its abode in towns, and builds its nest under the
cornices and eaves of houses, in the upper angles of
windows, and similar situations. From its partiality
for windows, it is often known as the Window Swallow.
The nest is composed of mud or wet clay, collected by
the birds in pellets, and brought up to the place
selected for the nest in their bills. According to M.
Vieillot, they frequently make use of worm-casts in
their little edifices. The building is carried on with
great care and deliberation, only a siugle layer of earth
being applied in the day ; this is left to harden before '
any more materials are brought. Gradually, by the
addition of course after course of mortar, the nest
acquires its well-known, nearly hemispherical shape,
the only means of ingress and egress being a small
round aperture al the top. The interior is then lined
with a little hay and a few feathers, and the nest is
ready for the reception of the eggs. These are four or
five in number, and of a pure white colour. They are
hatched in less than a fortnight, and as soon as the
young are ready to leave the nest, the female lays
again, thus producing three, and sometimes four broods
in a season. The last brood is sometimes hatched so
292
PASSERES. BIRDS. CORACIAD^E.
late in the season, that the period of migration arrives
before the young are able to fly, and in this case the
parents have been observed to leave their progeny to
perish by starvation.
Occasionally, the sparrows, which take advantage of
every cavity about our houses for their own purposes,
finding the nest of a martin ready for use, take posses-
sion of it without ceremony ; in this case the rightful
owners endeavour, generally with success, to oust the
intruder from their domicile. Sometimes, however,
the sparrow in possession obstinately refuses to quit
his usurped abode, and then the martins have been
seen to adopt a very curious mode of revenging them-
selves, which we may describe here, as it also furnishes
another example of a community of action in these
birds. When the owners of the nest find that all their
endeavours are insufficient to turn out the robber, they
collect their friends and neighbours in great numbers,
and watch the moment when the sparrow is engaged
in the business of incubation ; then, the whole body,
each bearing a mass of soft earth in its bill, rushes at
once to the nest, and in a few moments the aperture
at the top is closed by a solid mass of mud, which
no efforts on the part of the unhappy prisoner can
possibly break through. So determined are they,
indeed, to effect their object thoroughly, that, in a case
recorded by the Vicomte de Tarragon, the mass of
cky stuffed into the aperture was " nearly of the form
and size of a small hen's egg, the two ends projecting
into and out of the nest." The sparrow was found
dead upon her eggs.
About the end of September, or the beginning of
October, in this country, the martins collect in flocks,
preparatory to their departure for their winter quarters.
They assemble on the house-tops, and sweep about in
the streets, even of large towns, in such a manner as
must attract the attention of the most unobservant pas-
sengers. About the middle of October they leave this
country; but individuals, and even small flocks, are
sometimes seen at a much later period. The latest
on record, is that of a martin seen at Sidmouth in
Devonshire, by the Rev. W. F. Cornish, on the 10th
December, 1835.
FAMILY IV.— CORACIAD^l.
With the present family we commence the series ot
groups, which, although united with the Fissirostres by
all modern ornithologists, present so many differences
from the birds forming the preceding three families,
that we may regard them as constituting a distinct
section of the fissirostral tribe. In the majority of
these birds, as we have already stated, the outer toe is
united to the middle one for the greater part of its
length, a character belonging to the group denomi-
nated by Cuvier Syndactyli.
This syndactylous character of the feet does not,
however, occur in perfection in the first family of this
section, that of the C'oraciadce or Hollers; in these
birds the outer toe is sometimes free, and sometimes
united to the middle one only at the base, in the same
way as in a great number of other birds. The species
of this family present a considerable resemblance to some
other forms placed in the conirostral and dentirostral
sections of the Passeres. In fact, in the form of the
body, the gait, and to a certain extent in manners,
they are so like some members of the corvine family,
that they were placed in juxtaposition with them by
the older writers. They possess an elongated bill,
which is usually broad and depressed at the base, and
compressed at the sides towards the tip, which is often
slightly hooked. The gape is wide, reaching back
generally as far as the eyes ; it is bordered at the base
of the upper mandible by a row of bristles.
The birds of this family are often distinguished by
great beauty of plumage. They are for the most part
confined to hot countries, a few only being inhabitants
of the more temperate regions. Their food consists
principally of insects, but some of them are found to
subsist also wholly or in part upon vegetable sub-
stances. We have only a single British specieSi
namely —
THE COMMON ROLLER (Coracias garrula), an inha-
bitant of the African continent, from which, however, it
migrates freely in the summer into Europe, but is only
a rare and occasional visitor to this country (fig. 105).
In the south and east of Europe, and even in the great
forests of Germany, it is, however, not uncommon, but
in Asia it seems only to occur in the parts bordering
on Europe, namely, in Asia Minor, and the countries
between the Black Sea and the Caspian. On the
steppes of Southern Russia it is abundant, and goes by
the name of the Steppe Parrot, a name given to it, no
doubt, partly on account of its squalling voice, and
partly from its beautiful plumage. In the latter respect,
it is indeed one of the most brilliant of European birds.
The head, neck, and wing coverts are of a beautiful,
rich greenish-blue colour; the shoulders, rump, and
tail-coverts are blue ; ±he back, scapularies, and ter-
tials are yellowish-brown; the wing primaries and
secondaries are of a fine verditer blue at the base,
with the rest blue-black; the two middle feathers of
the tail are blackish-green, the remainder bluish-green,
the outer feathers on each side being tipped with black ;
the whole lower surface of the body is pale bluish-
green, with the throat verditer blue, and the lower sur-
face of the quill feathers, both of the wings and tail, is
rich blue. The feet are yellowish-brown ; the bill and
claws black. In the male the outer tail feathers are
slightly elongated. The whole length of the bird is
about thirteen inches.
The foregoing description will give but a very im-
perfect notion of this beautiful bird, which is described
by one observer as looking " like a moving rainbow,"
when flying in the sun. It passes the winter in Africa,
and probably the majority of the individuals of this
species dwell throughout the year on that continent,
for it does not appear that the northern migration is
by any means universal. It is not only common in
the islands of the Mediterranean, in passing to and
from its winter quarters, when it is so abundant, espe-
cially in Malta, that it is captured in great quantities,
but also stays in those localities throughout the sum-
mer, and breeds there. In central Europe it usually
inhabits the dense forests, where it builds its nest in
the holes of trees, generally preferring the birch for this
THE COMMON ROLLER. BIRDS. THE JAVANESE Toor.
293
purpose, whence it is known in Germany as the Birch-
jay. In those places where trees are scarce, as in
Malta, the Boiler is said to breed upon the ground, or
in the holes of old buildings; and in the treeless regions
of Southern Russia, it makes its nest in holes of the
clay-banks of the rivers. This habit is exactly similar
to that of the Kingfishers and Bee-eaters, which are
now associated with the Boilers in the tribe of the
Fissirostres, and thus furnishes an additional bond of
union between these groups of birds, which is further
The Common Holler (Coracias ganula).
strengthened by the fact, that the eggs of the Roller,
which are usually four in number, are exactly similar
in shape and in their pure white colour, to those of
our common Kingfisher and Bee-eater. It is a noisy
and restless bird, a circumstance which has doubtless
had much to do with the popular notion by which the
Boiler is associated with the Pies, and especially with
the Jay. This, and its brilliant colouring, has also
given rise to a comparison of this bird with the Parrots
— it is not only called the Steppe -Parrot in Russia, but
is also known as the German Parrot, in more western
countries of Europe. In the autumn the young birds
become very fat, and acquire a good flavour, when they
are eagerly sought after in Greece and elsewhere, as a
choice article of food.
THE INDIAN ROLLER (Coracias indica] is an
abundant species in most parts of India, where it is
regarded by the Hindoos as sacred, from a belief that
the god Siva once assumed its form. It is a bird of
brilliant plumage, green and blue being the prevailing
colours; the throat and breast are reddish. The
length is about thirteen inches. It inhabits the groves
of trees about the villages, and also the jungle, and
flies buoyantly, but with a constant flapping of the
wings. In its habits it is rather shy, flying off at the
approach of a man; but towards its feathered neigh-
bours it exhibits considerable pugnacity of disposition,
driving off the crows from its vicinity with great ease.
Its food consists principally of large insects, such as
grasshoppers, caterpillars, and mole-crickets, but it is
said also to feed on mice. The nest is rather large,
but loosely put together, built of twigs, and lined with
grasses; it is generally placed near the summit of a
middle-sized tree growing in the vicinity of water.
The eggs are four or five in number, and of a deep
blue colour.
THE LONG-TAILED ROLLER (Coracias caudata) is
of larger size than the preceding species, measuring
from sixteen to seventeen inches in length ; it has the
back orange-brown ; the lower surface of the body, the
head, the neck, and the wing-coverts, sea-green ; the
forehead, a streak over each eye, and the chin white ;
the quill feathers of the wings blue, those of the tail
greenish, the two middle ones being greenish- black,
and the two outer ones, which are a good deal longer
than the rest, crossed by a band of blue and black
towards the tip. This handsome bird is abundant in
Africa, where it appears to migrate southwards in the
summer from the tropics, towards the Cape of Good
Hope. Its habits are not well known, but according
to Le Vaillant it lives in the woods, and feeds both
upon fruits and insects. In the north of Africa it is
said to breed in holes in the banks of rivers, and also
in the crevices of rocks, old buildings, and similar
situations,
THE JAVANESE TODY (Eurylaimus javanicus) —
Plate 6, fig. 19— is an example of a remarkable group
of birds belonging to this family, all of which are found
only in India, and the neighbouring islands. The
Javanese Tody, which was discovered by Dr. Horsfield
294
FASSERES. BIEDS.-
,/ORACIAD^E.
in the island whose name it bears, has the head and
neck above chestnut-brown; the back black, with a
yellow stripe down its centre, becoming expanded into
a large spot on the upper tail-coverts ; the wings are
black, edged with yellow from the wrist downwards,
and with a yellow mark on the outer web of each
secondary feather ; the whole forming a broad yellow
band near the apex of the wing when closed. The
scapularies, which are elongated, are also yellow ; the
feathers of the tail are black, with a white spot near
the tip of each, except the two middle ones ; the lower
surface is wine-red, purplish on the throat, below which
is a narrow black transverse line, followed by an olive
band of a somewhat crescent shape. The bill is very
broad, strong, hooked at the tip, and greenish-blue.
The whole length of the bird is about nine inches.
Nothing is known of the habits of this bird. Dr.
Horsfield simply says of it — " I discovered this species
in one of the most distant and inaccessible parts of
Java, covered with extensive forests, and abounding
with rivers and marshes." From the shortness of its
wings, it is probably only adapted for short flights
amongst the branches of the trees, in pursuit of cater-
pillars and other sluggish insects. It is found not
only in Java, but also in the Malayan peninsula as far
as Tenasserim, and in the great island of Borneo.
THE FETLLED INDIAN TODY (Sfrilophus luncUus),
which is nearly allied to the preceding, has hitherto
only been met with in the Tenasserim provinces. It is
about eight inches in length ; the plumage of the head
and back is of different shades of brown, becoming
rich chestnut towards the rump ; the head is adorned
with a crest, and marked with a black line running up
from the base of the bill over the eye to the nape ; the
lower surface is of a delicate grey, and on each side of
the neck is a beautiful crescent-shaped mark, composed
of silvery white feathers. The wings are black, with a
' large blue patch or broad band across the middle ; the
tail is also black, with the three outer feathers on each
side tipped with white; the bill is greenish-blue.
This beautiful little bird is found in the tliickest
jungles, and according to Major Godfrey, " its food was
found, upon minute investigation, to consist entirely of
berries and fruits." Dr. Heifer once observed them in
societies of thirty or forty sitting on the loftiest trees in
the forest; he says they were so fearless that the
whole flock might be shot one after the other.
THE GEEAT-BHLED INDIAN TODY (Cymblrlnjnchus
macrorhynchus). This remarkable bird, which is also
a near relative of the preceding, is met with from the
Tenasserim provinces and Malacca to the island of
Sumatra. The plumage of the head, back, wings, and
tail, together with the chin, and a band round the
throat, is black ; the rump and the whole lower surface
of the body deep crimson ; the three outer tail feathers
on each side are spotted with white, and the scapularies,
which are very long and slender, are also white. The
bill, which is very broad and stout, is of a beautiful
blue colour. The length of the bird is about ten inches.
This beautiful bird frequents the banks of rivers and
lakes, and other marshy and watery situations, where
it finds an abundance of the insects and worms which
constitute its food. It builds a nearly globular pen-
dent nest, composed of small twigs, which it attaches
to the branches of trees growing out of the water.
The eggs are four in number, and of a pale blue colour,
without spots.
THE GEEEN TODY (Todus viridls}. The Rollers
are represented in America by two small groups of
birds to which the names of Todies and Motmots have
been given. The Todies are distinguished by having
an elongated bill, which is exceedingly broad and de-
pressed towards the base, so that it acquires a tongue
like shape. The margins of both mandibles are finely
denticulated. The outer toe is nearly as long as the
middle one, to which it is united for three-fourths of its
length ; the inner toe, which is considerably shorter, is
also united to the middle one for half its length. Of
these birds only four species are known ; they are all
inhabitants of tropical America and the West Indies.
We have cited the Green Tody as being the best
known species ; indeed, until a comparatively recent
period, the others were often confounded with it. The
Green Tody is a very small bird, being little bigger
than a wren ; the whole upper surface is of a vivid
green colour ; the throat is brilliant crimson, and the
remainder of the plumage of the lower surface white.
This bird is exceedingly common in all parts of
Jamaica, which appears to be its head-quarters; it
feeds exclusively upon insects, which it usually captures
while hopping about upon the twigs of trees. It is
bold, allowing a person to approach it very closely, and
if disturbed usually flies off to another twig only a few
yards distant. Its brilliant green plumage, and crim-
son throat, render it the admiration of all visitors to
Jamaica. The nest is formed in a burrow excavated
in a dry bank, to a depth of about a foot, entirely bj
the agency of the bird's bill and feet; its course is
somewhat tortuous, and at its extremity is a large
chamber, which the bird lines with the dry fibres of
plants, moss, and cotton, for the reception of its eggs.
The latter are four or five in number, of a grey colour
spotted with brown.
THE BRAZILIAN MOTMOT (Momotus brasil'iensis).
The Motmots are considerably more numerous than
the Todies, in conjunction with which they represent
the Roller family in South America and its islands.
They are distinguished by having the margins of the
mandibles, which are much stronger than in the Todies,
distinctly notched or serrated for a considerable por-
tion of their length. They also possess a pectinated
tongue. The tail in these birds is long, and the
feathers gradually increase towards the middle; but it
is remarkable that in nearly all specimens the shafts of
the two middle (longest) feathers are entirely bare of
barbs for a considerable portion of their apical half —
the base is furnished with barbs, then follows the bare
portion, and the tip again presents the ordinary appear-
ance of a feather. It is supposed that the birds must
pick off the barbs of this portion of the tail feathers.
The name of Motmot is said to be derived from the
peculiar note of these birds, which is described as
resembling those syllables slowly repeated. According
to other writers, however, the cry of the Motmot is
comparable to the syllables toutou. The Brazilian
Motmot, which is not uncommon in several districts of
TROGOXID.E. BIRDS. THE RESPLENDENT TKOGOX.
295
the tropical parts of South America, is about the size
of our common blackbird ; its general colour is green,
but the face, and a spot in the middle of the breast, are
black, and the head is blue.
Little is known of the habits of these birds, as they
are solitary in their disposition, residing, usually in
pairs, in the deepest recesses of the forests. They
feed principally upon insects, which they capture by
pouncing down upon them suddenly. Besides insects,
however, they are said occasionally to devour small
snakes and lizards, and even small birds, and some-
times to feed upon fruits. They are said by some
writers to nestle in the holes of trees, by others to bur-
row in the ground ; if the latter be true, the barbs of
the long tail feathers might possibly be worn away by
friction against the sides of their narrow tunnel.
FAMILY IV.— TROGONID^.
The Trogonidse, or Couroucous, as they are some-
times called, from the name given by the natives of
South America to some of the species inhabiting that
continent, and which is said to be an exact imitation
of their cry, are distinguished from the preceding
families, by having the toes of unequal length, and
arranged, as in the scansorial birds, in two pairs.
They have a stout bill, broader than high, so that it
presents a triangular form when seen from above ; the
edges of the mandibles are sometimes strongly serrated,
sometimes smooth nearly to the tip, and there furnished
with a single tooth.
The Trogonidae are all inhabitants of tropical
regions, and the majority of them belong to the New
World, although several species, distinguished by
peculiar characters, are found in India and the Eastern
islands. One species, also, scarcely distinguishable
generically from the American forms, is an inhabitant
of Southern Africa. They are usually adorned with
brilliant metallic colours, inhabit the thickest parts
of the forests, and feed principally upon insects, which
they frequently capture on the wing. Some of the
species also eat fruits.
THE COTJBOUCOTJ (Trogon Curucui), an abundant
species in Guiana and Brazil, measures ten or eleven
inches in length, and is generally of a fine brilliant
green colour, with the breast and belly of a beautiful
red; the wing-coverts are bluish-grey, marked with
undulated black lines ; the tail, which is wedge-shaped,
is green, except the two outer feathers on each side,
which are blackish, crossed with small grey transverse
lines.
The name of this bird is derived, as previously
indicated, from its peculiar melancholy note, which is
described by different authors as resembling the word
couroucouais so exactly, that, whilst the natives of
Brazil give it this name, the Indians of Guiana merely
drop the c, and call the bird Ouroucouais. The
Couroucou is found in the deepest recesses of the
forests, especially at the breeding season, when the
male employs the above-mentioned melancholy note to
express his feelings towards his mate. In April,
when the breeding season commences, the birds seek
out a suitable hole 'v a tree, which they adapt to their
purpose, by means of their bills, lining the bottom of
the cavity with the powdered rotten wood which they
disengage from the sides. Upon the bed thus formed,
the female lays three or four eggs about the size of
those of a pigeon. Whilst the female is sitting, the
male perches on a branch close at hand, and con-
tinually emits his tender cooing notes. At other
times the male is silent, and both sexes frequently
perch for a long time, perfectly motionless upon a
branch, and puff oxit the long loose feathers with
which their bodies are clothed to such an extent, that
while then- bulk is scarcely greater than that of a
thrush, they look as large as a pigeon. They feed
upon worms, insects, and caterpillars.
THE CUBA TEOGON (Trogon temnurus), which is
of about the same size as the preceding gpecies, has
the crown of the head of a violet-blue colour, the upper
surface of the body brilliant metallic-green, the throat
and breast greyish-white, and the belly vermillion.
The scapulars and the great coverts of the wings are
green, with a white^ spot near the extremity of each
feather ; the quill feathers of the wings are black,
adorned with white spots, and those of the tail green
or blue, spotted with white. This bird is chiefly
remarkable for the peculiar form of the tail, each
feather of which is truncated at the extremity, with its
exterior angle produced outwards, so that, as the
general form of the tail is, or rather would be, wedge-
shaped, its whole apical half is surrounded by a series
of points. It is a beautiful species, which has only
hitherto been found in Cuba, where it is very common
in the woods. Its note, which is heard in the morning
and evening, is described as resembling the syllables
tocorr. This species is said to feed upon vegetable
substances. It sits in a very passive state upon the
branches, so that it is easily killed; and great numbers
are destroyed for the table, their flesh being very good.
THE RESPLENDENT TROGON (Trogon resplendens}
— Plate 7, fig. 20 — which has been placed by many
authors with several nearly allied species in a distinct
genus, to which the name of Calurus is given, is
distinguished from the preceding species, partly by
the presence of a large crest of delicate feathers on the
head, and partly by the great development of the
upper tail-coverts, which conceal the tail, and hang
down in the form of long delicate plumes of great
The male of this Trogon is one of the most magni-
ficent of birds. The head and throat are of a golden
bronze colour ; the neck and breast, the back, and the
wing and tail-coverts, are of the most brilliant golden
green; the wings themselves are black, or blackish,
setting off the splendour of the wing-coverts in the
most striking manner ; whilst the whole of the belly
and the lower tail-coverts are of a beautiful crimson
tint. The feathers of the tail are black. Of the
elongated tail-coverts, the two middle ones are the
longest, but the whole are most delicate and beautiful,
being composed of long loose barbs, gradually dimin-
ishing to the apex of the feather, and hanging in the
most graceful manner. The species is found in Brazil
and Peru, where it is employed by the natives as an
ornament ; the Peruvian ladies being especially fond
PASSERES. BIRDS. AI.CEDINIDJ
of adorning themselves with tufts of the long and
brilliant tail-coverts. The tenderness of the skin, and
the ease with which the feathers are detached, render
the skinning of these birds a very difficult operation,
and this applies to the whole of the Trogona. Most of
the specimens obtained from the Indians of America
are simply dried without skinning. Several other
species of Trogons, scarcely yielding to the preceding
in beauty, are found in the tropical parts of America ;
but to these our space prevents our alluding. We shall
therefore pass to —
THE NARINA TROGON (Apaloderma narina), the
only African species. This bird approaches very
closely in its general characters to its American rela-
tions, differing only in some particulars of little import-
ance. Like them it displays a brilliant lustre on its
green plumage, which is replaced by a deep rose tint
on the lower parts of the body. The greater wing-
coverts are grey, with fine black lines and dots ; the
wings are black. The four middle feathers of the tail
are of a fine golden green colour,- and of equal length ;
the three outer feathers on each side become rapidly
shorter, so that the outermost is only about half the
length of its next neighbour ; these feathers are white,
with black bases. The whole length of the bird is
about fourteen inches.
This species is an inhabitant of the southern part of
the African continent. It nestles in the hole of a tree,
where it lays four eggs of a delicate pale rose colour,
which are remarkable for their transparency and
extreme fragility. During the breeding season the
male emits sounds of the most melancholy nature ; at
other times he is very silent.
THE FASCIATED " TBOGON (Harpactes fasdatus).
The Indian species of the family Trogonidae are dis-
tinguished from all the preceding forms by the want
| of serratures on the margins of the mandibles, these
being smooth nearly to the tip, where they exhibit
a notch, or tooth, somewhat similar to that occurring
in many dentirostral birds. Nearly a dozen species
have been met with in different parts of India and
the islands of the Eastern archipelago.
The Fasciated Trogon, which is an inhabitant of the
Indian peninsula and of Ceylon, is a fine and striking
species, about ten inches in length ; its colour is fer-
ruginous above, tawny red beneath ; its wing-coverts
are barred with black and white ; its head and neck
are black, with a naked blue patch surrounding the
eyes ; its breast has a band of white, its tail-coverts
are grey, and the quill feathers of its wings and tail
dusky ; the latter tipped with black.
This bird occurs in the dense jungle amongst lofty
trees, where it is generally seen seated motionless
upon a branch, occasionally flying off in pursuit of
some passing insect. More than two are rarely seen
together.
HODGSON'S TROGON (Harpactes erythrocephalus),
an inhabitant of the elevated regions of Northern India,
and of Tenasserim, is said by Captain Tickell to fly in
small troops, and to be active and vociferous in the
morning, a behaviour which indicates more sociability
of character than is usually attributed to the Trogons.
Captain Tickell states, however, that in the heat of the
day this species takes up a position in the- shade, and
sits there solitary and quiet, so that it is possible the
other species have similar habits. We need not refer
to the other species, of the habits of which little is
known.
FAMILY V.— ALCEDINID^:.
This family, which includes the well-known King-
fishers, and a great number of nearly allied forms, is
characterized by the form of the bill — which is elon-
gated, generally quite straight, stout, broad at the
base, and acute at the tip — by the small size of the tail,
and the shortness of the tarsi. The toes are variable,
both in number and arrangement ; sometimes they are
placed in pairs, as in the preceding family ; sometimes
three in front and one behind, as in birds in general ;
whilst in some cases, one toe is altogether deficient,
and the foot has two toes in front and one behind.
The wings are long and rounded, and the birds possess
considerable powers of flight.
Their food consists of animal matters ; some, like
our common kingfisher, capturing fish with great dex-
terity ; whilst others feed more upon insects, or upon
these and small reptiles, or other terrestrial creatures.
In other respects, they exhibit a great variety of habit,
and they occur in almost all parts of the world, although
most numerous in warm countries.
THE COMMON KINGFISHER (Alcedo js^Wa)— Plate
7, fig. 21 — the only European representative of the
family, is one of the most beautiful of British birds ;
its appearance, as it dashes along in the sun, giving
one the idea of a living emerald. The top of the head,
the wing-coverts, and a stripe on each side of the
neck, are green, covered with most beautiful azure
spots ; the back is dark green, with its hinder part and
the rump azure ; the throat, and a streak on each side
! of the neck, are yellowish-white, and all the rest of the
j lower surface of the body is pale chestnut. The qtiill
| feathers of the wings are greenish-black, and those ot
the tail deep blue. The beak, which is an inch and
a half long, is black, with the base of the lower man-
j dible orange. The feet are of a reddish-brown colour ;
1 they have three toes in front and one behind, and the
outer front toe is united to the middle one, as far as
the second joint.
The Kingfisher is an inhabitant of all parts of Europe,
except in the extreme north ; thus it occurs, although
rarely, in Denmark, but does not appear to inhabit
the Scandinavian peninsula. It is also met with in
the temperate parts of Siberia, and extends thence to
the southern parts of Asia, whilst in Africa it occurs
as far south as the Senegal. It is always found in
the vicinity of water, frequenting the banks of rivers
and brooks, and also of large ponds, over the surface of
which it may be seen shooting along rapidly, like a
little green meteor. Its food consists not only of small
fishes, but also of aquatic insects and leeches, and pro-
bably any other production of its favourite element will
hardly come amiss. When watching for food, the
Kingfisher takes his post on a bush or tree overhang-
ing the water, or on a rail by the bank side, and here
he waits patiently until his expected prey comes within
THE COMMON KINGFISHER. BIRDS. THE PIED KINGFISHER.
297
Bight ; then he dashes instantly down upon it, and so
rapid are his movements, and so unerring his aim, that
he rarely fails in his attack. Sometimes he is seen
to hover over a particular point of the surface of
the water, waiting for the favourable moment to make
his plunge ; but when the prey is caught, he always
makes his way back to his post of observation, and
then swallows his victim head-foremost, usually crush-
ing it first, to prevent struggles during this operation.
Although so strictly aquatic in its habits, the King-
fisher remains in this country throughout the year, but
in severe weather it has been known to quit the
inland fresh waters, and to resort to the sea-shore.
The Kingfisher is a solitary and pugnacious bird,
living in pairs during the breeding season, but rarely
allowing any neighbours of its own species. It dwells
in holes in the banks of the streams which it frequents,
and these are said to be usually the deserted burrows
of the water rat, or of other Mammals. Whether the
Kingfisher ever digs its own buiTow is still uncertain ;
but it would appear not improbable that it may do so
occasionally ; and on taking possession of the deserted
domicile of some other animal, it seems always to
make some alterations to suit its abode to its own
purposes. The floor of this retreat is always covered
with the disgorged bones of the small fishes devoured
by the birds, and it is upon these that the eggs are
laid. The eggs are of a pinkish tint, and vary between
five and seven in number. When the young are
hatched, the parents feed them by disgorging the fishes
and other animals which they have captured; and they
continue to supply the wants of their offspring in the
same manner for some time after they are able to
leave the nest. The note of the Kingfisher is shrill
and piping ; it is frequently emitted when the bird is
on the wing.
We have still to notice some curious superstitions
which prevailed in ancient times, and some which
have even come down to our own day, in connection
with this bird. The Greeks and Romans, naturalists
as well as poets, believed that the Kingfisher built a
floating nest, and that the elements were so kind to
her, that during the period of incubation, no storms
arose to disturb her in her work, or render her situa-
tion perilous. Hence, it was supposed that the waters
always remained smooth during the period in which
the Kingfisher was engaged in hatching her eggs, and
that the mariner might safely venture on the uncertain
element which was the scene of his calling, without
any fear of meeting with untoward accidents in his
course. Indeed, so far did some of the old poets carry
their credulity, that they actually believed the bird to
have some secret power of stilling the waves. From
these circumstances the term " Halcyon days," applied
to the supposed period of incubation of this bird, came
to be regarded as synonymous with calm, and it is
still frequently used metaphorically, to express a dur-
ation of quiet happiness. These ancient notions are
frequently referred to also by our older English poets.
Some of the more modern superstitions with regard to
this bird, seem to have a certain connection with its
! supposed influence over the weather. Thus it is
believed in some places, that a Kingfisher, suspended
VOL. I.
by its bill, will always turn its breast to the north ; and
that if accurately balanced and suspended by a single
thread from its back, its bill will point in the direction
of the wind, even when it is kept in-Joors. Some of the
other notions entertained about the Kingfisher are
still more absurd; its head and feathers have been
regarded as a protection against witchcraft, and as a
certain means of securing the affections of a coy
mistress.
THE INDIAN KINGFISHER (Alcedo bengalcnsis), a
common species in most parts of India, is very nearly
allied to our European kingfisher, which it also re-
sembles in its habits. It frequents the brooks and
rivers, excavating its burrows for the purpose of nidifi-
cation in the steep banks and in mud walls. Its food
consists of small fishes and aquatic insects, and it is
often seen perched on a stick in the paddy fields
watching for its prey in the shallow water.
THE BIRU KINGFISHER (Alcedo Birii) is common
in Java, where it follows the same mode of life as its
European relative. Dr. Horsfield describes it as dart-
ing in short rapid flights along the surface of the water,
emitting from time to time a note so shrill and piercing
as to be very disagreeable to the hearer. It is also
often seen perched on trees on the banks of rivulets,
and its food, like that of the two preceding species,
consists of small fishes and insects.
THE AZURE KINGFISHER (Alcyone azurea), a very
abundant species in Australia, especially in its southern
and south-eastern parts, belongs to a genus which is
principally distinguished from that including our Euro-
pean species, by the existence of only three toes in
each foot, the outer toe being entirely deficient. It
is rather a larger bird than our common kingfisher;
the whole upper part is of a fine ultramarine blue
colour, the wings are black, the lower surface is ferru-
ginous orange, becoming nearly white on the throat;
a line of the same colour runs from the base of the bill
to the eye, and there is a tuft of yellowish- white
feathers on each side of the neck.
It is found along the margins of brooks and ponds,
where it perches on the bare branch of a tree over-
hanging the water, dashing down from its resting-place
upon the small fishes which pass underneath it. Dur-
ing the breeding season, which commences in August,
the male is very pugnacious, and at all times this King-
fisher is a solitary bird. The burrow of the bird, like
that one of our British species, is made in the bank of
the stream, and its floor is occupied by the bones of
fishes disgorged by the inhabitants.
THE PIED KINGFISHER (Ceryle rudis) belongs to
a genus also closely allied to Alcedo, and agreeing with
it in the number and arrangement of the toes, but dis-
tinguishable at once by the great stoutness of its short
tarsi. The Pied Kingfisher is found abundantly in
India, and thence westward to Africa, extending its
range, according to some statements, even as far as the
Cape of Good Hope. Specimens also occasionally
cross from North Africa, where the bird is very com-
mon, into some of the southern countries of Europe,
such as Spain and Sicily.
The Pied Kingfisher is about the size of the song-
thrush, measuring rather more than eight inches in
2 P
298
PASSERES. BIRDS. ALCEDINID.E.
length, exclusive of the bill. The feathers of the upper
parts are white, marked with black spots of various
forms; the lower parts are pure white, with a deep
black collar below the base of the neck; the wings are
black, with the feathers bordered with white, and the
feathers of the jail are also varied with black and white.
This species, which is rendered elegant by the vivid
contrast of its pied plumage, differs somewhat in its
habits from the preceding kingfishers; for instead of
watching for its prey from ix fixed station, it hovers
over the surface of the water and darts down perpen-
dicularly when its victim comes within sight. Dr.
Pearson says — " From a height of twenty to thirty feet
it plunges down, dead as a stone, to the water, and
remains below it so long that the ripple over the sur-
face clears away sometimes before it comes up again."
This bird, like the preceding, breeds in holes in steep
banks.
THE GREAT AFRICAN KINGFISHER (Ceryle maxi-
ma], one of the largest species of the present family, is
an inhabitant of the western part of tropical Africa.
The general colour of the whole back, including the
wings, is lead grey, but the wings are covered with
numerous white spots; the tail feathers are blackish,
with a row of seven white spots on each ; the crest of
rather long feathers with which the head is adorned
is black; the lower surface is white, with numerous
blackish spots on the flanks, and a broad pale brown
band across the chest; the sides of the throat and
cheeks are also marked with lines of small black spots.
The whole length of this fine bird is about fifteen
inches; in its habits it resembles the preceding species.
THE BELTED KINGFISHER (Ceryle Alcyon}. — Be-
sides the preceding species and some others inhabiting
the eastern hemisphere, the genus Ceryle includes some
American birds, amongst which the Belted Kingfisher
is the best known. It is an abundant species in most
parts of the United States. In its colours it much
resembles the preceding species, but is readily distin-
guished by its having a broad collar of white round the
neck. It is also smaller in size, measuring only about
twelve inches and a half in length.
Wilson's account of the habits of this bird is as
follows : — " Like the love-lorn swains of whom poets
tell us," says the great American ornithologist, "he
delights in murmuring streams and falling waters ; not,
however, merely that they may sooth his ear, but for a
gratification somewhat more substantial. Amidst the
roar of the cataract, or over the foam of a torrent, he
sits perched upon an overhanging bough, glancing his
piercing eye in every direction below for his scaly prey,
which, with a sadden circular plunge, he sweeps from
their native element, and swallows in an instant. His
voice, which is not unlike the twirling of a watchman's
rattle, is naturally loud, harsh, and sudden ; but is
softened by the sound of the brawling streams and cas-
cades among which he generally rambles. He courses
along the windings of the brook or river, at a snail
height above the surface, sometimes suspending himself
by the rapid action of his wings, like certain species of
hawks, ready to pounce on the fry below; now and
then settling on an old, dead, overhanging limb to
reconnoitre. Mill-dams are particularly visited by this
feathered fisher; and the sound of his pipe is as well
known to the miller as the rattling of his own hopper."
The nest of this species is made in the perpendicular
bank of his favourite stream, into which he digs hori-
zontally by means of his bill and claws often to the
depth of four or five feet. The eggs are five in num-
ber, and of a pure white colour. In the colder states
of the Union this bird would appear, from Wilson's
statements, to be only a summer visitor ; at least it
departs from Pennsylvania and the more northern
states at the approach of winter, and returns to them
again in the spring.
Of the South American species we shall only men-
tion three, namely — the STARRY KINGFISHER (C.
torquata), a rather large species, which somewhat
resembles the preceding in colours, being bluish-ash
above, and chestnut-brown beneath, with a white
collar and spots — a native of South America and
Mexico; the RED and GREEN KINGFISHER (C. trico-
lor), an inhabitant of Guiana and Brazil, about eight
inches in length, with the upper parts green, sparingly
spotted with white, and the lower surface red; and the
GREEN and WHITE KINGFISHER (C. Americana),
somewhat smaller than the preceding, from Avhich it
differs in having the lower surface white.
THE GIANT KINGFISHER (Dacelo gig as), which is
the largest species of this family, measuring about
eighteen inches in total length, is an inhabitant of New
South Wales, where it is known to the colonists by the
name of the Laughing Jackass, conferred upon it on
account of its singular cry, which, as Mr. Gould says,
" is so extraordinary as to be unlike that of any other
living creature." This cry, which is described as
resembling a sort of loud gurgling laugh, and is com-
pared by Captain Sturt to " a chorus of wild spirits,"
may be heard at a considerable distance, and the bird
is especially vociferous at dawn and sunset.
The Giant Kingfisher (fig. 106) has a much larger
and stronger bill than the preceding species, and this
character is found in all the birds belonging to the
genera Dacelo and Halcyon. Its head also is very
large, and covered with a sort of crest ot longish
feathers, which are dark -brown on the crown of the
head, and pale-buff on the sides. A broad dark-brown
band passes from the base of the bill round the back of
the head, and the back is dark-browji. The back of
the neck is pale-buff, the whole lower surface white, the
wings, crests, and rump, greenish-blue and black, the
quill feathers of the wing black, with a white spot near
the outer margin of the wing, and the tail is chestnut-
brown, banded with black, and with the extreme tip,
the margins of the outer feathers, and a band before
the tip, white. The upper mandible is blackish-brown,
the lower one pale buff.
The Giant Kingfisher is by no means a shy bird,
but, on the contrary, exhibits a prying and inquisitive
disposition, which, indeed, is indicated in his general
aspect, and especially in the somewhat corvine expres-
sion of his face. He will perch on the branch of a tree
and watch with the greatest curiosity the lighting of a
fire by any party travelling through the bush in his
vicinity. He flies and settles quite noiselessly, so that
his being in the neighbourhood is seldom known until
THE GIANT KINGFISHER. BIRDS. THE AUSTRALIAN KINGFISHER.
299
he breaks out into his usual laugh, probably expressive
of his satisfaction at the proceedings going on before
him ; but his cachinnatory explosion often costs him his
life, " for if, as is often the case," says Mr. Gould, " the
traveller's larder be ill provided, and his appetite keen,
but a few minutes elapse before it is roasting over the
fire it was lately surveying with so much curiosity."
The name Kingfisher applied to this bird, and indeed
to all the following species, is, perhaps, a misnomer,
and can only be justified by the desire to indicate how
Fig. 106.
The Giant Kingfisher (Daceto gigas).
closely these birds are allied to the true kingfishers.
None of them appear to be aquatic in their habits, but
they feed upon insects and other terrestrial animals, so
that the name of Hunters is more applicable to them
than that of Fishers. Accordingly some naturalists
have proposed to denominate these birds Kinghunters,
and the French term Martins chasseurs, expresses the
same opposition to the habits of the Kingfishers, or
Martins pecheurs. The Giant Kingfisher is a great
hunter, feeding voraciously upon insects, reptiles, and
crabs. Mr. Gould says, " it devours lizards with
avidity, and it is not an unfrequent sight to see it bear-
ing off a snake in its bill to be eaten at leisure." It
also preys on small mammalia. Hence, unlike the true
kingfishers, this bird is not confined to the vicinity of
water ; indeed Mr. Gould believes that it seldom if
ever drinks, so that the driest plains serve it as a habi-
tation. It breeds in August and September, depositing
its eggs, which are of a beautiful pearl white colour, in
a hole in some large gum-tree, upon the dust and
decomposed wood which lines the bottom. It defends
its nest and young with great courage, and its formid-
able bill enables it to inflict very severe wounds.
This bird is represented in other parts of Australia
by nearly allied but distinct species; in the north-
eastern part of that continent its place is taken by
LEACH'S KINGFISHER (D. Leachii), and along the
northern and north-western coast, by the BUFF-
BREASTED KINGFISHER (D. cervina). Another species
(D. Gaudichaudii) inhabits New Guinea; their mode
of life is, for the most part, very similar to that of the
Giant Kingfisher of New South Wales.
THE AUSTRALIAN KINGFISHER (Halcyon sancta}.
— The numerous species to which the generic name of
Halcyon has been applied, are all inhabitants of tha
eastern hemisphere, in all parts of which, with tho
exception of Europe, some of them occur. They have
three toes in front and one behind, but the inner front
toe is very small. The present species, which is called
the Australian Kingfisher, from its receiving the name
of kingfisher from our colonists, is generally dispersed
over the whole continent of Australia. It measures
about eight inches in length, including the powerful
bill, which is black, with the base of the lower mandible
white ; the crown of the head, the back, and scapularies,
and the wings and tail are green, the latter tinged with
blue ; a line running from each nostril over the eye is
buff ; a broad blackish-green band separates the green
of the head from a broad buff collar which surrounds
the neck ; the throat is nearly white, and the whole
lower surface of the body buff, deeper on the flanks.
This handsome species is a summer resident in the
southern parts of Australia, from which it retires north-
wards after the breeding season is over. Its food con-
300
PASSERKS. BIRDS. ALCEDIXID.E.
sists principally of insects, of which it devours great
quantities ; and Mr. Gould states that, on the banks of
the Hunter river, its favourite diet consists of the
larvae of a species of ant, which it procures by digging
holes into the nest It will also devour small snakes
and lizards, and on the coast it feeds freely on crabs
and other Crustacea. It breeds in the hollow spouts
of the gum-trees, or in hollow apple-trees, and the
breeding season commences in October. The eggs are
four or five in number, and pure white.
Several other species of the genus Halcyon inhabit
Australia ; they are all birds of brilliant plumage, but
their habits are very similar to those of the preceding
species.
THE SACRED KINGFISHER (Halcyon sacra), which
is a native of the Society Islands, and of some other
parts of the Polynesian Archipelago, is of a blue colour
above, and whitish beneath ; over each eye is a pale
red streak, and underneath a blue stripe. It is called
the Sacred Kingfisher on account of the veneration
in which it was held by the natives of Otaheite, who
regarded it as a divinity, under the name of Eatua.
THE wHiTK-TTEATiTim KINGFISHER (Halcyon leuco-
cephala), a native of India and Java, measures about
twelve inches in length, and is of a bluish-green colour,
with the head and neck, and the lower surface, yel-
lowish-white ; the crown of the head is streaked with
black ; the bill is of a blood-red colour. This species,
which is called the Gurial by the Hindoos of Bengal,
where it is more common than in other parts of India,
is a powerful and courageous bird ; one of them has
been seen to compel a hawk of considerable size to
quit his hold upon it by a severe blow upon the chest.
Unlike the preceding species, this bird is a fisher,
perching upon a bush or tree close to the water, and
watching there for the appearance of its prey, upon
which it darts down with a sudden and violent plunge.
Its note is a sort of screaming laugh.
THE INDIAN KINGFISHER (Halcyon fusca), an
abundant species in the peninsula of Hindostan, and in
the countries to the eastward, is also a fishing bird,
commonly frequenting the banks of rivers and brooks,
and the wet paddy-fields, where it preys upon small
fishes, frogs, tadpoles, and aquatic insects. It does
not confine itself to these situations, however, but also
visits the dry cultivated ground in search of small
lizards, grasshoppers, and other insects. Its voice is a
loud, harsh, rattling scream. Passing over several
other Indian species, we may notice —
THE RED-BELLIED KINGFISHER (Halcyon semi-
ccerulw), an inhabitant of Senegal, and other parts of
the west coast of Africa. This bird is of a bluish-
green colour above, with a black streak behind the
eyes, and a black spot on the wings ; the lower sur-
face is yellowish-red. The length of the bird is about
twelve inches. It is described by Forster as the Crab-
eating kingfisher, but this may be only an occasional
habit. Other African species are the SENEGAL KING-
FISHER (H. senegalensis) ; the BLUE-COLLARED KING-
FISHER (H. cinereifrons) ; the CHELICUTI KINGFISHER
(H. Chelicuti] ; and the BROWN-HOODED KINGFISHER
(H. fuscicaptlla), the last from the Cape of Good
Hope.
THE TERN ATE KINGFISHER (Tanysiptera Dea), so
called from its having been originally discovered in the
island of Ternate, is also abundant in New Guinea,
where, according to Lesson, it is named Manesoukouv
by the natives. It is remarkable for having the two
middle feathers of the wedge-shaped tail excessively
elongated in the male ; they are narrowed in the
middle, and again expanded at the apex. Two other
allied species have been described.
THE THREE-TOED KINGFISHER (Ceyx tridactyla),
with three or four allied species, inhabits the islands of
the Eastern Archipelago. Little is known of the
habits of these birds, which differ from Halcyon, as
Ceryle does from Alcedo, namely, in the want of the
inner front toe. The foot has only three toes, two in
front, and one behind, and the anterior toes are united
for the greater part of their length. The three-toed
Kingfisher is of an azure-blue colour above, and
yellowish- white beneath ; its bill is vellowish.
THE GREEN JACAMAR (Galbula viridis). The
group to which the name of Jacamars is given by
ornithologists, is distinguished by having a long, slen-
der, straight, or slightly curved and pointed bill, less
powerful than that of the species described in the pre-
ceding pages ; a long, graduated tail, short tarsi, and
the toes arranged either in two pairs, or two in front
and one behind, the anterior toes being united. They
are all brilliant birds, and inhabit the tropical parts of
the western hemisphere.
The Green Jacamar is an inhabitant of Brazil and
Guiana, where it dwells in the recesses of the forest,
and passes its life in solitude. It feeds entirely upon
insects, which it pursues with a short but rapid flight.
According to some writers, this bird has an agreeable
song. The eggs are deposited in a hole of a tree.
This bird is about eight inches in length, and is very
brilliant hi its appearance, the whole upper surface of
the body being of a beautiful golden-green colour, the
breast yellow, traversed by a broad band of golden
green, and the belly reddish.
THE LONG-TAILED JACAMAE (Galbula leptura)—
Plate 7, fig. 22— a native of Brazil and Guiana, is of a
golden coppery-green colour above and red beneath,
with a golden green band across the breast, and the chin
and throat white ; the tail is long, with the feathers
gradually increasing in length to the two middle ones,
which are the longest, and golden green, the rest being
red. The total length of the bird is rather more than
ten niches. The Long-tailed Jacamar resides in the
moist woods, where it leads a solitary life, perching
upon branches at a moderate height from the ground,
and often sitting there motionless for a considerable
portion of the day. It is not uncommon, and its flesh
is sometimes eaten by the natives of Brazil. Its song
is said to be agreeable, although very short.
THE PARADISE JACAMAR ( Galbula paradisea) is
another long-tailed species, which inhabits Guiana.
It measures nearly a foot in length, but of this a great
deal is to be attributed to the tail, of which the two
middle feathers are six inches long; the feathers on
each side of these diminish rapidly in length, the outer-
most being only about one inch long. Its plumage is
green above, with various lustres, according to the
TUB COLLARED PUFF-BIRD. BIRDS. THE BKE-EATER.
301
light in which it is viewed; the head is dull violet-
green, and the throat is white. This species is less
retired and solitary in its habits than the others, being
found in the more open parts of the forest, and usually
in pairs.
THE THREE-TOED JACAMAR (Jacamaralcyon tri-
dactyla). This species differs from the other Jaca-
mars in possessing only three toes ; two in front,
united to each other, and one behind. It is of a dull
green colour above, with the forehead and crown of
the head reddish- white ; the throat and cheeks are
black, and from the throat a black streak descends
along the sides of the body to the lower tail-coverts,
which, with the vent, are also black ; the rest of the
lower surface of the body is reddish-white. This
curiously marked bird is a native of Brazil. Its
-habits agree with those of the other species.
THE GREAT JACAMAR (Jacamerops grandis) —
Plate 8, fig. 23— has the feet similar to those of the
ordinary species, but the bill, which is rather stout, is
slightly curved throughout its whole length. It is
about eleven inches in length. The plumage of the
whole upper surface is of a rich and brilliant golden-
green, exhibiting a more or less reddish lustre in cer-
tain lights ; the quill-feathers of the wings are blackish
externally, and the lower surface is red. The bill is
black. This bird is also a native of the tropical parts
of America.
THE COLLARED PUFF-BIRD (Bucco cottons). The
curious group of birds called Puff-birds, from their
habit of puffing out their plumage so as to appear
much larger than they really are, is placed amongst the
Alcedinidee by Mr. G. K. Gray, although it certainly
appears to have considerable affinity with the small
group of birds called Barbets, belonging to the scan-
sorial family of the Woodpeckers. They have a very
stout, conical bill, somewhat inflated at the base, which
bears several tufts of strong bristles ; and the toes are
arranged in two pairs, the two outer toes being the
longest. There are numerous species of this group,
all inhabitants of tropical America, where they lead a
solitary, and somewhat sedentary life in the recesses of
the forests. They live exclusively upon insects, and
breed in the holes of trees.
The Collared Puff-bird, which is an inhabitant of
Guiana, measures rather more than seven inches in
length; it is of a red colour, with transverse black
streaks above, whitish beneath, with a black band
across the breast, and above this a tawny one; the
feathers of the tail are also banded with black.
THE VAX-BILLED BARBACOU (Monasa atra). Of
the numerous species of Puff-birds inhabiting South
America, we need only refer to this species, the type
of a genus (Monasa), the species of which are rather
more active, and less solitary in their habits, than the
rest of their allies. They possess longer wings, and
fly better than the Buccos, and although they reside in
the forest, they often seek the insects which constitute
their food over the inundated savannahs. They are
said to breed sometimes in the holes of trees, and
sometimes in the earth. The Wax-billed Barbacou
measures nearly a foot in length, and is black above,
ash-coloured beneath ; the bill is of a fine carmine
colour. It is a native of Guiana. With these birds
we quit the family of the Alcedinidae.
FAMILY VI.— MEROPID^E.
The birds of this family present certain points of
resemblance both to the Kingfishers and Swallows
amongst the Fissirostres on the one hand, and to the
slender-billed birds of the following group (Tenui-
roatres) on the other. They have an elongated, and
more or less curved bill, of which the gape extends
backwards beneath the eyes ; their nostrils are partly
concealed by short bristles ; their wings are long and
pointed, indicating considerable powers of flight ; and
they have a long and broad, usually more or less
wedge-shaped tail, of which the two middle feathers
are generally a good deal longer than the rest. Their
tarsi are very short, and the long toes are placed as in
birds generally, namely, three in front and one behind;
the anterior lateral toes are united to the middle one,
the outer one throughout its whole length. The bril-
liant birds belonging to this family are all inhabitants
of the eastern hemisphere, especially ot its tropical
portions. Their food consists of insects, which they
capture in the air, like the Swallows, to which they
bear so much resemblance. Bees and wasps constitute
a favourite portion of their nourishment, from which
circumstance they have received the English name ot
Bee-eaters. The French, on the same account, call
them Gwpiers, or wasp-catchers. Of the African
species, one —
THE COMMON BEE-EATER (Merops apiaster)— Plate
8, fig. 24 — visits the south of Europe regularly as a
summer bird of passage; and as occasional specimens
find their way northwards to this country, it is recorded
as a British bird. This beautiful bird measures nearly
eleven niches in length, from the tip of the bill to that
of the elongated middle feathers of the tail. Its bill is
black, and a black streak runs from its base under the
eye, to join a bluish-black band which crosses below
the throat ; the forehead is bluish ; the upper surface is
of a fine reddish-brown colour, becoming yellow on the
rump ; the quill-feathers of the wings are greenish-blue,
with the tips black ; the tail-coverts are bluish-green,
and the tail-feathers green. The lower surface is
bright green, with the chin and throat of a rich saffron
yellow colour.
In Africa, this species has been observed nearly as
far south as the Cape of Good Hope. It also occurs
in Madeira, and in the spring passes in troops of twenty
or thirty from the northern shores of Africa, in all
parts of which it is well known, to the islands of the
Mediterranean, and thence in considerable numbers to
the south of Europe, where it remains through the
summer to breed. It is abundant in Turkey, Greece,
and Southern Kussia, and is also common in Spain and
Italy. Those individuals which visit more northern
countries, must be looked upon as stragglers, and the
Bee-eater is thus known as an occasional visitor not
only to this country, but also even to Norway and
Sweden.
In its habits the Bee-eater somewhat resembles the
Swallows, hunting about like them in pursuit of insects.
302
PASSERES. BIRDS.
which it captures on the wing ; it is, however, inferior
to the swallows in power of wing. Its favourite food,
as is well known in all the countries which it frequents,
consists of bees and wasps, and it does not appear ever
to suffer any inconvenience from the stings of those
irascible insects. In reference to this power possessed
by the Bee-eater, and indeed by many other small
birds, of swallowing bees and wasps with impunity,
Mr. Yarrell says, " I believe that the bird pinches the
insect, passing it from head to tail between the points
of its mandibles, till, by repeated compression, parti-
cularly on the abdomen, the sting is either squeezed
out, or its muscular attachments so damaged that the
sting itself is harmless." That the throat and stomach
of the Bee-eater are not furnished with any protective
coat impenetrable by the sting of the bees, is evidenced
by the curious mode of catching these birds described
by Belon, as practised in the island of Crete, where
they abound during the summer, and referred to,
on the authority of the old French naturalist, by our
countryman Izaak Walton, in his " Complete Angler."
In this island the boys fasten a cicada upon a bent pin
or a fish-hook, which is attached to a long slender line ;
the insect is then allowed to fly into the air, when the
Bee-eaters are hawking about ; one of the latter is
pretty sure to dash down upon it, and is captured by
the concealed hook. The bird is said to have an
agreeable odour, and its flesh is very good. Its note,
which is emitted on the wing, is described as a plea-
sant and rich warble.
The Bee-eater breeds in a hole, which it excavates
in the bank of a river, to the depth of about six inches,
and lines with soft moss for the reception of its eggs.
It is gregarious in the breeding season, as at other
times ; and in Southern Russia, particularly about the
rivers Don and "Wolga, where the birds are very
abundant, they dig into the clay banks of the rivers in
such numbers, and so close together, that the banks
are described by some travellers as almost resembling
a honeycomb. The eggs are from five to seven in
number, and of a pure white colour.
THE BLUE-HEADED BEE-EATEE (Merops nubicus).
Of several other African species of the genus Merops,
the Blue-headed Bee-eater is one of the most striking.
It is an inhabitant of Western Africa, and measures
thirteen inches in total length, including the two very
long feathers of the middle of the tail. The plumage
of its upper surface, including the wings and tail, is of
a bright brick-red ; the breast and belly are of a fine
rose colour; the head is greenish-blue, with a black
mark behind each eye ; the tail-coverts are bright blue.
The tail is nearly square at the extremity, but the two
middle feathers project more than three inches beyond
the others ; these are slender, pointed, and tipped with
black.
THE INDIAN BEE-EATER (Merops viridis), which is
an abundant bird in all parts of Hindostan, and also in
Ceylon, measures about nine inches in length, and is
of a golden-green colour above, and green beneath,
with the throat blue ; on each side of the head there is
a black band. The middle feathers of the tail are
much elongated. In seeking its insect prey this bird
exhibits the habits of the Fly-ratchers, that is to say,
it takes up its station on the branch of a tree or bush,
or on some other elevated situation, from which it
dashes off in pursuit of any unlucky insect that passes
by, returning again to its perch after having made its
capture. Mr. Layard observed that these birds some-
times beat their prey against their perch before swal-
lowing it. This mode of procuring food appears to be
adopted principally in the middle of the day, for in the
morning and evening the Green Bee-eaters are observed
hawking about actively in pursuit of insects, in the
manner of the Swallows, and often in company with
those birds. They possess the power of gliding along
for some distance without closing the wings, so that,
as described by Mr. Pearson, the flight of the bird
consists of two parts — "a rapid commencement, in
which the wings flap rapidly; and a quick glide, with
the wings and tail fully expanded. Its motion, espe-
cially in this latter position, is extremely elegant." Its
note is a loud whistling, which, however, is described
by Dr. Jerdon as rather pleasant.
THE PHILIPPINE BEE-EATEE (Merops philippinui)
is another Indian species, which inhabits both the con-
tinent and islands, as far east as those from which it
takes its name. It is about the same size as the pre-
ceding species, and is of a dull-green colour above,
light-green beneath, with the rump and tail bluish-
green; on each side of the head there is the usual
black streak. It is commonly met with in wooded dis-
tricts, where it hunts in small parties, perching upon
trees and other objects, and dashing off over a con-
siderable circuit in pursuit of its insect prey, before
returning to its resting place. Wet places, such as
paddy-fields, appear to be favourite resorts of this bird.
Its note resembles that of the preceding species.
THE VAEIEGATED BEE-EATEE (Merops ornatus),
which appears to be the only species inhabiting Aus-
tralia, is abundantly distributed over the whole of that
continent, migrating from north to south in the spring,
and in the opposite direction at the approach of winter.
It arrives in New South Wales in August, and like the
Swallows, is a favourite with the colonists, as the har-
binger of fine summer weather. This species measures
between nine and ten inches in length, including the
elongated middle tail feathers ; its general colour con-
sists of various shades of green ; the bill is black, as
are also a broad streak on each side of the head, and a
crescent-like band below the throat ; the throat is of a
rich orange-yellow colour ; the tail is black, with the
two middle feathers bluish, as far as the extremity of
the other tail feathers, where they are much narrowed,
the projecting portion being very slender, and black.
The habits of this bird resemble those of the preceding
species; during the day it frequents open parts of the
forests, and in the evening the banks of rivers, where
great numbers are often seen together. It breeds in
the sandy banks of rivers, in which it digs a hole of
about a yard in depth, terminating in a small chamber,
where the eggs, four or five in number and beautifully
white, are deposited on the bare sand.
THE SWALLOW-TAILED BEE-EATEE (Mclittophagus
hirundinaceus] belongs to a genus which is peculiar
to Africa, and of which all the species have the tail
more or less forked. It appears to be spread over a
UPUPID.E. BIRDS. THE HOOPOE.
303
considerable portion of the African continent, but it is
most abundant in the south. The general colour of
the plumage of this fine species is a brilliant green,
both above and below ; the forehead, belly, and tail-
coverts, are blue, or greenish-blue ; a black stripe runs
from the base of the bill through the eye ; the chin
and throat are bright orange-yellow, and this colour is
separated from the green of the breast, by a brilliant
azure band; the quill-feathers of the wings are of a
tine cinnamon-brown colour, and those of the tail dark-
green, tipped with white, and gradually increasing in
length from the middle outwards, forming a tail as
strongly forked as that of a swallow. The length of
this bird is about eight inches and a half. The Swal-
low-tailed Bee-eater is one of the most brilliant and
elegant species of the family.
THE AZURE-THROATED BEE-EATER (Nyctiornis
Athertonif). This species, which is an inhabitant of
India, resides solitarily in the deepest recesses of the
forests, where it appears to pass a quiet and sedentary
existence. It is very shy and wary, so that specimens
are obtained with much difficulty. The food of this
species consists partly of bees, and other hymenop-
terous insects, and partly of beetles, which it captures
by watching for their passage from a perch, and then
suddenly starting in pursuit of them. This species has
a stout bill, more curved than in the preceding forms,
and the tail is nearly square at the end.
The Bee-eaters close the varied series of the Fissi-
rostral birds, and we have now to enter upon the consi-
deration of a group which presents an equal, if not a
greater amount of diversity.
TEIBE IT.— TENUIKOSTRES.
OF all the groups of passerine birds, this certainly con-
tains the most apparently heterogeneous elements, and
it is very difficult to give any general characters which
shall include the whole. The leading character of the
birds composing this tribe, consists in the slenderness
of the bill, which is usually elongated, sometimes
straight, and sometimes curved. In some of these
birds, however, the bill is but little longer than in the
slender-billed dentirostral birds belonging to the next
tribe ; but there is this difference between them, that
in the Tenuirostres, the upper mandible, although
acute at the apex, is not hooked, and its margins are
not armed with teeth, which are the characteristic
marks of the Dentirostres. The Tenuirostral birds are
for the most part inhabitants of warm climates, and in
nearly all of them, those muscles of the lower larynx
which are the agents of song, are entirely wanting. In
Mr. George Gray's arrangement, the Tenuirostral birds
form five families, some of which include a great
number of species; but as little is known of the habits
of many of these, we need only refer to the more
remarkable examples of each.
FAMILY L— UPUPID^l.
In the Upupidse, of which the singular European
Hoopoe is the type, the bill is long and slender, gently
curved throughout its length, and acute at the tip ;
the small nostrils are placed close to the base of the
bill ; the wings are rather short and rounded ; the
tarsi are short and stout, and terminated by three long
and strong toes, armed with curved claws of consider-
able size. These birds are peculiar to the Eastern
hemisphere.
THE COMMON HOOPOE (Upupa Epops}— Plate 8,
fig. 25 — which is a well-known bird in some parts of
Europe, is, however, a bird of passage in that continent;
its true home being in Africa, and it is also met with
in many parts of Asia. It occurs occasionally, but
not rarely in Britain, especially in the southern
counties. The Hoopoe measures about twelve inches
in length ; its head and neck are of a pale brick-red
colour ; the back is of a purple red tint in front,
reddish-white and banded with black behind ; the
wings are black, with some irregular white bands
across them, and the tail is black, with a single trans-
verse white band. The head is adorned with a grace-
ful crest of long feathers, each of which has a black
and white tip, and the whole aspect of the bird, with
this striking ornament erected, is singularly elegant.
In their summer migration, the Hoopoes proceed as
far to the north as Denmark and Sweden, and they
breed in most parts of Europe; but the individuals
which visit this country, usually make their appearance
in the autumn, and probably come to us from the more
northern parts of the European continent, after the
breeding season is over. They have, however, been
known to breed in this country. The nest is made of
a few stalks of grass, mixed with feathers, and is built
in the hole of a tree ; the eggs, which are generally
five or six in number, are of a pale lavender-grey
colour.
The Hoopoe is generally met with in woods in the
vicinity of marshes, where they seek their food, which
consists of worms and insects. They walk and run
upon the ground with great ease when thus engaged.
In the neighbourhood of Bordeaux, these birds are met
with in great numbers, upon an extensive range of
marshy ground occupied by numerous pollard willows,
which are grown there for the sake of their long shoots.
The rotten summits of the trunks of these trees are
visited by the Hoopoes, which find in them an abun-
dant supply of insects. The note of the Hoopoe closely
resembles the word hoop, pronounced softly and
frequently repeated ; from this the name of the bird
is derived.
THE INDIAN HOOPOE (Upupa nigripennis] is a
species very nearly allied to the preceding, from which
it differs principally by its shorter and blacker wings,
and by the absence of white in the tips of the crest
feathers, except occasionally on the hinder part of the
crest. It inhabits India and Ceylon, where it is tolei-
304
PASSKRES. •
JIRDS.-
-PROMEROPID.B.
ably common, taking up its abode in woods, groves of
trees, hedges, and even in single trees, and sometimes
about old buildings. Like the European Hoopoe, it
feeds on the ground, walking and running with great
facility, and picking up insects and worms as it pro-
gresses. It is said by Lieutenant Burgess to be partial
to the sandy ground in the Deccan, feeding upon the
Ant-lions, whose conical pitfalls abound in such situa-
tions. In Ceylon, it has been observed investigating the
dung of cattle in search of the beetles with which that
substance usually swarms. Its note resembles that of
the common Hoopoe. This species breeds in holes in
old buildings and mud walls, into which it brings a few
fibres of some soft substance for the reception of its
eggs, which are of a very pale blue colour.
THE BED-BILLED LBBISOB (Irrisar erythrorhyn-
chus) belongs to a genus, of which numerous species
are found in Africa, in which the tail is very long
and the head destitute of a crest. This species is
about fifteen inches in length, and of a blackish-green
colour, with the abdomen black, the wings and tail
spotted with white, and the rostrum and feet red.
These birds inhabit the tall trees, where they creep
along the branches in search of the insects and larvae
which constitute their principal nourishment. They
are also said to feed upon figs.
THE STTPEBB PLUMED BIRD (Epimachus magnus).
The Plumed birds, as they are called, resemble the
Birds of Paradise in the great development of some
parts of their plumage, and also in the great brilliancy
of colour exhibited by most of the species. They have
accordingly been placed by many writers with the
Birds of Paradise, or in their immediate neighbour-
hood, and they certainly differ but little from those
birds, except in the form of the bill. The species are
inhabitants of New Guinea and its dependencies.
The Superb Plumed Bird is about the size of a
pigeon, but from the enormous development of the tail
feathers, of which the middle ones are twenty-eight
inches long, the whole measures about four feet in
length. The general colour of this beautiful bird is
violet black ; the back of the head and neck, and the
fore part of the belly, are of a brilliant glossy green
colour ; the scapulars are very remarkable for their
peculiar form, the shafts being curved upwards and
furnished with very short webs on the upper surface,
whilst the barbs of the lower surface are very long,
and of a purplish-black colour at the base ; but the
tips of these barbs for a considerable length, are of
a most brilliant golden-green colour. From beneath
each wing springs a tuft of light feathers, resembling
in texture those of the common Bird of Paradise, of a
dusky colour, and about eight inches and a half in
length, and on each side of the tail there are about
half a dozen long and pointed feathers of a bronzed
and gilded green colour, with unequal webs ; the tail
feathers are blue-black and brilliant, the two middle
ones being chestnut.
THE MAGNIFICENT PLUMED BIBD (Epimachus
magni/icus). This species, which is rather smaller
than the preceding, is of a general black colour, with
violet and green reflections in certain lights ; the throat
and breast exhibit the most vivid metallic blue, green,
and violet tints, in a perfectly circumscribed patch of
considerable size and nearly triangular form, bounded
below by a bright, orange-yellow, transverse line ; the
tail, unlike that of the preceding species, is short, and
nearly square, and on each side of the base of the tail
beneath the wings, there spring a few light decomposed
plumes, resembling those forming the tufts of the true
Birds of Paradise. This bird inhabits New Guinea.
THE RIFLE BIBD (Ptiloris paradiseus). This
magnificent species has only been discovered in the
south-eastern corner of Australia, between the Hunter
River and Moreton Bay. It measures nearly eleven
inches in length. The two sexes are very different in
their colours; as Mr. Gould remarks, " While the male
is adorned with hues only equalled by some species oi
the TrocTiilidce, or Humming-birds, the dress of the
female is as sombre as can well be imagined." The
general colour of the plumage of the male is a rich
velvet black, with a brownish-violet lustre on the
upper surface ; the feathers of the abdomen and flanks
are broadly margined with rich olive-green ; the crown
of the head and the throat are covered with beautiful
scale-like, metallic, bluish-green feathers, and the two
middle feathers of the tail are also of a metallic-green
colour. The female is very dissimilar. The whole
upper surface in this sex is greyish-brown, the feathers
of the head having each a white line down the centre;
the whole lower surface is buff, paler on the throat, and
each feather of the breast and abdomen has a black,
arrow-shaped mark upon it. The bill and feet are
black in both sexes. Scarcely anything is known of
the habits of this bird, which is said to climb about
upon the trunks of the trees in the Australian forests.
Mr. Gould has described a second species of this
genus, under the name of Ft. Victories, in compliment
to the Queen.
FAMILY H.-PROMEROPID^l.
THE birds of this family, to which the name of Sun-
birds is frequently applied, are generally splendid in
their plumage, and like most birds in which this is the
case, they are confined to the tropical parts of the
earth's surface. They are, however, common to both
hemispheres, although the species found in the Old
World all differ in certain respects from those inhabit-
ing America. The majority of the species belong to
the Eastern Hemisphere.
The family is distinguished by having the bill long
and slender, and usually more or less curved, with the
nostrils situated at the base of the upper mandible, and
covered by a scale ; the wings are of moderate length,
and the tarsi short and clothed with broad scales. In
their general habits these birds resemble the Humming
birds, which they rival in splendour of colouring, fre-
quenting the flowers in search of the small insects
usually found amongst the petals, which they extract
by means of their long slender bills. According to
some writers they also feed upon the sweet juices of
the flowers; and from this opinion they have been
denominated Sucriers, or Sugar-birds, by the French
authors.
THE CAPE SUX-BIRD. BIRDS. THE PURPLE SUN-BIRD.
305
THE CAPE SUN-BIRD (Promerops cq/er), the only
species of its genus, is, as implied in its name, a native
of the Cape of Good Hope, where it exhibits a par-
ticular partiality for the flowers of the Protea. It
measures about fifteen inches in length, and has a
very long, wedge-shaped tail, and a slender, black,
and slightly-curved bill. The plumage of the upper
parts, including the wings and tail, is greenish-brown,
with the top of the head varied with grey and brown,
and the rump and upper tail-coverts olive-green ; the
throat is dingy white, bordered on each side by a
black line ; the breast is brownish-orange, the belly
nearly white, spotted with brown, and the lower tail-
coverts are of a fine yellow colour. According to Le
Vaillant's observations, this bird feeds upon the juices
of flowers. When he kept them in confinement, he
procured the flowers of the Protea and other plants
to which the birds are attached, and they resorted to
them freely in search of nourishment ; or, in default of
flowers, they fed readily upon honey mixed with water.
They build their nests on the forked branches of trees.
THE BRONZED SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia cenea). The
genus Nectarinia, to which this bird belongs, includes
upwards of a hundred known species — all inhabitants
of the warm regions of Africa and Asia. Of these we
can of course only notice a few, and we may com-
mence with the African species, of which the Bronzed
Sun-bird is one.
In the male of this species the whole upper surface
is of a bronze colour, with bluish and greenish tints in
certain lights ; the wings and tail are of a bronzed
black, and the lower surface of the body, the bill, and
feet are black. The female, on the other hand, is
of an olive colour above and blackish-brown below.
This bird makes its nest in the hole of a tree, where
it lays five or six eggs of a pale rose colour, with small
reddish spots.
THE BEAUTIFUL SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia pulchella),
which is an inhabitant of the west coast of Africa, and
especially of Senegal, is a charming little species, of a
brilliant metallic-green colour, with the exception of
the breast, which is red, and the wings and tail which
are black. The bill and feet are also black. These
are the tints of the male, in which the two middle tail-
feathers are about two inches longer than the rest ; the
female is far more sober in her clothing, exhibiting only
different tints of brown. The length of the bird is from
six to seven inches.
THE VIOLET-HEADED SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia vio-
lacea), a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is a rather
smaller species than the preceding. It has the head
and neck of a violet colour, passing on the throat to
metallic blue and green ; the rest of the plumage is
olive-green, with the exception of the abdomen which
is orange colour. The female is of an olive-green
colour. The bill and feet are black in both sexes.
The male is said to have an agreeable song. The nest
of this species is built in a bush, and composed of moss
and lichens externally, with an inner lining of hair.
The eggs are usually five in number, and yellowish-
white, with brown dots.
THE SHINING SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia famosa), the
GREEN SUGAR-BIRD of the Dutch colonists at the Cape
VOL. i.
of Good Hope, where the species is very abundant,
is one of the most beautiful and remarkable of the
African species. It measures rather more than nine
inches in length, and has a long tail, of which the two
middle feathers are about two inches longer than the
rest. The general colour of the plumage of the male is
a fine golden green, passing to steel blue on the lower
part of the belly. The quill feathers of the wings and
tail are violet black ; but the secondaries and the two
elongated middle tail feathers are margined with golden
green ; a deep-black line runs from the base of the bill
to the eye, and on each side of the breast there is a
small tuft of yellow feathers. The bill and feet are
black. The female is smaller than the male, and of
a yellowish-grey colour above, yellow beneath. The
male is said to have a pleasing song. The nest is
composed of fibres and moss, and lined with hair.
The eggs are four or five in number, and of a greenish
colour.
THE SPLENDID SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia splendida),
another African species, and the last from that con-
tinent to which we shall refer, is remarkable for the
brilliancy of the violet tint, with purple and blue reflec-
tions, exhibited by the head, neck, breast, and abdomen.
Over these parts are scattered numerous points of bright
red, with golden and green tints. The upper surface is
of a fine golden-green colour ; and the feathers of the
wings and tail are violet black. These are the colours
of the male ; but the partner of this splendid bird is far
more modest in her dress, her plumage presenting only
different shades of brown on the upper surface, whilst
the lower parts are greyish. The nest is placed in the
hollow trunk of a tree ; and the eggs, which are four or
five in number, are white.
THE PURPLE SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia asiatica), which
is an abundant species in all parts of India, varies con-
siderably in colour according to the season, the breeding
dress of the male being a deep violet-blue, with greenish
lustre, and with a tuft of yellow feathers on each side
of the breast. The female is of an earthy brown above
and greenish-yellow beneath. The length of the bird
is about four inches and a half.
The Purple Sun-bird is found both on the continent
of India and in Ceylon, and is observed to feed in part
upon the honey which it extracts from flowers, and
in part upon insects. The latter it captures, not only
from the flowers over which it hovers while exploring
their recesses with its curved bill, but also from the
branches and twigs of plants ; and it has been seen by
Mr. Jerdon to capture insects on the wing. Its note is
a feeble but sweet chirping. The nest which is a dome-
shaped, or bottle-shaped structure, is suspended from
the end of a twig, and is sometimes attached to the web
of a spider in a suitable situation, and composed partly
of cobweb, in which Mr. Layard says he has seen the
spider still at work, thus rendering the concealment
of the nest very complete. Mr. Jerdon describes
the process of building adopted by this ingenious little
architect as follows :— " The nest was commenced on a
thick spider's web, by attaching to it various fragments
of paper, cloth, straw, grass, and other substances, till
it had secured a firm hold of the twig to which the web
adhered ; and the nest suspended on this was then
2Q
306
PAS8ERES. BIRDS. NECTAKINir>.E.
completed by adding other fragments of the same
materials. The hole is at one side, near the top, and
has a slight projecting roof or awning over it." Mr.
Layard describes the entrance to the nest in the same
way as above ; but Captain Tickell states that the open-
ing is at the bottom ; so that if he is correct in his
determination of the bird, it would seem that there
is a remarkable diversity in the practice of different
individuals of the same species. The female lays two
or three eggs, of a pale greenish-grey colour, with
minute dusky spots.
LOTEN'S SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia Lotenia) has pre-
cisely the same habits, and builds its nest in the same
way, as the preceding species, from which it differs in
its larger size— the length being about five inches and
a half — and in its much longer and more curved bill,
which measures an inch in length. Its plumage is
glossed with green, and the lower parts, from the breast
backwards, are brown.
THE BLUE-THROATED SUN-BIRD (Nectarinia zey-
lonica) is an abundant species in Bengal, and occurs
also in other parts of India, in Ceylon, and the Indian
islands. It measures about four inches in length, and
has the plumage of the upper parts olive, and that of
the lower surface yellow ; the throat, the front of the
neck, and the breast are of a brilliant violet-blue colour.
It has a weak, shrill song, compared, by Mr. Blyth, to
that of the British hedge-sparrow. The nest is sus-
pended, and has the entrance at the top. Mr. Blyth
describes a specimen in his possession as a beautiful
fabric. It was attached, nearly throughout its length,
to a small thorny twig, and was of an elongated pear
shape, composed of soft vegetable fibres, very neatly
interwoven with coarser strips of grass, leaves, and
fragments of bark on the outside. The inner lining was
composed of the softest fibres, which were carried over
the lower part of the entrance so as to fasten down its
rim, and over the entrance was a roof or canopy. The
Hindoos of the vicinity of Calcutta take these birds
with bird-lime, and after plucking out the wing pri-
maries to prevent their fluttering, tie them to a stick
and carry them about for sale. They will live for a
short time upon sugar and water, but Mr. Blyth found
that jam was a better food for them.
THE ORANGE-BACKED SUN-BIRD (Dicceum trigono-
stigma). The preceding species, which we have referred
to the genus Nectarinia, have been divided by many
modern writers into several genera, of which, however,
the soundness seems rather doubtful. The genus
Dicceum, of which about twenty-four species are known,
inhabiting the countries from India to Australia, is dis-
tinguished by having the edges of the mandibles very
slightly denticulated, small basal nostrils, and a short,
square, or slightly-notched tail.
The Orange-backed Sunbird is a small species, mea-
suring only about three inches in length. It is of a
bluish-grey colour, with the belly and a triangular
spot on the back orange-yellow. It is an inhabitant of
Tenasserim, Malacca, and Sumatra, and also extends
into Borneo, where it is not uncommon about Labuan.
Its habits are described as resembling those of the
English golden-crested wren ; it haunts low brush-
wood, continually emitting a low, shrill chirp, and is so
fearless that it may be almost touched before it takes
to its wings. The Malays call it the " Spark bird."
and this name is said to be very appropriate, as, when
darting about the bushes, the cock-bird looks as bright
as a flash of fire. The nest is about the size of the egg
of a goose, which it also resembles in shape ; it is sus-
pended by the smaller end from the slender twig of a
tree, and is composed of moss, lined with some white
fibres and a few feathers. A young bird, taken from the
nest, was brought up by Mrs. Motley upon rice and
banana pulp. It became perfectly tame and fearless,
and would sit upon the finger without attempting to
flyaway; "and though its whole body, feathers and
all, might have been shut up in a walnut, it would peck
at a finger held towards it with great fierceness."
THE CRIMSON-THROATED SUN-BIRD (Dicceum
hirundinaceum) is an abundant bird in Australia,
although from its minuteness it generally escapes the
notice of the colonists. The male has the whole upper
surface, including the wings and tail, black, glossed
with steel blue ; the throat and breast, and the under
tail-coverts, are scarlet, and the abdomen is white, with
a large black patch in the centre. The female is dull
black above, with the throat and abdomen pale buff,
and the under tail-coverts pale scarlet. The length of
the bird is about four inches. This bird is found
principally upon the she-oaks (Casuarince'), amongst the
upper branches of which it plays about, uttering its
pleasing song. It is especially partial to those trees
which bear upon their branches a misseltoe-like para-
site, of the genus Loranthus, upon the sweet and juicy
berries of which it delights to feed, as was discovered
by M. Jules Verreaux. It also feeds upon insects, and
according to Mr. Gould, these constitute its principal
nourishment. M. Verreaux indicates that it is by the
agency of this bird that the parasite above referred to
is transferred from one tree to another. The nest is a
beautiful little purse-like structure, with an opening on
one side ; it is suspended from the twig of a tree, and
composed of cotton-like fibres, obtained from the seed
vessels of plants. The eggs are three or four in num-
ber and dull white, with numerous brown spots scat-
tered over their surface.
THE SCARLET CLOAK-BIRD (Drepanis coccinea)
belongs to a small genus with a greatly curved bill,
of which five species have been discovered in the
islands of the South Sea Archipelago. The present
species is about six inches long, and has the whole
plumage of a brilliant scarlet colour, with the exception
of the quills of the wings and tail, which are black.
This bird is abundant in the Sandwich Islands, where
its splendid scarlet feathers are employed in the fabrica-
tion of cloaks and other articles of dress, intended
especially for the use of the chiefs. Many specimens
of this manufacture are exhibited in the ethnological
collection of the British Museum.
THE BRILLIANT HALF-BILL (Hemignathus lucidus)
is another species very nearly allied to the preceding,
and, like it, an inhabitant of the Sandwich Islands. It
is remarkable for the singular structure of its bill, which
is very long and much arched. In fact the bill does
not project in the ordinary manner from the forehead,
but rises from its base, so that the summit of the arch
BIRDS. TROCHILID^:.
307
is higher than the forehead ; the lower mandible is not
more than half as long as the upper one, into the lower
surface of which it fits. This curious bird has the
upper surface of the body olive-coloured ; the forehead
and cheeks, the throat and breast, are bright yellow,
as are also the eyebrows. The female is more sober
in her colours, and has no yellow except on the eye-
brows. The length of the bird is about six inches.
THE BLUE GUIT-GUIT (Ccereba cyaned). Besides
the preceding and numerous allied species inhabiting
the Old World, a few birds belonging to this family are
found in the tropical parts of America. The Blue
Guit-guit is one of these. It has a nearly straight,
acute bill, of moderate length, and a short square tail.
The general colour of its plumage is a fine, lustrous,
indigo blue, the forehead is brilliant ultramarine blue,
and a violet-black band passes over the eyes. It mea-
sures about five inches in length. This beautiful little
bird is abundant in Brazil and Guiana, especially in
the latter country, whence numerous specimens are
brought to Europe, where they are often regarded as
Humming-birds. In its habits this bird closely resem-
bles the rest of the Nectarinidai ; it hovers about the
flowers in search of their sweet juices and of the insects
which conceal themselves among the petals, and also
captures insects upon the branches of trees and shrubs.
The nest is suspended at the extremity of a slender
twig ; it is constructed very artificially with straws and
other coarse materials externally, and lined with soft
matters, woven into the form of a chemist's retort with
a neck about a foot long, through which the little
architects obtain access to the true nest situated in the
belly of the retort. Here the eggs are laid, and thus
the brood and their parents are sheltered from their
enemies.
THE CAYENNE DAENIS (Darnis cayana), another
species abundant in Guiana, is rather more than four
inches in length, and of a glossy green colour, streaked
with white on the lower surface. It resides in the
| forests, and usually keeps in the upper parts of high
i trees, preferring those which are in flower. Here it
( creeps about in every direction upon the branches and
twigs in search of spiders and insects, which appear to
constitute at least the greater part of its nourishment.
The nest is built at the top of lofty trees.
THE BLACK AND YELLOW CEBTHIOLE (Certkiola
flaveola] is an inhabitant of tropical South America
and the West Indian islands, where it appears to be
abundant. Its general colour is ashy-grey, but the
head is blackish, with a white streak over each eye,
united behind the head. The anterior part of the wings
is margined with bright yellow, and the rump, breast,
and abdomen are yellow, becoming greyish towards the
vent. The length of the bird is about four inches and
a half. The Certhiole is called the Sucrier in Cayenne,
from its frequenting the sugar-canes for the sake of
their sweet viscous juice ; it also haunts flowers, partly
in search of their nectar, but partly for the insects con-
tained in them. It is said to have a short but agree-
able song. During the greater part of the year it is a
very solitary bird, and even during the breeding season
usually endeavours to keep all its fellows from the place
which it has selected for its dwelling. Its nest is sus-
pended at the extremity of the most flexible twigs, and
it usually selects those for this purpose which hang over
the middle of a brook. The nest, which is exclusively
the work of the female, is constructed of moss, dry
vegetable fibres, and the cotton and down of plants.
These materials are so closely interwoven, and so
strongly attached to the supporting twig, that the
whole must be broken to pieces if it be desired to
remove it without cutting the twigs. The entrance is
from below, and the nest is divided vertically by a
partition into two chambers, one of which serves as a
sort of staircase to enable the bird to ascend to the top
of the nest, whence it then descends into the second
chamber, which has no direct communication with the
exterior. In this chamber the female lays her eggs
and performs the business of incubation, sheltered
from ah1 her enemies ; security is still further provided
for by the male keeping watch in the outer chamber
of this ingeniously- constructed dwelling. With this
interesting species we may close our notice of the
present family, and pass to that of the Humming-birds.
FAMILY III.— TROCHILIDJE.
The birds forming this family, which are undoubtedly
the gems of our ornithological treasuries, are peculiar
to the New World, in the tropical parts of which they
abound, adorning the gardens, fields, and woods, and
even the mountain sides to a considerable height, with
their swiftly glancing fairy-like forms, and brilliant
sparkling colours. These charming little birds, the
smallest, as a group, of all the feathered tribes, are
furnished with a long and more or less acute bill,
which is sometimes straight and sometimes curved, and
has the lateral margins of its upper mandible dilated
beyond the edges of the lower one. The nostrils are
situated at the base of the upper mandible, and con-
cealed beneath a large scale, which is sometimes covered
with feathers. The wings are long and pointed, remind-
ing one somewhat of those of the Swifts, with which, as
already stated, the Humming-birds have a very manifest
affinity. They are moved by powerful muscles, and the
keel of the sternum, to which the great pectoral muscles
are attached, is probably more developed in these than
in any other birds. The structure of the sternum pre-
sents a very close general resemblance to that prevail-
ing in the Swifts. The legs are short and slender,
indicating that the birds are not in the habit of alight-
ing on the ground ; but the feet are terminated by long
toes, well adapted for perching upon the twigs of trees
and shrubs, which are the favourite resting-places oi
these feathered gems. The structure of the tongue and
its accessories is very remarkable in the Humming-
birds. The tongue itself is cleft nearly to its base; and
the branches of the hyoid bone, which supports the
tongue, are prolonged round the back of the skull
almost like springs. By the agency of this remarkable
organization, which, however, we shall meet with else-
where amongst birds, the tongue acquires great capa-
bility of protrusion and retraction, so that it may work
within the tubular bill like the piston of a pump ; and
the birds are said to use it in this way in sucking up
the sweet juices of flowers, which certainly constitute
PASSERES. BIRDS. TROCIIIUD.E.
a portion of their food, and have been regarded by
many naturalists as forming nearly their whole nour-
ishment. From the observations of modern ornitholo-
gists, however, there would appear to be no doubt that
the Humming-birds are decidedly insectivorous, and
that their principal object in visiting the flowers, about
which they hover from morning till night, is to obtain
the small beetles and other insects which abound
amongst the petals. Hovering in the air with its wings
in such rapid motion as to be quite invisible, or only
apparent like a grey mist on each side of the bird, the
little Humming-bird buries its long bill in the interior
of a flower, and then protruding its forked tongue, which
is said to be indued with a viscid secretion, it readily
seizes the little beetles and other insects which are
attracted by the nectar, and retracting its tongue,
swallows them immediately. While thus occupied,
the rapidly-vibrating wings produce a humming noise,
whence the name applied to the birds. Some of the
species do not depend wholly upon flowers for their
supply of insect food, but have been observed capturing
flies on the wing in the same way as the Flycatchers —
namely, by taking up a post of observation upon the
tip of a dead branch or twig, and flying off in pursuit
of their prey as soon as it comes within sight The
rarely meeting without a battle, when the vanquished
bird is compelled to quit the field; and the victor
returns to feast upon the flowers, for which he has
fought so bravely. An immense number of species of
these beautiful birds have been described ; but of these
we can only refer to comparatively very few. For
further information upon their forms and habits, illus-
trated by the most life-like figures, the reader must
consult Mr. Gould's magnificent work, the " Monograph
of the Trochilidse."
THE RUBY-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD (TrocMlus
colubris) , one of the most widely-distributed species of this
family, is a beautiful bird, of a rich golden-green colour
above, and white, with a golden-green tinge beneath,
except on the throat which is of the most brilliant ruby
red; the wings and tail are purplish-brown, and the bill,
eyes, and feet black. The female differs from the male
in the absence of the brilliant crimson colour on the
throat, and in having the tail feathers tipped with white.
The total length of the bird is three inches and a half.
Like many other Humming-birds, the Ruby-throat is
migratory ; but its wanderings extend to a far greater
distance than those of any other species. It passes the
winter in the warm regions of Central America, and
about the month of March sets off on its migrations
towards the north. In the course of this month it
arrives in the southern states of the American Union,
and thence gradually advances, reaching the latitude of
New York generally in May. From the northern
states it passes into Canada, and even visits the terri-
tories of Hudson's Bay Company. In all these districts
it breeds, and in some places rears two broods in
the year.
The nest, as described by Wilson, is generally fixed
on the upper side of a horizontal branch, not among
the twigs, but on the body of the branch itself. It is
about an inch in diameter, composed externally of
fragments of lichen glued on with a sort of saliva,
within which is a thick layer of the wings of certain
seeds ; and the whole is lined with the fine down of the
mullein and of the stalks of ferns. The base of the
nest is continued round the branch, so that when viewed
from below, it appears to be a mere mossy knob or pro-
tuberance. In some cases, it is built against the moss-
grown trunk of an old tree, and occasionally upon the
strong stem of some low growing plant. The eggs are
two in number, and pure white. Tubular flowers con-
stitute the favourite resort of this Humming-bird ; and
Wilson's description of his behaviour about a thicket of
full-blown trumpet-flowers may be given here as an
illustration of the habits of this bird. " He poises or
suspends himself on wing," says Wilson, " for the space
of two or three seconds, so steadily that his wings be-
come invisible, or only like a mist ; and you can plainly
distinguish the pupil of his eye looking round with great
quickness and circumspection. The glossy golden green
of his back and the fire of his throat, dazzling in the
sun, form altogether a most interesting appearance.
When he alights, which he frequently does, he always
prefers the small dead twigs of a tree or bush, where
he dresses and arranges his plumage with great dex-
terity. His only note is a single chirp, not louder than
that of a small cricket or grasshopper, generally uttered
while passing from flower to flower, or when engaged
in fight with his fellows ; for when the males meet at
the same bush or flower, a battle instantly takes place,
and the combatants ascend in the air, chirping, darting,
and circling round each other, till the eye is no longer
able to follow them. The conqueror, however, gene-
rally returns to the place to reap the fruits of his victory."
Mr. Gould, who saw great numbers of these birds at
Washington, does not give them so pugnacious a char-
acter, and is inclined to think that it must be during
the breeding season that the males are so quarrelsome.
" The flight of the Humming-bird," says Wilson,
" from flower to flower, greatly resembles that of a
bee, but is so much more rapid, that the latter appears
a mere loiterer to him. He poises himself on wing,
while he thrusts his long, slender, tubular tongue into
the flowers in search of food. He sometimes enters a
room by the window, examines the bouquets of flowers,
and passes out by the opposite door or window. 'He
has been known to take refuge in a hothouse during
the cool nights of autumn, to go regularly out in the
morning, and to return as regularly in the evening, for
several days together." The food of this species, accord-
ing to Audubon, consists principally of insects, usually
small beetles, which, with some equally diminutive
flies, are commonly found in the stomach. The pug-
city of the Humming-bird is displayed not only in
combats with his own species; he will frequently attack
the king bird and the martin with some degree of suc-
cess ; and an old French writer declared that he could
drive his slender bill into the body of a crow with
such vigour, as to bring even this gigantic opponent to
the ground! A still more absurd notion, which we
have seen published not long since, is, that the Hum-
ming-bird will overcome even the eagle by perching
on his head and picking out the feathers from that part
of the king of birds !
THE EMERALD HUMMING-BIRD. BIRDS. THE GIANT HUMMING-BIRD.
309
DE LALANDE'S CRESTED HUMMING-BIRD (Trochilus
Delalandi) — Plate 8, fig. 26— is an inhabitant of the
southern part of Brazil. It is about the same size as
the preceding species, but the male is remarkable for
possessing a long crest, terminating in a single slender
plume, upon the head. The whole crown of the head,
including the crest, is of a brilliant metallic green colour,
but the long single feather terminating the crest is
black. The upper surface is bronzed green ; the breast
and abdomen are of an intense shining violet-blue
colour ; the sides of the neck, the flanks, and under
tail-coverts are brownish-grey ; the quill feathers of
the wings purplish-brown, and those of the tail black,
except the middle ones, which are green. The female
has the whole lower surface dull greyish-brown, and
is destitute of the elongated crest. The nest of this
species is suspended from the fine twigs of bamboos,
and probably of other plants ; it is composed of fine
fibrous roots, moss, and lichens, together with the in-
volucres of a composite plant, matted together with
fine cobwebs. Several nearly allied species with simi-
lar crests are described by Mr. Gould, who forms them
into a genus under the name of Cephalepis ; they are
called by him in English Plover-crests, from the simi-
larity of the crest to that of the plover.
THE LONG -TAILED EMERALD HUMMING-BIRD
(Trochilus polytmus) appears to be peculiar to the
island of Jamaica, amongst the many brilliant-feathered
inhabitants of which it is regarded by Mr. Gosse as
the most beautiful. The general colour of the plumage
of the male is a fine metallic green, most brilliant on
the breast and abdomen ; the whole top of the head is
deep black, as is also the tail ; the quill feathers of the
wings and the under tail-coverts are purplish-black;
and the bill is coral-red with a black tip. The length
of the bird, from the tip of the bill to that of the ordi-
nary tail feathers, is five inches ; but beyond this two of
the feathers of the tail are prolonged for a distance of
nearly six inches, forming long streamers, which float
behind the bird in its rapid flight. The female is des-
titute of these elongated feathers, and has the lower
surface white. Of the beautiful appearance of this
bird in its native haunts, Mr. Gosse has given us the
following eloquent description : — " The beautiful Long-
tailed Humming-bird," he says, "came shooting by
with its two long violet-black feathers floating like
streamers behind it, and began to suck at the blossoms
of the tree in which I was. Quite regardless of my
presence, consciously secure in its power of wing, the
lovely little gem hovered around the trunk, and threaded
the branches, now probing here and there, its cloudy
wings on each side vibrating with a noise like that of a
spinning-wheel, and its emerald breast for a moment
flashing brilliantly in the sun's ray ; then apparently
black, all the light being absorbed ; then, as it slightly
turned, becoming a dark olive ; then, in an instant,
blazing forth again in emerald effulgence. Several
times it came close to me, as I sat motionless with
delight, and holding my breath for fear of alarming it
and driving it away ; it seemed almost worth a voyage
across the sea to behold so radiant a creature in all the
wildness of its native freedom."
THE TUFTED COQUETTE (Lopliornis ornatus). The
male of this beautiful little species is adorned on each
side of the neck with a tuft of long, narrow plumes,
of a light chestnut-red colour, each terminated by a
brilliant spot of emerald green ; these plumes form a
triangular ruff on each side of the neck. The crown
of the head bears a rich chestnut-red crest, and the
face and throat are emerald green. This species is
widely distributed over the low districts of tropical
America.
GOULD'S COQUETTE (Lophornis Gouldii), a nearly
allied but rare species, has the neck tufts pure white,
with emerald green tips to the feathers. There are
several other species of the genus Lophornis, but to
these our space forbids our alluding.
THE RUBY AND TOPAZ HUMMING-BIRD (Chry-
solampis moschitus), one of the commonest species of
the group of Humming-birds, specimens of which are
imported into Europe by thousands, is found abundantly
in Brazil and Guiana. Common as it is, however, the
male is an exceedingly beautiful bird, the whole top of
his head being of a brilliant ruby-red, and the chin,
throat, and breast golden or topaz yellow ; the rest of
the plumage exhibits different shades of brown, and the
tail is of a rich dark chestnut-red. The nest is cup-
shaped, composed of cottony materials, and adorned
with fragments of lichens on the outside.
THE GIANT HUMMING-BIRD (Patagona gigas), the
largest species of this family, measures between eight
and nine inches in length ; but as the tail is compara-
tively short, its bulk is far greater than that of some
other species which approach it in total length, but in
which the tail feathers are much elongated. It is of a
pale brown colour with a greenish gloss above, and
reddish beneath ; the wings, which are very long, reach-
ing nearly to the extremity of the tail, are blackish-
brown. This species migrates to the southward from
the equatorial regions of South America, where it has
been met with at an elevation of from twelve to four-
teen thousand feet, and passes along the chain of the
Andes through Chili into the country of the Araucanos.
Its flight is extremely bold and vigorous, as might be
expected from the length and form of its wings, which
resemble those of the Swift ; but it is nevertheless
able to flit with ease from flower to flower, and to poise
itself in the air while examining their recesses for
its insect food. The nest is cup-shaped, rather large,
and constructed of mosses, lichens, and other similar
materials, held together, as usual in the Humming-birds,
by cobwebs ; it is placed on the forked branch of a tree
or shrub, generally overhanging a rapid stream of water.
THE GLOWING PUFF-LEG (Eriocnemis vestitus). The
names of Puff-leg and Eriocnemis have been given
to a genus of Humming-birds in which the legs are sur-
rounded by a tuft of delicate small plumes, which are
usually of a white colour. Of the present species Mr.
Gould says, " It is unquestionably one of the finest
species of its genus, and one of the most resplendent
of the Trochilidse." It is a native of Columbia, where
it is found abundantly in the vicinity of Bogota. The
general colour of the plumage in the male is bronzed
green, varying in tint on different parts of the body ;
the lower part of the back, and the upper tail-coverts,
which are largely developed, are of the most brilliant
310
PASSEKES. BIRDS. TROCHILID-E.
golden green ; the abdomen is also golden green ; a
circular spot on the chin, and the lower tail-coverts,
are metallic blue ; the wings are purplish-brown, and
the tail blue-black. The colouring of the female is very
similar but less brilliant, and the snow-white tufts of
feathers surrounding the legs are much smaller than in
the male.
THE METALLIC PUFF-LEG (Eriocnemis Alince) is a
smaller, but almost more brilliant species of this genus,
the forehead and the whole lower surface of the body
in the male being of the most splendid golden-green
colour. The legs of the male are surrounded by very
large tufts of snow-white feathers. It is an inhabitant
of the vicinity of Bogota.
LOED DERBY'S PUFF-LEG (Eriocnemis Derbianus).
This species, which has hitherto only been found upon
the extinct volcano of Purace" in New Grenada, is
remarkable amongst the Puff-legs for having the tufts
of delicate feathers with which its legs are adorned, of
a black colour. Its plumage is generally of a golden
bronze hue, but the upper and under tail-coverts are of
a brilliant golden green.
There are numerous other species of Puff-legs, but of
these we can only notice that described under the name
of Eriocnemis Aurelice, in which the leg- tufts are white,
tinged with chestnut-brown.
THE WHITE-BOOTED RACKET-TAIL (Spathura
Underwoodi). Mr. Gould gives the name of Racket-
tails to some elegant little species of Humming-birds
allied to the Puff-legs, and like them furnished with
tufts of delicate plumes surrounding the feet, but dis-
tinguished by having the outer tail feathers in the male
much elongated, very slender for part of their length,
and terminated by a broad palette. The present is a
beautiful little species, measuring about three inches in
length, exclusive of the long tail feathers, which are two
inches and a half long. The general colour is bronzed
green, becoming brilliant green on the throat of the
male, and the leg- tufts or " boots" are white. This
bird is found on the Columbian Andes, over a consider-
able space, but appears to be confined to the regions
between five and nine thousand feet above the sea.
When hovering before a flower, the motion of its wings
is exceedingly rapid, and produces a loud humming,
and the elongated tail feathers are very conspicuous.
Two other species, the PERUVIAN and the RED-BOOTED
RACKET-TAIL, have the leg-tufts reddish-buff.
THE LITTLE HERMIT (Phaetornis eremita), a small
species about four inches in length, is of a reddish-buff
colour, with the head, neck, and back bronzed green,
the wings deep purplish-brown, and the tail feathers
bronzed brown, tinged with green, and tipped with
deep buff; across the breast there is a black crescent-
shaped mark. This species is found in Southern Brazil,
where it appears to be abundant. Its nest is composed
of various fine vegetable fibres held together by spider's
web ; it is in the form of a round deep cup, tapering
into a long point at the bottom. It is ingeniously
attached by means of cobweb to the extremity of
a leaf, forming a most elegant cradle for the two
young birds which are hatched from the delicate
pink-white eggs.
THE CAYEN1TE HERMIT (Phaetornis stiperciliosus'),
one of the commonest and best known of the Humming-
birds, is abundant in Guiana, and also occurs in the
northern provinces of Brazil. It measures rather more
than seven inches in length, including the very long
bill, which is about an inch and three quarters, and the
two elongated middle tail feathers, which project nearly
an inch beyond the rest of the tail. The latter char-
acter is common to nearly all the species of the genus
Phaetornis. This bird is of a bronzed brown colour
on the upper surface, with a buff superciliary streak ;
there is also a buff streak beneath the eye ; the lower
surface is of a dusky fawn colour, passing to buff on
the lower tail-coverts ; the quill feathers of the wings
are purplish-brown, and those of the tail bronzed green,
becoming blackish towards the tip, where the lateral
feathers are terminated by an arrow-shaped buff mark ;
the prolonged apical portion of the two middle feathers
is white. The upper mandible is black, and the lower
one reddish, with the tip black. There are numerous
other species of the genus Phaetornis, most of them
remarkable for elegance of form, although none exhibit
those brilliant metallic tints with which many other
Humming-birds are adorned.
THE STELLA HUMMING-BIRD (Oreotrochilus Es-
tella) is a beautiful species which is met with in the
Bolivian Andes at a considerable elevation, specimens
having been obtained at more than eleven thousand
feet above the sea-level. The male is about five inches
in length, and has the whole plumage of the upper
parts greyish olive-brown, the lower surface white, with
a somewhat triangular brown band occupying the centre
of the abdomen, and a most brilliant golden-green patch
on the throat, bounded behind by a crescent-shaped
band of violet-black tinged with shining blue. The
female is smaller than the male, and has the throat
white, spotted with brown. From the great elevation
at which this bird lives, specimens are rare in collec-
tions. It inhabits dry places, and is solitary in its
habits, in other respects resembling the rest of its family
— flitting about from flower to flower, and often resting
upon the twigs of shrubs and trees. Its food consists
of insects and the pollen of flowers.
THE WHITE-SIDED HILL-STAR (Oreotrochihis leu-
copleurus} resembles the preceding species, but has a
large triangular black patch upon the abdomen. It is
an inhabitant of the mountains of Chili, where it is met
with abundantly at an elevation of ten thousand feet.
The nest of this species is described by Mr. Gould as
a dense and warm structure, composed of moss, fine
vegetable substances, and feathers, and larger in pro-
portion to the size of the bird than is usual in tin's
family ; it is attached by means of cobwebs to the side
of a rock.
Several other species of the genus Oreotrochilus are
described by Mr. Gould, but of these we can only notice
two charming little birds, the CHIMBORAZIAN HILL-
STAR (0. Chimborazo), and the PICHINCHA HILL-STAR
(0. Pichincha) — the former an inhabitant of the high
mountain Chimborazo, where it is found at an elevation
of from twelve thousand to sixteen thousand feet, and
the second at a somewhat lower altitude on Pichincha
and Cotopaxi. Both these species are green, with the
lower surface white, and the males have the head of a
THE CRIMSON TOPAZ. BIRDS. THE JACOBIX.
311
splendid blue colour ; but in the Chimborazo species
the throat is brilliant green, while in that from the
Pichincha the azure tint of the head is continued down
to the crescentic black band, which in both forms
crosses below the throat.
THE SICKLE - BILLED HUMMING -BIED (Grypus
Aquila) is one of the most singular species of the family,
from the remarkable structure of its bill, which is curved
to such an extent as to resemble the agricultural imple-
ment referred to in the name of the species. The bill
has the upper mandible black and the lower one yellow;
the upper surface of the body is shining dark green, the
lower surface blackish, streaked with buff on the throat
and breast, and with white on the abdomen ; the wings
are purplish-brown, and the tail feathers green, tipped
with white. It is one of the larger species, measuring
about six inches in length. The specimens known are
from Bogota and Central America. The bird is very
rare in collections, and nothing is known of its habits.
THE SAW BILL (Grypus navius}. This species,
which is found in Southern Brazil, especially on the
mountains of Corcovado near Rio de Janeiro, is dis-
tinguished by having the margins of the mandibles
serrated. It measures about six inches in length,
including the rather long and ample tail, and is of a
greenish bronze colour above, with the tail feathers
tipped with buff; the feathers of the lower surface are
blackish, broadly edged with white on the breast and
with buff on the belly ; the sides of the throat are red-
dish buff. The bill is black, with the base of the lower
mandible yellow ; and the feet are yellow. The nest
of this species is of an elongated, pointed form, com-
posed principally of moss and fine vegetable fibres ; it
is suspended from the extremity of a leaf.
THE SWALLOW-TAILED HUMMING -BIRD (Eupe-
tomena macrura). This species, which is described
by Mr. Gould as " the most swallow-like member of
the entire family of Trochilidse," is found in the low
districts bordering the rivers of Brazil and Cayenne.
The plumage of the body is green ; the whole of the
head and neck are rich shining blue, and the tail and
tail-coverts are steel blue ; on each side of the body
there is a white tuft, and the vent is white. The tail
is much elongated and forked in the male, less so in
the female, which is also smaller and rather less bril-
liant than her partner.
THE PURPLE-BREASTED CAEIB (Eulampis jugu-
laris) — Plate 8, fig. 2 — (Trochilus granatinus). This
beautiful species is an inhabitant of the West Indies,
and is said also to occur in Guiana. It frequents the
high grounds. The sexes are exactly alike ; the gene-
ral colour of the plumage being black, with the chin,
throat, and breast reddish-purple ; the wings and wing-
coverts shining green; the tail-coverts greatly de-
veloped and of a brilliant green ; and the feathers of the
broad and powerful tail blackish-green. This bird
measures about five inches in length.
THE CRIMSON TOPAZ (Topasa petto), which must be
regarded as one of the most gorgeous species of this
splendid family, is an inhabitant of the low districts of
Cayenne, Trinidad, and Surinam, and also of the coun-
tries bordering the lower Amazon. The male measures
about six inches in length, exclusive of a pair of elon-
gated tail feathers that are wanting in the female,
which is also a little smaller than her mate. The whole
of the back and wing-coverts in the male are deep rich
red, becoming orange-red on the rump, and gradually
giving place to bronzed green on the upper tail-coverts.
The two centre tail feathers are also bronzed green ;
the next feather on each side is brownish-black, pro-
longed for a distance of about two inches and a half
beyond the rest of the tail, and crossing each other, whilst
the three outer feathers on each side are reddish-buff.
The head is deep violet black, and from it a broad band
passes down the sides of the neck and across the throat,
inclosing a large space of the most brilliant golden-
green colour, exhibiting .a rich golden or topaz hue in
the centre. The breast is occupied by a broad band of
deep crimson, and the rest of the lower surface is of a
brighter shining tint of the same colour. The legs are
white, the feet yellow, and the bill black. The general
colour of the female is bronzed green.
Mr. Waterton gives the following account of the
habits of this magnificent bird : — " One species alone,"
he says, " never shows his beauty to the sun ; and were
it not for his Iov3ly shining colours, you might almost
be tempted to class him with the goatsuckers, on account
of his habits. He is the largest of all the Humming-
birds, and is all red and changing gold-green, except
the head, which is black. He has two long feathers in
the tail, which cross each other, and these have gained
him the name of Karabimiti, or ABA HUMMING-BIRD,
from the Indians. You never find him on the sea-
coast, or where the river is salt, or in the heart of the
forest, unless fresh water is there. He keeps close by
the side of woody fresh-water rivers, and dark and
lonely creeks. He leaves his retreat before sunrise, to
feed on the insects near the water ; he returns to it as
soon as the sun's rays cause a glare of light, is sedentary
all day long, and comes out again for a short time after
sunset. He builds his nest on a twig over the water
in the unfrequented creeks ; it looks like tanned cow-
leather." This nest, according to Mr. Gould, is of a
deep cup-like form, with very thin walls, composed
apparently of a sort of fungus resembling German
tinder, and held together by cobwebs.
THE JACOBIN (Florisuga mellivora} is a very widely
distributed species, occurring in all the low-lying dis-
tricts from Guiana to Peru. It is liable to great diver-
sity of colouring, but the ordinary plumage of the adult
male is of a bronzed green colour above and white
beneath, with the whole of the head and throat brilliant
blue, and a white lunate mark on the back, behind the
blue of the head. The upper tail-coverts are very
large and long, reaching nearly to the extremity of the
tail, and of the same bronzed green colour as the back;
the tail feathers themselves are white, narrowly mar-
gined at the tip with black. The whole length of the
bird is four inches and a half.
THE SHORT-TAILED WOODSTAR (Calothorax macru-
rus) . This curious little bird is one of the most diminu-
tive even in this family of dwarfs, measuring rather
less than two inches and a half in length. The upper
surface is bronzed green, the lower surface buff, and
the wings purplish-brown. The male has a large tri-
angular gorget of a brilliant amethyst red, which in
312
PASSERES BIRDS.
respresented in the female by a few specks of the same
colour. The tail, in both sexes, is composed of ex-
ceedingly short feathers, which in the male are black
and very narrow, so that when spread out they radiate
like spokes round the posterior extremity of the body.
Iii the female they are rather broader, and furnished
with large white tips. This character of the tail is met
with in other species of the genus Calothorax. The
Short-tailed Woodstar is an inhabitant of Peru.
THE SWORD-BILL (Dotimastes ensiferus) is remark-
able for the great length of its bill, which is slightly
curved upwards, and is employed by the bird in pro-
curing its insect food from the enormously elongated
tubular flowers of the trumpet-flowers (Brugmansice).
The total length of the male is eight inches and three-
quarters, of which the bill measures four inches ; the
female is about two inches shorter than her partner, and
her bill only measures three inches in length. Its
general colour is bronzed green, but it is not a brilliant
species. This bird has been found in Bogota, Car-
accas, and Quito. In the latter country specimens have
been obtained at an elevation of eleven thousand to
twelve thousand feet above the sea.
TEMMINCZ'S SAPPHIRE-WING (Pterophanes Tem-
minclcii} is one of the finest species of this family, mea-
suring fully six inches in length, whilst its plumage
displays all the brilliancy which we are accustomed to
associate with the idea of a Humming-bird. The male
is of a grass-green colour, exhibiting a strong metallic
lustre beneath ; the tail, which is notched or slightly
forked at the extremity, is of a glossy olive-green
colour, whilst the quill feathers of the wings are of a
shining deep blue, margined and tipped with black. The
bill, which is rather short, slender, and straight, is black.
The female resembles the male, but has the throat
brown. This beautiful bird is found principally on the
Cordillera of Columbia, where it dwells at a consider-
able elevation.
GUERDTS HELMET-CREST (Oxypogon Guerinii), an
inhabitant of the higher regions of the Columbian
Andes, is remarkable for the singular crest with which
the head of the male is adorned. The colour of the
upper surface is bronzed green, with the tail feathers
coppery, striped with white down the centre ; the lower
surface is light olive-brown, with a bronzed tinge on
the flanks. The female is similar in these respects to
the male, but less brilliant in her colours. The male
is further distinguished by having a long, pointed crest
on the head, the head and crest being blackish -brown,
with a white line running up each side of the forehead,
uniting at the base of the crest, and passing up the
front of the latter in a single broad line. The sides of
the throat are also brownish-black, but the middle of
this part is occupied by a sort of pointed white beard,
balancing the crest on the top of the head, but exhibit-
ing a narrow band of the most brilliant green in the
centre. The bill is rather short, slender, and black.
The total length of the bird is about four inches and
a half.
THE BLUE-TAILED SYLPH (Cynanthus cyanurus),
one of the most elegant species of this family, is an
inhabitant of the lower elevations of the Andes to the
north of the equator, in the countries of Ecuador, New
Grenada, and Venezuela. The male measures about
nine inches in length, including the greatly-elongated
tail feathers with which he is adorned, and which of
themselves are nearly six inches long. These are the
outer feathers ; they are black at the base, and for the
remainder of their length exhibit a rich, brilliant,
metallic, purplish-blue colour. The rest of the tail
feathers, which gradually diminish in length from the
second on each side, are black at the base, becoming
rich blue towards the tip, which bears a brilliant golden-
green mark; the two central feathers are entirely golden-
green. The crown of the head is also of a brilliant
metallic-green colour, and the throat bears a small
patch of shining blue ; the general colour of the rest of
the plumage is bronzed green, with the wings purplish-
brown. This beautiful bird is said to be very swift in
its movements, its flight being very rapid and powerful ;
and this, as remarked by Mr. Gould, is indicated by its
general form and long forked tail. The female is far
less brilliant than the male, and destitute of the very
elongated tail-feathers.
THE GREEN-TAILED SYLPH (Cynanthus smaragdi-
caudus) is similar in many respects to the preceding,
but exhibits no trace of blue in the tail. It is an
inhabitant of Bolivia, and probably of a wide extent of
the Peruvian Andes.
THE RED FLAME-BEARER (Selasphorus rufus").
This elegant little species, like the Ruby-throated
Humming-bird (Trochilus colubris], spreads itself over
a vast range of latitude, passing the winter in Mexico,
and advancing during the summer as far north as
Nootka Sound, where it was observed in abundance by
Captain Cook. In all its migrations it keeps strictly
to the western side of the Eocky Mountains, and thus
represents on the west coast of North America, the
Ruby-throat of the eastern or Atlantic districts.
The male of this charming little species, which mea-
sures about three inches and a half in length, has the
upper surface cinnamon-brown, including the tail
feathers, which are of a lanceolate form, and tipped
with dark brown ; the wings are purplish-brown, with
their coverts bronzed ; the throat is adorned with a
large triangular gorget of a most brilliant golden orange-
red; the breast is white, and the rest of the lower surface
cinnamon brown. In some males the back is of a green
colour ; and this is also the case in the females, which
have the tail feathers black tipped with white, and in
place of the brilliant gorget of the males, a fiery red
spot on the tips of most of the feathers of the throat.
The males are excessively quarrelsome during the
breeding season, when their burnished gorgets look
like a brilliant live-coal ; and they emit a sort of bleat-
ing note which scarcely sounds like the cry of a bird.
They often rise to a great height in the air, and then
descend instantaneously almost to the surface of the
ground; and during this descent, according to Dr.
Townsend, they emit " a strange and astonishingly-
loud note, which can be compared to nothing but the
rubbing together of the limbs of trees during a high
wind." The nest measures two inches and a quarter
in height, and three quarters of an inch in breadth at
the top ; it is composed of mosses, lichens, and feathers,
with a few slender root-fibres, and lined with the fine
THE LITTLE HUMMING-BIRD. BIRDS. THE NEW HOLLAND HONEY-EATER.
313
down of seeds. There are several other species of this
genus — all exhibiting the same metallic brilliancy in
their gorgets.
THE LITTLE HUMMING-BIRD (Mellisuga minima},
which may be regarded as the smallest known species
of this family, as it measures only about two inches and
a half in length, is an inhabitant of Jamaica and St.
Domingo. The male of this little feathered fairy has
the upper parts dark shining green, the wings purplish-
brown, and the tail black ; the lower surface is white,
speckled with black on the chin and throat, and tinged
with green on the abdomen ; the bill and feet are black.
The female greatly resembles the male, but has the
whole lower surface pure white, and the lateral tail
feathers tipped with white. Of this species Mr. Gosse
says — " The present is the only Humming-bird with
which I am acquainted that has a real song. Soon
after sunrise in the spring months, it is fond of sitting
on the topmost twig of a mango or orange-tree, where
it warbles in a very weak but very sweet tone, a con-
tinuous melody for ten minutes at a time. It has little
variety. The others have only a pertinacious chirping."
The charming writer just quoted also gives us the
following graphic description of the manners of this
diminutive creature : — " I have sometimes watched
with great delight," he says, " the evolutions of this
little species at a moringa-tree. When only one is
present, he pursues the round of the blossoms soberly
enough, sucking as he goes, and every now and anon,
sitting quietly on a twig. But if two are about the
tree, one will fly off, and, suspending himself in the air
a few yards distant, the other presently shoots off to
him, and there without touching each other, they mount
upwards with a strong rushing of wings, perhaps for
five hundred feet. They then separate, and each shoots
diagonally towards the ground like a ball from a rifle,
and, wheeling round, comes up to the blossoms again,
and sucks, and sucks, as if it had not moved away at all.
Frequently one alone will mount in this manner, or dart
on invisible wing diagonally upward, looking exactly
like a Humble bee." Mr. Gosse also states that this
is the only Jamaican Humming-bird that haunts the
low growing plants of the pastures; he says it is exceed-
ingly partial to the West Indian Vervain (Stachytar-
pheta). The nest is a minute cup-shaped structure
placed upon or between the twigs of trees, &c. ; it is
composed of silk cotton (the down of the Bombax), and
ornamented externally with fragments of lichen.
FAMILY IV.— MELIPHAGID^.
Just as the Humming-birds are confined to the con-
tinent of America and its islands, the small flower-
haunting birds of the present family are peculiar to
Australia, a very few species only being met with else-
where, and these only in New Guinea and New Zealand
— countries, which, in so many cases, appear to harbour
the outlying members of truly Australian groups.
The Meliphagidce or Honey-eaters have usually a
long, curved, and acute bill, of which the upper man-
dible is generally notched faintly at the tip ; the nos-
trils are placed in a large groove, and usually covered
with a membranous scale; the tail is elongated, and
VOL. I.
wedge-shaped, and the first three quills of the rather
short wings are graduated; that is, they gradually
increase in length to the third ; the tarsi are short
and stout, and terminated by long toes, of which the
outer is always united to the middle one at the base.
Another character presented by these birds consists in
the structure of the tongue, which is not only long arid
protrusible as in the Humming-birds, but furnished at
its tip with a small tuft or brush of delicate filaments,
which are of the greatest service to the birds in sweep-
ing out the honey and pollen, and with these the
minute beetles and other insects from the flowers,
which they so assiduously frequent. These substances
constitute the food of nearly all the species, although
some also capture insects from the leaves and branches
of trees, and a few are said to feed partly upon fruits.
Few of them possess any power of song.
THE NEW HOLLAND HONEY-EATER (Mellphaga
Novce Hollandice), the type of the typical genus of
this family, is one of the most abundant birds in the
southern and eastern colonies of Australia and in Van
Diemen's Land, but does not occur in Western Aus-
tralia. It is not migratory, but appears occasionally
to quit one district for another, probably in search of
some more attractive food ; but from its partiality for
the Banksice, which grow principally on barren sandy
districts bordering the coasts, it is usually seen most
abundantly in the vicinity of the sea, and becomes
more rare in the interior of the country. The total
length of this bird is about seven inches. The upper
surface is brownish-black, the lower surface white
streaked with black ; the head and cheeks are black,
with the forehead, a streak over each eye, and -a small
patch behind the ears white ; the qiiill feathers of the
wings and the lateral feathers of the tail are broadly
margined externally, from the base to near the tip, with
bright yellow ; the two centre feathers of the tail are
entirely brownish-black ; the remainder have a white
spot at the tip. This bird breeds commonly in the
gardens of the colonists, and rears two or three broods
in the season. The nest is usually placed in a shrub or
bush at about eighteen inches or two feet from the
ground ; it is composed of sticks, grass, and bark, and
lined with vegetable downy matter. The eggs are two
or three in number, of a pale buff colour, and speckled
with chestnut brown, especially towards the larger end.
THE LONG -BILLED HONEY -EATER (Mdiphaga
longirostris}. This species, which very closely resem-
bles the preceding, and indeed differs from it principally
in the greater length and stoutness of the bill, replaces
it in the western parts of the Australian continent,
being found, according to Mr. Gould, in " all those
districts of the Swan River settlement in which there
are Banksias." The habits of the two birds are very
similar. Two other nearly allied species, the WHITE-
CHEEKED and the MOUSTACHED HONEY-EATER (M.
sericea and mystacalis), are in like manner mutually
representative in eastern and western Australia, the
former being found in New South Wales, and the latter
in the Swan River district.
THE TASMANIAN HONEY-EATER (Meliphaga aiis-
tralasiana), a small species about five inches and a half
in length, appears to be peculiar to Van Diemen's Land,
SB
314
PASSERF.S. BIRDS. MELIPHAGJD^E.
although a very similar bird, which may be identical
with it, occurs also in New South Wales. The sexes
differ considerably in colouring, which is veiy unusual
amongst the Meliphagcs. The male has all the upper
surface blackish, and the lower surface white, with the
flanks grey ; a black stripe runs from the base of the
bill through the eye, and is continued along the side of
the head, where it is bordered above by a white streak ;
on each side of the neck is a broad, black, crescentiform
mark, the points of which nearly meet on the breast ;
the quill feathers of the wings and tail are margined
with golden yellow, and the latter are tipped with white
spots. The female is of a dusky brown colour, with
scarcely any indication of the yellow tinge on the
wings and tail.
" This," says Mr. Gould, " is one of the few species
that enliven with their presence the almost impene-
trable forests that cover a great portion of Van Die-
men's Land, giving preference to such parts as are
clothed with a thick brush of dwarf shrubby trees
growing beneath the more lofty gums. The extreme
silence of these solitudes is agreeably broken by the
loud, shrill, and liquid notes which are poured forth in
quick succession by numbers of this bird in various
parts of the wood. It also resorts to the thick beds of
the Epacris imprcssa, whose red and white heath-like
flowers bespangle the sides of the more open hills. The
blossoms of this beautiful plant afford it an abundant
supply of food, which it seeks so intently as to admit
of a sufficiently close approach to enable one to observe
its actions without disturbing it. While thus occupied
it may be seen clinging to the stems in every possible
attitude, inserting its slender brush-like tongue up the
tube of every floret with amazing rapidity. Indepen-
dently of honey, it feeds on insects of various kinds,
particularly those of the orders Diptera and Hymeno-
ptera." "The nest," says the same distinguished
ornithologist, " is always placed on a low shrub within
a foot or two of the ground ; it is of a round, open
form, and is outwardly constructed of the inner rind
of the stringy bark of the gum-tree, generally lined
with fine grasses." The birds rear two or three broods
during the season, which lasts from September to
January. In the first laying the female produces two
eggs, whilst later in the season, when insects are more
abundant, three eggs are almost always found in the nest.
THE WARTY-FACED HONEY-EATER (Xanthomyza
phrygia) is one of the handsomest of the smaller Aus-
tralian birds, its black and yellow plumage presenting
a remarkable contrast. The feathers of the upper
surface are for the most part black, margined with yel-
low ; those of the lower surface yellow, bordered with
black, and with a more or less distinct blackish mark
in the centre of each ; the head, neck, and throat are
black, with a yellow patch surrounding each eye ; this,
in the male is bare of feathers, and covered with warty
excrescences. The male is about eight inches in length,
and the female seven. It is not uncommon in South
Australia and New South Wales, inhabiting the bushes,
and evincing a decided partiality for the Eucalypti, the
honey of ^which seems to form a great portion of its
food, although, as Mr. Gould remarks, insects are
doubtless eaten by it. Its note is a loud whistle.
THE YELLOW-EARED HONEY-EATER (Ptilotis chry-
sotis). This bird is between seven and eight inches in
length, and is of an olive-green colour, paler beneath ;
each eye is inclosed in a blackish patch, behind which
is a large oval spot of yellow ; the bill is black, with
the gape margined with white. It appears to be pecu-
liar to New South Wales, in which colony it is very
abundant, especially about the Hunter River, and in
the cedar-brushes of the hills. Low trees are its favourite
resort, and amongst these it frequently descends to the
ground in search of insects, upon which it feeds ; the
pollen of flowers, and occasionally fruits and berries,
also forming part of its diet. Its note is loud and ring-
ing. The nest is cup-shaped, and composed of sticks
and fine twigs ; the eggs are four in number, white, and
spotted with purplish-brown.
THE SINGING HONEY-EATER (Ptilotis sonants), a
species nearly allied to the preceding, has a fine song,
described as resembling that of the missel- thrush. It
is of a greyish-olive colour, paler beneath, with dusky
streaks ; a black band runs through the eye, and beneath
it is a yellow streak ; the quill feathers of the wings
and tail are bordered externally with greenish-yellow.
The nest is suspended between two or three slender
twigs ; it is composed of vegetable fibres of different
kinds, hair, and the down of plants. Mr. Gould des-
cribes numerous other species of this genus, which is
peculiar to Australia arid New Guinea ; their habits, as
far as is known, are all very similar to those described
above.
THE LONG -EARED WATTLE -BIRD (Anthochcera
inauris). This singular species, which is of large size
for this family, the male measuring nearly eighteen
inches in length, is distinguished by a pair of long, yel-
low and orange pendants hanging down from the ears.
In the male these curious appendages are about an
inch and three-quarters in length ; in the female they
are half an inch shorter. The plumage is varied with
blackish-brown, white, and grey, the upper surface
being darkest ; the head, neck, and lower surface grey,
streaked with black, with the exception of the centre of
the abdomen, which is yellow ; the tail 'is very long —
fully eight inches in the male — of a narrow wedge-
shape, slightly notched at the tip, where the grey cen-
tral feathers are narrowly tipped with white. The next
pair of feathers are about an inch shorter than the
middle ones, and each succeeding pair also diminishes
in about the same ratio, these being blackish-brown
with large white spots at the tip ; and the whole being
brought together on the lower surface of the tail, form
a series of transverse black and white bands, the latter
deeply notched behind.
These birds inhabit the forests of Van Diemen's
Land, where they exist in great numbers ; and in the
neighbourhood of the Macquarrie Plains, many hun-
dreds are shot and sent into Hobart Town, where they
are highly prized for the table. In the winter they
become exceedingly fat, and Mr. Gould states that a
large cupful of oil may then be obtained from two of
them ; this is burnt, and gives an excellent light. The
food of the species consists principally of the pollen and
honey of the Eucalypti, although traces of insect food
are sometimes detected in its stomach. It is active
Tun BRUSH WATTLE-BIRD. BIRDS. THE POE-BIBD.
315
and sociable iu its habits, forty or fifty being sometimes
seen on a single tree. Its flight is short, and much
resembles that of the common magpie. Its note is a
harsh and disagreeable scream. The nest is cup-shaped,
and composed of fine twigs, grass, and wool.
THE SHORT-EARED WATTLE -BIRD (Anthocheera
caruncitlata), a nearly allied species, has been met with
in all the southern parts of Australia, but not in Van
Diemen's Land. Its general colour is greyish-brown,
varied with pale grey; the tail is wedge-shaped, but
t»roader than in the preceding species ; underneath the
eye is a large white patch, and from the posterior part
of the lower margin of this depends a small bright red
appendage about half an inch long. The whole length
of the bird is about fourteen inches. In its habits,
food, and note it resembles the preceding species.
THE BRUSH WATTLE-BIRD (Anthocheera mellivora)
— called Goo-gwar-ruck, in imitation of its singular cry,
by the natives of New South Wales — is an abundant
and well-known species, not only in that, colony, but
also in South Australia and Van Diemen's Land. It
is a smaller species than either of the preceding, mea-
suring only about a foot in length ; its general colour
is dark browir, variously streaked and spotted with
white. Both sexes are destitute of the curious wrttles
with which the preceding species are adorned. The
Brush Wattle-bird is peculiarly attached to the Sank-
sias, the flowers of which it explores as they open, in
search of honey and insects. Mr. Gould remarks that
as these trees are always indicative of barren land, the
harsh note of this garrulous bird may generally be taken
by the settler as a warning that the soil in the neigh-
bourhood is not very fertile. It is a bold, animated,
and pugnacious bird. The nest is rather small, placed
upon a forked branch not far from the ground, and
composed of fine twigs and fibres. The eggs are of a
salmon colour, blotched with chestnut-brown, especiallv
at the larger end ; the nest usually contains two, some-
times three of them. This species is represented in
Western Australia by the LUNULATED WATTLE-BIRD
(Anthocheera lunulatd).
THE POE-BIRD (Prosthemadera Novce Zelandice}—
Fig. 107.
The Poe-bird (Prosthemadera Novas Zelandise).
fig. 107 — one of the most abundant birds of New
Zealand, is about the size of a thrush, and of a black
colour, with a curious tuft of white feathers on each
side of the neck, whence the name of the " Parson
bird" has been given to it by the European settlers.
Its native name is Tui. It possesses a wonderful
talent for imitation, exactly mimicking the notes of all
the other feathered inhabitants of the woods ; hence
it is some times called the Mocking Bird. In con-
finement it will also learn to imitate other sounds, such
as the noises of dogs, cats, poultry, &c., and will soon
speak long sentences with great correctness. The food
of this bird consists principally of insects, in search of
which it exhibits an incessant restless activity ; it also
feeds upon berries and earthworms. Its flesh is con-
sidered delicious.
THE FRIAR-BIRD (Tropidorhynchuc ^orniculatus).
The singular bird to which this name is given, has the
head covered with a naked black skin, and the base
of the bill adorned with a remarkable knob; the
plumage of the upper surface is greyish-brown ;
that of the lower surface greyish, except the chin,
throat, and chest, which are covered with lanceolate
silver-white feathers. The length of the bird is
about a foot. It is an exceedingly abundant and
well-known bird in New South Wales, where its
singular appearance, and no less singular notes, have
obtained for it from the colonists a great variety of
316
PASSER*
-BIRDS. MELIPHAGID.E.
names; such as Friar-bird, Monk, and Leatherhead
from the former, and Poor Soldier, Pimlico, and Four
o'clock, from the latter. The topmost dead branches
of lofty trees are usually selected by it for the exhibition
of its Yocal powers, and by this means it attracts more
than an ordinary share of attention. It is very active
among the branches, being able to cling in almost any
position; its flight also is powerful, and during the
breeding-season it manifests great boldness and pug-
nacity, driving all other birds to a distance from its
nest. The nest is large and rather wide, cup-shaped,
and composed externally of strips of bark and wool,
followed by fine twigs and lined with grasses and fine
fibres ; the eggs are usually three in number, of a pale
salmon colour, with minute darker specks. Mr.
Gould describes several other species of this genus,
found in different parts of Australia, but none of these
call for special notice here.
THE BLUE-EYE (Entomyza cyanotis). This, which
is one of the largest and most beautiful species of the
present family, has only been met with in New South
Wales, where, however, it is very abundant. It
measures rather more than a foot in length ; the
plumage of the upper surface is of a golden olive
colour, and that of the lower surface white ; the head
is black, with a large brilliant blue and green spot
surrounding the eye, and there is a crescent-shaped
white mark on the back of the head ; the throat and
centre of the chest are also black, leaving a continuous
white stripe on each side.
With regard to this species, Mr. Gould says: "I
have frequently seen eight or ten of these bold and
spirited birds, with numerous other small honey-eaters
and parakeets, on a single tree, displaying the most
elegant and easy movements, clinging and hanging in
every variety of position ; frequently at the extreme
ends of the small, thickly-flowered branches, bending
them down with then- weight. They may, however, be
easily distinguished from the other birds with which
they are in company, by their superior size, the
brilliancy of their blue face, and the contrasted colours
of their plumage ; they are rendered equally conspi-
cuous by the pugnacity with which they chase and
drive about the other species resorting to the same
tree. Mr. Gould states that this bird makes use of the
large dome-shaped nest of a species of Pomatorhimu,
laying its eggs not within the nest, but in a depression
on the top.
THE BLACK HONEY-EATEB (Myzomela nigra) is a
widely-distributed species in the interior of Australia,
where it feeds partly upon the honey and pollen of
flowers, but principally upon insects which it captures
both about the flowers and on the leaves and branches
of the trees frequented by it It measures about four
inches and a half in length. The male is of a black
colour with the abdomen white, marked with a black
stripe down the centre ; the female is brown above,
with the lower surface brownish-white. The flight of
this bird is very quick, and the male has a weak
plaintive song. The nest is a neat cup-shaped structure
composed of dried grass.
THE BED-HEADED HONEY-EATEB (Myzomela
erythrocephala). The male of this beautiful little
species is blackish-brown, with the head and rump
scarlet ; the female is of a sober brown colour, paler
beneath. It is met with in the northern pails of
Australia, where it inhabits the mangrove-swamps
on the creeks and inlets of the sea. It is an active
chirping species.
THE SANGUINEOUS HONEY-EATEB (Myzomela
sanguinolenta) is another brilliant little bird, the male
being scarlet, with the wings and tail black ; the female
is brown. This species inhabits the bushes of New
South Wales, and feeds on insects and the pollen of
flowers.
THE TAWNY-FRONTED HONEY-EATEB (Glyciphila
fulvifrons). This bird is met with in all the southern
parts of Australia, and also in Van Diemen's Land, and
the islands in Bass's Straits. It measures from five
inches to five inches and a half in length ; the female
being, as usual in this family, rather smaller than her
partner. The back is brown, the forehead tawny, the
throat and abdomen white ; a blackish band runs from
the base of the bill down the sides of the neck, inclos-
ing the eye. This species inhabits stony districts, and
flies very rapidly, often ascending to a great height in
the air. Its nest is built in a bush, of a cup-like form,
composed of grass, and usually lined with the down of
the Zamia, sometimes mixed with sheep's wool and
other soft materials. The eggs are usually two, of a
white colour, commonly blotched with chestnut. The
food of the bird consists of the pollen of flowers and
insects, and its song is described by Mr. Gould as
commencing with a single note slowly drawn out and
followed by a quick repetition of double notes, uttered
six or eight times in succession. Several other species
of the genus Glyciphila are met with in Australia.
THE PAINTED HONEY-EATEB (Entomophila pictd)
is a pretty little species peculiar to the interior of New
South Wales, where it lives amongst the trees bor-
dering the plains of that part of Australia. It is an
active bird, and frequently captures insects on the
whig in the manner of the Flycatchers, by dashing off
in pursuit of them and returning again to the same
perch. It is of a black colour above, with a white
spot behind each ear, and with the outer margins of
the quill feathers rich yellow ; the lower surface is
white, with faint brown spots on the flanks. The bill
is red, and the feet blackish. The length of the bird
is nearly six inches.
THE LUNULATED HONEY-EATEB (Melithreptw
lunulatus}. This small species, which, with the fol-
lowing, belongs to a group distinguished from the
preceding Honey-eaters by the possession of a shorter
and more conical bill, is abundant in the south-eastern
districts of Australia, where it is found principally about
the Eucalypti and Angophorce. It measures nearly
five inches in length, and is of a greenish-olive colour
above, and pure white beneath ; the head, back of the
neck, and chin are black, with a naked scarlet space
above each eye, and a pure white crescent on the back
of the head. Its nest is cup- shaped and composed of
strips of bark mixed with wool and hair, and lined with
the fur of the Australian opossums; it is suspended by
the edge to the slender twigs of the upper parts of trees..
The eggs are two in number, pale buff, speckled with
THE GAI:RUI.OUS HOXEY-EATEK. BIRDS. THE COMMON CREEFER.
317
reddish-brown. A very similar but larger species, in
which the naked space above the eye is pale green or
yellow, inhabits Western Australia ; it is described by
Mr. Gould under the name of the SWAN RIVER HONEY-
EATER (M. chloropsis.)
THE BLACKHEADED HONEY-EATER (Melithreptus
melajiocephalus), which is also very similar to the pre-
ceding, is destitute of the white crescent on the back of
the head, and has a black mark on each side of the
chest The naked space above the eye is white, with
a slight greenish tinge. This bird appears to be pecu-
liar to Van Diemen's Land, where it is very abundant
and shows a decided preference for the Eucalypti. It
feeds on insects, the pollen and honey of flowers, and
on fruit.
THE GARRULOUS HONEY-EATER (Myzantha gar-
rula), an inhabitant of New South Wales, South
Australia, and Van Diemen's Land, is a much larger
species than the preceding, measuring between ten and
eleven inches in length. Its general colour is greyish,
paler beneath ; the crown of the head and ear-coverts
are black ; there is a naked yellow spot behind each
eye, and the bill and feet are yellow. The wings are
also tinged with yellow. It inhabits thinly-timbered
districts, and is of so restless and inquisitive a disposi-
tion that it becomes a perfect nuisance to the traveller
through its haunts. "No sooner," says Mr. Gould,
" does the hunter come within the precincts of its
abode than the whole troop assemble round him and
perform the most grotesque actions, spreading out their
wings and tail, hanging from the branches in every
possible variety of position, and sometimes suspended
by one leg, keeping up all the time one incessant bab-
bling note. Were this only momentary, or for a short
time, their droll attitudes and singular note would be
rather amusing than otherwise ; but when they follow
you through the entire forest, leaping and flying from
branch to branch, and almost buffeting the dogs, they
become very troublesome and annoying, awakening, as
they do, the suspicions of the other animals of which
you are in pursuit." The food of this species resembles
that of the other Honey-eaters, but it appears to capture
many insects on trees and on the ground.
Other nearly-allied species inhabit different parts of
Australia, such as the SOMBRE HONEY-EATER (M.
obscura) in Swan River, and the LUTEOUS HOXEY-
EATER (M. lutea) in Northern Australia.
THE BELL-BIRD (Myzantha melanopJtrys) is an
inhabitant of New South Wales, where it dsvells in
the swampy bushes. Its habits resemble those of the
Garrulous Honey-eater, and it is also a noisy bird.
The appellation of " Bell-bird," given to it by the
colonists, refers to a peculiar, faint, tinkling sound
uttered by the bird, and which is compared to that
of distant sheep-bells. This note is heard with delight
by the traveller, as an indication that water is at hand.
The Bell-bird is rather more than seven inches in
length, and of a general yellowish-olive colour, with
the lower surface paler than the upper, and with a
blackish-brown tinge on the wings; the head has a
black spot at the base of the lower mandible, a black
ring round the eye, a yellow spot in front of the eye,
and a red one behind it.
FAMILY V. — CERTHIAD^.
This, which is the last family of the tenuirostral sec-
tion of the passerine birds, includes a great variety of
forms, and many of them make a very close approach
in their characters to the more slender-billed forms
of the next group ; but the tip of the upper mandible
is almost always destitute of the notch or tooth, which
is characteristic of the dentirostral birds. The bill is
generally elongated ; but, in this respect, the birds vary
greatly, as also hi the degree of curvation of the bill,
which, however, is usuall}- but small. The tip of the
upper mandible is generally acute. The nostrils are
situated at the base of the bill, where they lie in a small
groove, and are covered by a membranous scale. The
structure of the feet varies greatly in this family ; but
the tarsi are generally short, and the toes long and
armed with strong, curved claws. This is especially
the case in the typical species, which are organized for
running upon the trunks and branches of trees in search
of the insects which constitute their food. These are
commonly known as creepers, and their movements and
general aspect, when engaged in the search for food,
are so like those of small mammals, that, at the first
glance, they might easily be mistaken for some small
species of mice. These birds possess the power of
singing, which is exerted by some species in a very
pleasing manner. They are distributed in all parts of
the world.
THE COMMON BROWN CREEPER (Certhia fami-
liaris) — Plate 9, fig. 28— which is one of the few
species of this family found in Britain, may be taken as
the type of the group. It is a small bird, measuring
only a little more than five inches in length ; and from
this and its general dull brown colour, coupled with its
shy and retiring habits, although a common British bird
it is comparatively rarely seen. This species occurs
in all parts of Europe, but becomes rare in Russia and
Northern Asia ; it is, however, a well-known bird in
North America, where it is known as the Brown
Creeper. Its favourite haunts are woods, plantations,
and parks, where it may be seen running in every
direction over the bark of trees, searching in the cre-
vices for its insect prey, and after completing its exami-
nation of one tree, flying off to repeat the process on
the next. It is fond of passing rapidly in this way
from tree to tree, and for this reason often haunts
avenues. While thus engaged, its activity in running
about upon the rough bark is astonishing; and if
alarmed, it vanishes in an instant, passing round the
trunk of the tree with the greatest ease, so as to place
an effectual barrier between itself and the apprehended
danger. In all these climbing operations the long,
curved, and acute claws with which its toes are armed,
are greatly assisted by the elongated and stiff feathers
of the tail, of which the tips are more or less worn away.
The nest of the Common Creeper is made in the
hollow of a tree ; and for this purpose it usually selects
a hole which has a very small external aperture, so as
to prevent its enemies from getting access to its con-
cealed treasures. Sometimes, however, it builds a
regular nest attached to the inner surface of the
818
PASSERKS. BIEDS. CERTHIAD.E.
loosened bark of a tree ; one of these nests, described
by Mr. Yarrell, consisted of small twigs, lined with a
thick layer of fine grass, mixed with wool and feathers.
The Creeper lays from seven to nine eggs of a white
colour, with a few pale-red spots ; it breeds as early as
the month of April.
THE WALL-CREEPER (Tichodroma muraria) —Plate
9, fig. 29 — is another European species, nearly related
to the Common Creeper, which it much resembles in its
habits, except that, instead of the trunks and branches
of trees, it frequents the bare rocks of mountainous
districts, seeking its insect food in their crevices, and
breeding in the small cavities which abound among
them. It is about seven inches in length, and has a
longer bill and a shorter tail than the Common Creeper;
the general colour of its plumage is ashy-grey, becoming
blackish in particular parts ; the cheeks and throat, the
quill feathers of the wings and tail are black, the wings
spotted, and the tail feathers tipped with white or ash
colour ; the wing-coverts are red. This bird is an in-
habitant of the mountainous parts of Southern Europe,
and is also found in Asia, but does not occur in Britain.
During the summer it resides high up on the mountains,
obtaining its supplies of food by running about upon the
faces of the rocks ; but in the winter it descends to a
level inhabited by man, when it deserves its name
of Wall-creeper, by the preference which it shows
for running upon those old walls clothed with lichens,
which doubtless furnish it with a supply of food most
like that of its summer home among the mountains.
THE AUSTRALIAN BROWN TREE-CREEPER (CK-
macteris scandens) . The Creepers are represented in
Australia by a peculiar genus to which the name of
Climacteric has been given. The Brown Tree-creeper
is an inhabitant of all the south-eastern part of the
Australian continent, where it resides principally in the
open, thinly-timbered parts of the forest, seeking its
insect food, not only amongst the cracks and crevices
of the bark, but also in the hollow spouts, and even on
the ground beneath the trees. In the latter situation
it passes much time, moving about with pert, lively
actions. Its flight is effected by a skimming motion of
the wings.
The whole length of this bird is about six inches,
and its plumage exhibits various shades of brown, with
a broad buff band across the wings. The nest is com-
posed of the hair of opossums ; and Mr. Gould says
that, judging from its brightness and freshness, this
material is no doubt plucked from the living animals,
while reposing in hollow trees. It is usually placed
low down in a hollow branch, and contains two pale-
reddish eggs which are blotched with reddish-brown.
THE RED TREE-CREEPER (Climacteris rufa} repre-
sents the preceding species in Western Australia, and
resembles it precisely in its habits. It is dark brown
above and reddish beneath. The nest is placed in the
same situation as that of the last species, but composed
of grasses, down, and feathers. There are several
other species.
THE NUTHATCH (Sitta europcea) — Plate, 9, fig. 30
— has a stouter and straighter bill than the preceding
species, and its toes are remarkably long and slender,
and terminated by very long, compressed, and curved
claws. It is a small bird, measuring little more than
five inches and a half in length, to the extremity of the
short tail. The general colour of the plumage on the
upper parts is bluish-grey, and that of the lower surface
light reddish -yellow; the flanks are brownish, and the
cheeks and throat white, this white portion being sepa-
rated from the grey of the upper surface of the head
and neck by a black band, which runs from the base of
the bill to the shoulder.
The Nuthatch is a common bird in many parts
of Europe, especially in the south. It is generally
diffused in England, although not very abundant ; its
occurrence in Scotland is doubtful, and it has not been
observed in Ireland. It is a brisk and lively bird ; and
its actions are very amusing, as it runs about quickly
like the Creeper on the rough bark of its favourite trees.
In this its tail does not afford it any assistance, and it
is principally by the agency of its long and powerful
curved clawrs that it maintains itself in ever-varying
attitude on the trees; but the tarsus also comes into
play, being applied to the surface in the manner of a
footsole. The food of the bird consists partly of insects,
caterpillars, and other animal matters, and partly of
beech-mast and nuts ; and it is from its predilection for
the latter, and the peculiar mode in which it contrives
to crack them, that its name of Nuthatch has been
given to it. The nut is fixed by the bird in a crevice
in the bark of a tree ; he then moves round it as if to
select the best point of attack ; and, having taken up
his position, and secured himself firmly by the grasp
of his powerful feet, he proceeds to batter upon the
nut with his strong bill, and soon breaks through the
hardest shell.
This interesting bird is a permanent resident in this
country, frequenting woods, plantations, parks, and even
gardens and orchards; resorting to the latter principally
on the approach of winter. It nestles in the holes of
trees, making a bed of dead leaves, moss, and fragments
of bark and wood, and usually taking the precaution
of plastering up a portion of the external aperture of
its abode with clay, so as to leave only a sufficient
space to serve for its own passage. The object of this
proceeding is evidently to prevent the Woodpeckers,
which also breed in the holes of trees, from destroying
the nest and taking possession of it. The Nuthatch
lays six or seven eggs of a white colour spotted with
rusty red ; and the bird sits upon these with such per-
tinacity, that, as Montagu observes, "no persecution
will force it to quit them. It defends its nest to the
last extremity, strikes at the invader with its bill and
wings, and makes a hissing noise ; and after every effort
of defence, will suffer itself to be taken in the hand
rather than quit." Young birds taken from the nest
may be easily tamed ; but the old birds generally kill
themselves by their efforts to escape. A second species
of Nuthatch occurs in Eastern Europe, and several others
in various parts of India, principally in the hilly districts.
Other species are found in North America, amongst
which we may notice —
THE CAROLINA NUTHATCH (Sitta carollnensis)1
which is an abundant species almost everywhere in
North America, and presents a close resemblance to
the European Nuthatch in its habits, differing prirci-
THE CANADIAN NUTHATCH. BIRDS. THE BRAZILIAN SABRE-BILL.
319
pally in appearance in the black colour of the head,
neck, and shoulders, and the white colour of the breast
and belly. This species runs about upon trees in all
positions just in the same way as our common Nut-
hatch, and like it rests and roosts with the head down-
wards. It also breeds in the holes of trees and fences.
Its food consists of insects, spiders, &c., but it probably
also feeds partly, like its European congener, upon nuts.
THE CANADIAN NUTHATCH (Sitta canadensis) is a
smaller species than either of the preceding, measuring
only four inches and a half in length. It is easily dis-
tinguished by the crown of the head being black, bounded
by a white stripe, below which is a black line passing
through the eye; the lower surface is rust colour. This
bird is migratory in its habits, passing the winter in
the southern states of the American Union, and visiting
the more northern parts of the continent only in the
summer for the purpose of breeding. It is more rest-
less and rapid in its movements than even the preceding
species, which it resembles in its general habits.
THE ORANGE- WINGED NUTHATCH (Sittella chryso-
ptera) is an inhabitant of the south-eastern part of the
Australian continent. In its habits it closely resembles
the European Nuthatch. This bird measures about
four inches and a half in length ; the upper surface is
grey, with the top of the head dark brown, and a streak
of brown down each feather of the back ; the wings are
dark brown, with a large red patch about the middle ;
the tail is black, with the tips of the outer feathers
white ; and the whole lower surface is greyish- white,
with brown spots on the inferior tail-coverts.
Several nearly allied species occur in various parts of
Australia, amongst which we need only mention
THE BLACK-CAPPED NUTHATCH (Sittella pileata),
which occurs principally in Western Australia, and is
one of the most active and elegant of the whole. It is
easily distinguished by its deep black crown, and in the
female this blackness extends over the whole top of the
head, whilst in the male the forehead, and the whole of
the space around the eyes, are white.
THE SPINE-TAILED ORTHONYX (Orthonyx spini-
caudus}, a large species, rather more than eight inches
in length, has the shafts of the tail feathers prolonged
beyond the webs, forming, as indicated by the name, a
set of spines at the apex of the tail. This bird is found
in the most retired spots in the bushes skirting the
coast of the south-eastern angle of Australia ; here it is
seen running over the fallen trunks of trees, mossy
stones, &c., in search of the insects (principally beetles)
which constitute its food. The plumage of the upper
surface is brown, with a black mark on each feather ;
the rump and upper tail- coverts reddish-brown without
spots ; the wings are black with greyish transverse bars,
and the tail is black ; the lower surface is greyish-white,
with the throat rusty-red in the male, white in the
female, and bordered on each side with a crescent-
shaped deep black mark.
THE CAYENNE TREE CREEPER (Dendrocolaptes
cayanensis). The place of the true Creepers and Nut-
hatches is taken in South America by a small group
of birds of which the genus Dendrocolaptes is the type.
In their habits these birds resemble the Creepers ; they
live solitary or in pairs in the woods and forests, creep-
ing upon the trunks and branches of the trees. They
are said to prefer dead trees, probably on account of the
great quantities of insects and their larvae which they
find in them ; these constitute their principal nourish-
ment. They nestle in 'the holes of trees, depositing
their eggs upon the dust of decayed wood lining the
bottom of the hollow which they have selected. The
Cayenne Tree Creeper, which is one of the best known
species, inhabits the forests of Guiana and Brazil.
It has a rather long, slightly curved, and robust
bill, and a broad rounded tail ; its length is about two
inches, and its general colour is tawny above, pale
yellowish beneath, most of the feathers having a whitish
longitudinal streak. The bill and legs are black.
THE BRAZILIAN SABRE-BILL (Xiphorhynclms pro-
curvus). Most of the species of Dendrocolaptes and the
allied genera have a rather stout and but slightly curved
bill, but in the present species, and a few nearly related
to it, the bill is of great length, and so much arched
that its summit rises as high as the level of the crown of
the bird's head. In the present species, which is about
the size of a blackbird, the bill is nearly two inches
long ; the general colour of the plumage is a cinnamon-
brown, passing into reddish-grey upon the head and
lower surface ; the head and neck are covered with
white streaks ; and the tail feathers are terminated by
very short naked points. By the agency of this stiff
tail, and of its strong feet, the Sabre-bill creeps upon
the trunks of palm-trees, and supports itself in an upright
position, while its long and curved bill is engaged in
probing the curved petioles in search of the larvae of
certain insects which burrow in them. The particular
palm-trees in which these larvae reside only grow upon
certain mountains, and it is only there that the Sabre-
bills are to be met with.
THE SPINE-TAILED SYNALLAXIS (Synallaxis spi-
nicauda] is an example of another South American
group of this family. This bird measures about six
inches in length, and is of a chestnut-brown colour
above, white beneath; some spots on the crown of
the head, the face, and a streak over each eye, are
yellow. The tail is rather long, and its feathers are
acutely pointed and terminated by spines ; the four
middle ones are rusty-red, and the remainder chestnut
tipped with white. The species is an inhabitant of the
southern extremity of the American continent. It
resides amongst bushes, and feeds upon insects.
THE SHARP-TAILED ANUMBI (Anumbius acuticau-
datus), which is nearly allied to the preceding species,
is an inhabitant of tropical America. It is remarkable
for the large size and curious construction of its nest.
This is placed upon slender branches, and the mass of
small spiny twigs heaped upon these is so great that
they are bent down, and it becomes a wonder how such
a quantity of materials can be collected and interlaced
by such small architects. The edifice exhibits several
external apertures, and contains many separate ch'arn-
J bers, in each of which a small quantity of soft vegetable
matter is deposited ; thus it requires no small amount
of trouble to detect the actual nest containing the eggs
or young. The object of this voluminous habitation is
said to be to give room for the young birds to move
about when their strength permits them to take exer-
320
PASSERES. BIRDS. CE
cise ; the different chambers and passages in the interior
of the nest may also be of service in enabling them to
escape and conceal themselves from any threatened
danger. There are several nearly allied species which
appear to have the same habits. Their food
consists of insects, worms, and small mollusca,
which they often seek upon the ground.
THE EED OVEN-BIRD (Furnariits rufus}.
Amongst the species of this family found in
the warmer parts of South America, there are
some to which the name of Oven-birds has
been given, from the nature of the nest which
they construct. The Bed Oven-bird, which is
one of the best known species, is about eight
inches in length, and has the whole upper part
of the body of a reddish-brown colour, and the
lower surface white, with the flanks reddish-
brown. It builds its nest always in an exposed
situation, such as a naked branch, the palisades
of a garden, or the windows of a house ;
forming it of earth, in the shape of a small
oven. The nest is hemispherical in its form,
and about six inches and a half in diameter ;
both sexes engage in its construction by
bringing small pellets of clay, and working
them into the edifice, and they carry on their
operations so energetically, that they often
complete the nest in two days. The opening
is on one side, and the interior is divided by a
partition into two chambers, in the inner of which the
eggs are deposited. These nests are made use of for
several successive years. This species, which occurs
in the countries of La Plata, feeds like its allies upon
insects, which it captures both on trees and on the
ground. It is a gay and sprightly bird, perching and
running with great agility.
THE SOUTH-KEN CINCLODES (Cinclodes antarctica).
Some species of this family nearly allied to the Oven-
birds, and forming the genus Cinclodes, are found
principally upon the western coast of South America,
especially towards the southern extremity of that con-
tinent, where they examine the sea-weeds thrown upon
the shore, picking up the worms and small Crustacea
which adhere to them. According to Mr. Darwin,
they may also be seen upon the floating fronds of the
Fucus giganteus at some distance from land. The
present species measures about five inches and a half
in length, and is of a light sooty-brown colour, with a
tawny band across the wings. It is found especially
at the Falkland islands, where Pernetty states that it
is so familiar that it will almost fly upon the finger, and
that he killed ten in less than half an hour with a small
stick almost without changing his position.
THE COMMON WEEN ( Troglodytes mdgaris). Besides
the preceding forms, the family Certhiadse includes our
common British Wren, together with a considerable
number of allied birds, distributed in all parts of the
world. We can only refer to a few of the most remark-
able of these. The common European Wren — fig. 108
— is one of the smallest of our British birds, measuring
only about four inches hi length ; its general colour is
brown, streaked in parts with alternate lighter and
darker shade*; the quill -feathers of the wings and
short tail are reddish -brown, with transverse black
bars, and the throat and breast are whitish ; the latter
speckled with brown. The Wren is generally dispersed
over the British islands, and, indeed, in all parts of
Fig. 108
The Common Wren (Troglodytes vulgaria).
Europe ; and although strictly an insectivorous bird,
it is a permanent inhabitant of these climates, and is
even said to become more abundant towards the north.
It is also found in Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and
Greenland. During the severe weather of winter the
Wrens usually approach the habitations of man, not
unfrequently roosting in cow-houses, where the air is
warmed by the presence of the cattle, or squeezing
themselves in small parties into holes in thatch or
walls, where their close approximation enables them
to keep each other warm. In the spring, the wren
resorts to the hedgerows, but even then continues to
frequent the neighbourhood of gardens and farms, and
this apparent familiarity and confidence in man,
coupled no doubt with the diminutive size of the
creature, renders this bird everywhere almost as great
a favourite as the Robin. Nevertheless, a curious
practice has prevailed from time immemorial in the
south of Ireland, of hunting this harmless little bird on
Christmas-day ; the hedges are beaten with sticks, and
when the unfortunate little creature is driven from its
concealment, it is struck down with a second stick
carried by each hunter. On St. Stephen's day the
dead birds are hung by the children on an ivy bush
decorated with bright ribbons, which they carry about
with songs, and collect money " to bury the wren."
This piece of cruel folly is now falling into disuse.
The Wren flies but little, and only for short distances.
When disturbed and driven out of one part of the
hedge, he takes a little flight to another place, and
then plunges into the bushes, and creeps through them
often close to the ground, like a mouse. The male
sings throughout the greater part of the year ; his notes
are shrill and lively. The nest of the Wven is large in
THE HOUSE WREN. BIRDS. THE LYRE BIRD.
321
comparison to the size of the architect ; it is usually
oval in its form, with a dome-like roof, and with a
small hole for entrance either at the end or at the side.
The materials of which it is composed vary according
to the situation chosen for the structure. " If built
against the side of a hayrick," says Montagu, " it is com-
posed of hay ; if against the side of a tree covered with
white moss, it is made of that material ; and with
green moss if against a tree covered with the Same,
or in a bank. Thus instinct directs it for security."
The female usually lays from seven to ten eggs, but
this number is sometimes greatly exceeded, and as
many as sixteen or seventeen eggs have been found in
a wren's nest. When we consider that the Wren pro-
duces two of these enormous broods in a season, we
may have some idea of the great amount of exertion
that must be necessary on the part of the parents to
supply so many mouths with the requisite quantity of
insects and worms.
THE HOUSE WREN (Troglodytes domestictis'), an
inhabitant of the United States of America, where it
is a bird of passage, is a more familiar bird, and also a
far better songster than our common species. It is
about four inches and a half in length, but has a longer
tail and a longer and more curved bill than the
European wren ; its colour is deep brown above with
transverse black bars on the back; the throat and
breast are light brown, and the belly is mottled with
black, brown, and white. In many respects, the habits
of this species resemble those of our robin, especially
its familiarity, boldness, and pugnacity. It haunts the
gardens, and commonly builds about houses ; where,
as it is a great favourite, boxes are not unfrequently
placed for the reception of its nest. The materials of
the nest consist of small twigs, straws, and similar
articles, and the interior is furnished with a warm
lining of feathers. In this snug cradle the female lays
from six to nine eggs, and the birds generally rear two
broods in a season, the first in June, the second in
July. As the food both of the parent birds and of the
young consists of insects, especially caterpillars, the
quantity of these noxious inmates of the garden de-
stroyed by them must be very great, and their presence
about the houses is highly beneficial. In defending
their nests, the wrens exhibit great courage, often
attacking birds twice as large as themselves, generally
with success.
THE MAESH WEEN (Thryothorus pahistris), another
North American species, is also a migratory bird, arriv-
ing in the latitude of Pennsylvania about the middle
of May. It takes up its abode amongst the reeds and
other plants bordering the rivers, and rarely moves to
any distance from their banks. Its food consists of
small flying insects, larvae, and a species of green grass-
hopper which inhabits the reeds. Its note is described
by Wilson as a low crackling sound, resembling that pro-
duced by air-bubbles forcing their way through mud in
boggy ground when trod upon. As if in compensation
for this want of musical talent, as Wilson remarks, the
Marsh Wren exhibits architectural powers of the highest
order. The nest is composed externally " of wet rushes
mixed with mud, well intertwisted, and fashioned into
the form of a cocoa-nut A small hole is left two-
VOL. I.
thirds up for entrance, the upper edge of which pro-
jects like a pent-house over the lower, to prevent the
admission of ram. The inside is lined with fine soft
grass, and sometimes with feathers ; and the outside,
when hardened by the sun, resists every kind of weather.
This nest is generally suspended among the reeds,
above the reach of the highest tides, and is tied so fast
in every part to the surrounding reeds as to bid defiance
to the winds and the waves." The eggs laid in this
comfortable little abode are usually six in number, and
the birds commonly rear two broods in the season.
The Marsh Wren is five inches long. The upper
parts are of a dark brown colour, except the top of the
head, the back of the neck, and the middle of the back,
which are black, streaked with white on the neck and
back ; the tail is short and barred with black ; a white
streak runs over each eye and down each side of the
neck, and the lower parts are white.
THE LYKE-BIBD (Menura superba) — Plate 9, fig. 31.
We conclude this family of diminutive birds, with a
notice of an Australian species, which must rank as a
giant among the members of a group so dwarfish. This
bird is further remarkable from the puzzling nature of
its characters, which long rendered its true place in the
system very doubtful, the species having been placed
originally with the gallinaceous birds, and afterwards in
various positions amongst the Passeres. Mr. G. R. Gray
considers the nearest affinities of the Lyre-bird to be
with the Wrens, where we place it ; some other recent
writers consider it to be more nearly allied to the Ant-
thrushes (Foi-micarice'), belonging to the succeeding
section of the Passeres.
The Lyre-bird (Menura superba), which was de-
scribed just sixty years ago, has a rather long and
robust bill, a crested head, and a tail composed of very
long and broad feathers, of which the two external ones
are of the ordinary structure, but beautifully curved so
as to represent the two sides of a lyre, whilst the rest
are furnished only with long, slender, and distant barbs,
so that the whole, when carried in the habitual erect
position, form a most elegant tail. The legs and feet
are long and strong, greatly resembling those of a gal-
linaceous bird at first sight, although the great develop-
ment of the hinder toe and its claw is not common in
that order. The toes also have no membrane to unite
them at the base. The tarsus and toes are covered
with shield-like plates. The general colour of the
plumage is brown, with red tints upon the secondary
quills, the upper tail-coverts, and the chin and throat ;
the lower surface is brownish-ash colour; the two outer
feathers of the tail have the barbs long on the inside,
and short on the outside, the inner barbs becoming less
close towards the apex; these feathers are greyish-
brown on the upper surface, and white beneath near
the base ; beyond this they are marked with bands of
greyish and reddish-brown, and terminated by a black
patch. The total length of the bird is about three feet
and a half. In size and general aspect it presents no
small resemblance to a pheasant, and it is known to
the colonists of New South Wales under the name of
the Wood Pheasant. Its habits also, in some respects,
are very similar to those of a gallinaceous bird ; it
dwells principally on the ground, where it runs with
28
322
-BIRDS.-
great facility and scratches after the fashion of the true
Gallinse. So swift is it in its movements among the
brushes of New South Wales, to which colony it is pecu-
liar, that Mr. Gould declares it to be the most difficult
to procure of all the birds he ever met with. " While
among the brushes," says that distinguished ornitholo-
gist, " I have been surrounded by these birds, pouring
forth their loud and liquid calls, for days together; and
it was only by the most determined perseverance and
extreme caution, that I was enabled to effect this
desirable object."
Besides the loud call alluded to by Mr. Gould in the
above extract, the Lyre-bird is found to possess a
sweet and varied song, which is incompatible with
gallinaceous nature. Its nest also is a neat structure,
composed of sticks, roots, and moss, and covered with
a dome-like roof; in this it lays usually two eggs, of a
whitish colour, speckled with red. The food of the
bird consists of insects, especially in the larval state,
and, according to M. Verreaux, the larvae of a species
ef cockchafer constitute its favourite food. The same
ornithologist tells us, that when they quit their resting
places in search of food, the males are usually followed
by several females, although during the breeding
season they live in pairs, and he adds, that besides
their natural song, they imitate the notes of all other
birds so accurately, as to deceive not only the orni-
thologist, but even the birds themselves.
A second species of the genus Menura was described
about ten years since by Mr. Gould, under the name
of Menura Alberti, PRINCE ALBERT'S LYRE-BIRD. It
has a less developed tail than the M. superba, and is
rather smaller in size, but agrees with it in its general
appearance and habits.
TRIBE III.— DENTIEOSTKES.
THE birds forming this group of the passerine order are
distinguished from those of both the preceding and fol-
lowing tribes, by having a more or less distinct tooth on
each side of the upper mandible near the tip, which is
also usually more or less hooked. The bill itself is
sometimes slender and weak, sometimes stout and
powerful; the teeth are generally strongest in the latter
case, and some of these birds are as predaceous in their
habits as the smaller hawks. The feet are slender, but
generally armed with curved and acute claws. The
number of species belonging to this group is very great,
and they are divided into five families.
FAMILY I.— SYLVIUS.
We commence with this family as making the nearest
approach in its short slender bill to the Wrens with
which the last tribe was concluded. The sides of the
Fig. 109.
The Nightingale (Philomela lusc
upper mandible are but slightly notched. The nostrils
are placed at the base of the bill in a groove, and are
uncovered. The birds have long wings and slender
tarsi and toes, terminated by claws of moderate length.
They are for the most part distinguished by a great
power of song, and the term Warblers has been applied
to the family. Their food consists almost entirely of
insects and worms; and hence those species which inha-
bit cold and temperate climates are generally migratory.
THE NIGHTINGALE (Philomela ftwcinio)— Fig. 109.
— We cannot better commence our illustrations of this
family of vocalists than with the description of this bird,
which is universally, and perhaps with justice, regarded
as the most charming songster of our woods and groves.
THE NIGHTINGALE. BIRDS. THE GOLD CREST.
323
From the moment of his arrival in this country the
male Nightingale pours forth his melody, not only
during the day, but even in the silence and darkness
of the night, at which period his notes strike the ear
with more striking effect than when mixed up with
the voices of other feathered choristers. The beauty of
this nocturnal music has furnished a theme of admira-
tion for poets and writers in all ages, whose descriptions
of evening would almost seem incomplete if the Night-
ingale did not warble from the grove ; but none of them,
perhaps, have done more justice to his vocal powers than
old Izaak Walton, in the following speech which he puts
into the mouth of one of the persons in his dialogue : —
" The Nightingale," says Auceps, " another of my airy
creatures, breathes such sweet loud music out of her
little instrumental throat, that it might make mankind
to think that miracles are not ceased. He that at
midnight, when the very labourer sleeps securely,
should hear, as I have very often, the clear airs, the
sweet descants, the natural rising and falling, the
doubling and redoubling of her voice, might well be
lifted above earth, and say— Lord, what music hast
thou provided for the saints in heaven, when thou
affordest bad men such music on earth !"
Like many other charming singers, the Nightingale is
by no means remarkable for the beauty of its personal
appearance. Its general colour is brown, with a red-
dish tinge above, dull greyish-white beneath ; the 'beak
and legs are brown, and the eyes, which are rather large
and very bright, have the irides hazel. The whole
length of the bird is about six inches and a half. The
Nightingales arrive in this country about the middle of
April, the males preceding their partners by a few days.
They do not occur in the extreme western parts of
England, nor in Ireland ; and their range to the north-
ward extends in this country only into Yorkshire,
although on the continent they reach as far as Sweden.
They frequent woods, plantations, and orchards, and
feed on insects and spiders. The nest, which is com-
posed of leaves, grass, and rushes, lined with a few
fibrous roots, is usually placed in a hollow in the
ground, and very loosely put together. The eggs are
four or five in number, and of an olive-brown colour ;
they are deposited early in May, and the young are
hatched in June.
THE BLACKCAP (Curruca atricapilla), another Bri-
tish species, nearly allied to the Nightingale, is also a
beautiful songster, scarcely, if at all inferior to his more
celebrated relative. This bird measures about six inches
in length, the female being rather larger than the male ;
the plumage of both is of an ash colour more or less
tinged with brown, and the crown of the head is black
in the male, and chestnut brown in the female. The
Blackcap is an inhabitant of Europe, Asia, and Africa ;
it migrates into temperate climates in the spring, reach-
ing this country about the middle of April, and departs
southward again in September. During the summer it
occurs in most parts of England and in some localities
in Scotland, but is almost unknown in Ireland. Its
habits are similar to those of the Nightingale, but it
feeds partly upon fruits.
THE GAEDEN WAEBLEE or GREATER PETTYCHAPS
(Curruca hortensis} is very nearly allied to the pre-
ceding, and like it is a summer visitor to Britain. It
is a good songster, emitting a wild and rapid strain,
which is often continued for half an hour without a
pause. Two other nearly allied species, the WHITE-
THROAT (C. cinerea), and the LESSER WHITETHROAT
(C. syldella) are also common in this country.
THE WOOD WAEBLEE (Sylvia sylvicola), which is
generally distributed in England, usually makes its
appearance in this country about the end of April, and
takes up its abode in woods and plantations. Its food
consists of insects and their larvae. This bird builds a
domed nest upon the ground amongst the herbage,
forming it of dry grass, leaves, and moss, and lining it
with fine grass and hair, but with no feathers. The
eggs are six in number, white, spotted all over with
deep red and ash colour.
THE WILLOW WAEBLEE (Sylvia Trochilus), an-
other British species, arrives in this country about the
middle of April, and extends its range into Scotland.
It is common about woods, plantations, and hedges,
and makes its nest upon the ground much in the same
way as the preceding species, but lines it with feathers.
THE CHIFF CHAFF (Sylvia Hippokils) is a very early
visitor to Britain, arriving here before any of the other
members of this family, with the exception of the
Wheatear. It is a very small species, and its name
is derived from its note, which resembles the syllables
diiff chaff, frequently repeated. In its general habits
it resembles the preceding species.
THE DAETFOED WAEBLEE (Melizophilus Dart-
fordiensis) has received its name from having been
first discovered in the neighbourhood of Dartford in
Kent. It appears to remain in Britain throughout the
year, or at least many specimens have been observed
here during the winter. Furze-covered commons are
its favourite haunts; it dwells and builds its nest amongst
the furze-bushes, the strong prickles of which make a
formidable fence around the little dwelling. Hence it
is called in some places the Furzeling or Furze Wren.
Its food consists principally of small insects, which are
generally caught in the air.
THE GOLD CEEST (Regulus cristatus), which is also
called the KINGLET, is the most diminutive of British
birds. It is a permanent resident in this country, and
indeed receives a considerable accession to its numbers
during the winter by a migration from the more northern
parts of Europe. It usually inhabits fir woods, where
it may be seen exploring the twigs and branches in
search of insects, hopping and creeping about with
great vivacity, and associating freely, not only with its
own species, but also with the Titmice and Creepers,
which resemble it somewhat in mode of life. Its nest
is cupshaped, composed of moss and lined with feathers;
it is suspended from three or four twigs beneath the
branch of a fir-tree so as to be sheltered from above.
The eggs vary in number from six to ten ; and the
female, while engaged in hatching and bringing up her
young, is very bold, allowing the nest to be looked into,
and even submitting to be handled without shrinking
from her duties. The male has a soft and agreeable song.
The length of this pretty little bird is about three inches
and a half; its plumage is yellowish-olive above and
yellowish-grey beneath ; on the crown of the head it
324
BIRDS.
bears a bright orange crest, bordered on each side with
black. Several other species of Regulus are known,
and two of these have been seen in this country.
THE BEED WARBLER ( Calamodyta arundinacea] visits
this country in April, and departs again in September.
During its stay here it takes up its abode amongst the
reeds and osiers which fringe our rivers and lakes. The
nest of this species is built amongst the reeds. It is
composed of long grass, and of the seed branches of the
reeds, and is attached by its sides to three or four
reeds ; it is of an elongated conical form externally,
and its cavity is also very deep, in order to prevent
the eggs from rolling out when the reeds are swayed
by the wind. The food of this and of several other
epeoies, which like it haunt the reeds and sedges
about our fresh waters, consists of worms, slugs, and
insects.
THE SEDGE WARBLER (Calamodyta phragmttis),
one of these species, is far more common than the
Reed Warbler, in company with which it is usually
found. Another species has been called the GRASS-
HOPPER WARBLER (C. locustetta), from its almost con-
stantly emitting a shrill cricket-like note.
THE INDIAN TAILOR WED (Orthotomus long icauda).
Several species of this family, generally inhabitants of
the East Indies, are remarkable for the extraordinary
mode in which their nests are made, which has pro-
cured for them the name of Tailor Birds. The present
species, to which the name was applied by the older
naturalists, is common in most wooded districts of
India, and also frequents the gardens, where its singular
mode of nidification may often be observed. Selecting
a suitable leaf, the ingenious little architect proceeds
to draw the edges together by means of its bill and feet;
then piercing holes through the approximated edges,
it secures them in their place by means of threads of
cotton, at the ends of which it leaves small bunches to
prevent their drawing through. Sometimes the bird
picks up a fallen leaf, and applying it to one still grow-
ing on the tree, sews the edges together in the same
way, and thus prepares a hanging cradle for its nest.
The cavity is filled up with a mass of cotton, flax, and
other vegetable fibres, mixed with a little hair, and in
this comfortable bed the eggs are deposited, and the
young brought up secure from the attacks of snakes
and monkeys.
THE BLUE WREN (Malurus cyaneus) of the Austra-
lian colonists, is an abundant species in the brushes of
New South Wales, and during the whiter becomes very
tame, haunting the gardens and houses of the settlers.
The male is a beautiful bird, having the upper parts
and the chest black, with the crown of the head, the
ear coverts and a crescent-shaped mark on the back
light blue, the wings brown, and the belly white. The
female is of a brownish tint, paler, or whitish beneath.
The habits of this bird are somewhat similar to those of
the European Wren, which it also resembles in its song.
The nest is built in a bush or tuft of grass; it is domed,
with a hole at one side near the top. The eggs are
•white, spotted with reddish-brown. Several nearly
allied species are found hi different parts of Australia.
THE EMU WREN (Stipiturus malacurus'), which
resembles the preceding in its general structure and
habits, and is an inhabitant of the whole southern part
of Australia and Van Diemen's Land, is remarkable
for having the tail composed of long feathers, with the
barbs widely separated, or decomposed, giving the
bird a singular appearance. Both the male and
female are reddish-brown, with the feathers of the
upper surface streaked and spotted with dark brown;
the male has the throat blue. It is a rather shy bird,
residing in marshy districts amongst long grass and
rushes ; its wings are very short, and it flies but little,
but runs upon the ground with great ease and rapidity,
carrying its tail elevated over the back.
THE AUSTRALIAN SINGING LARK (Cindoramphus
rufescens) is one of the few Australian birds which
deserve notice on account of the sweetness of their
song. It is found in all parts of Australia, and dwells
principally on the ground, from which it ascends per-
pendicularly to a great height in the air, singing both
hi its ascent and descent in the manner of our sky-
lark. Two other nearly allied species are met with hi
Australia, one of which is called the Skylark by the
colonists of Port-Phillip.
THE REDBREAST (Erytliacus rubecula), Plate 10, fig.
33. — This favourite little native of our islands is too
well -known to need any description. He is a perma-
nent resident with us, and also hi all the temperate
parts of Europe, but in the colder northern regions he
is a summer bird of passage. In every place where he
occurs, he is regarded with a greater degree of favour
than is shown to any other wild bird ; his red vest and
bright eye seem to make him friends wherever he
goes, and the affection with which he is welcomed
at the cottage door is heightened by the boldness and
sprightliness of his habits. In the whiter, especially,
when his favourite food is scarce, and the places where
he might seek it covered up with snow, the Robin seems
as it were to cast himself upon the charity of man, not
only coming about human habitations to pick up
what he can, which is done by many other birds, but
actually coming to show himself on the window sill or
threshold, as if asking to have his wants supplied.
Even in the breeding season, when most birds become
very shy, the Robin does not lose his confidence in
man, but builds his nest either in the hedgerow or about
the sheds and outbuildings, sometimes in places where
a considerable amount of bustle is going on. The nest
is cupshaped, and composed of moss, leaves, and grass,
lined with hair and feathers ; it usually contains five
or six eggs, which are white, with pale reddish-brown
spots. The song of the Robin is very sweet and
powerful, and is continued throughout the whole warm
season from spring to late in autumn.
THE INDIAN ROBIN (Thamnobia fulicata). This
bird, like its English namesake, is a great favourite
in its native countries, where it frequents the abodes
of man as boldly and familiarly as our Robin. It sits
upon the housetops and fences, descends into the
verandahs to feed, and sometimes even enters the
ises. The male has a sweet and pleasing song.
The food of this species consists principally of insects,
which it pursues upon the ground with great assiduity.
THE MAGPIE ROBIN (CopsycJim saularis), which,
like the preceding, is a native of India and Ceylon, is
THE REDSTART. BIRDS. THE STOXECHAT.
325
also a great favourite, both on account of its familia-
rity, and for the beauty of its song. As a song-bird it
is often kept in a cage, and the Hindoos, according to
Mr. Hodgson, are very fond of setting these tame birds
to fight, which they do with remarkable courage and
pertinacity. The pugnacity of the birds is so great,
that the birdcatchers take advantage of it in order to
capture the wild males. They take a tame male
perched on the finger, to the nearest garden or grove ;
the bird utters his call at his master's bidding, when
any wild male within hearing answers the challenge,
and the tame bird being slipped, a desperate combat
ensues, in the course of which the birdcatcher is able
to secure his prize ; the tame bird being even said to
assist in the capture of his adversary, by holding him
in his bill and claws.
THE BLUEBIRD (Sialia sialis), partly takes the
place of the Robin in the United States of America,
to which he is a summer visitor, passing the winter in
the West Indies and the tropical parts of the American
continent In his form and habits the Bluebird exhi-
bits a great resemblance to the Robin, and like him has
a bright red breast, but the colour of the upper surface
is light blue. He is a bold, familiar, and pugnacious
bird, and duiing the summer pours forth a song which
is described by American naturalists as exceedingly
sweet. The nest of this species is built in the hole of
a tree or some similar situation, and the eggs are five
or six in number, and of a pale blue colour. The food
of the Bluebird consists principally of insects and
spiders ; but in the autumn it also eats fruits.
THE REDSTART (Ruticilla phoenicura), which is
nearly allied to the Robin, is a summer visitor to this
country, where it is generally distributed, but by no
means abundant. In its general habits it resembles
the Robin, and like it jerks its rather long tail up and
down at every movement ; it is from this habit and the
red colour of the tail that it has received the name of
Redstart. The male Redstart is lead-grey above, and
pale chestnut beneath, with the throat and face black,
the forehead white, and the tail reddish chestnut ; the
female has neither black nor white on the head, and
her colours are paler than those of the male. The
whole length of the bird is rather more than five inches.
The Redstart is an active and lively bird ; it haunts
woods, hedge-rows, and orchards, and is said to be very
partial to old walls covered with ivy. Its food consists,
like that of the Robin, of worms, insects, spiders, and
fruits. Its song is soft and sweet. The nest is com-
posed of moss and lined with hair and feathers, and
placed sometimes in a hollow tree or a hole in a wall,
sometimes behind the trained branch of a fruit-tree,
and sometimes on the ground. The females usually lay
from four to six eggs, which are of a uniform greenish-
blue colour ; and the birds sometimes produce two
broods in a season. Two other species, the BLUE-
THROATED (R. suecica), and the BLACK REDSTART
(JR. Tithys], have been taken in this country.
THE SCABLET-BREASTED ROBIN (Petrolca multi-
color) is an inhabitant of the whole southern part of
Australia, where it is known to the colonists generally
under the familiar English name of the Robin. The
male is black, with the forehead, some bands on the
wings, and the belly white, and with the breast scarlet ;
the female is pale brown, with the breast red. The
whole length of the bird is about five inches. The song
of the male somewhat resembles that of the English
Robin, but is weaker. The Scarlet-Breasted Robin
dwells amongst the woods and brushes skirting the
plains, and builds its nest usually in the hollow of a
tree ; the eggs are three or four in number, and it
breeds two or three times in the season.
THE FLAME-BREASTED ROBIN (Petrolca phcenicea)
closely resembles the preceding species, whose place it
takes in Van Diemen's Land. This bird is, however,
more terrestrial in its habits than the Scarlet-breasted
Robin, but builds its nest in the same way in the hollow
of a tree.
THE PIED EOBIN (Petro'ica bicolor}. — Besides the
preceding and several other red-breasted species, the
genus Petrolca includes some birds in which black and
white, or brown, are the prevailing colours. The Pied
Robin, which is one of these, exhibits an elegant con-
trast in the deep black and pure white of its plumage ;
it is distributed in most parts of the Australian con-
tinent, living principally in the open country, but
selecting those plains which are studded over with
large trees. It passes much of its time on the ground
in pursuit of the insects on which it feeds.
THE KOCK WARBLER (Origma rubricata).—0f this
singular little bird, which is an inhabitant of New South
Wales, Mr. Gould gives the following account : — " Its
usual places of resort are the neighbourhood of water-
courses and stony, rocky gullies. So exclusively, in fact,
is it confined to such situations, that it never visits the
forests, nor have I ever seen it perching on the branches
of trees ; indeed, it would seem to have an aversion to
so doing, as it does not even resort to them as a resting-
place for its nest, but suspends it to the ceilings of
caverns and the under-surface of over-hanging rocks in
a manner that is most surprising. The nest, which is of
an oblong, globular form, and composed of moss and
other similar substances, is suspended by a narrow
neck, and presents one of the most singular instances
of bird architecture that has yet come under my notice."
This ingenious little architect is of a duh1 brown colour,
reddish beneath, with the throat grey ; its total length
is about five inches.
THE STONECHAT (Saxicola rubicold) is a permanent
resident in Britain, where it resides upon furzy com-
mons and heaths. It is rather smaller than the Red-
breast, and has the head, throat, and back black, the
breast chestnut, and the belly yellowish-white. The
sides of the neck are white. The female is lighter in
colour than the male. The Stonechat is an active and
lively bird, constantly flitting from one bush or stone
to another, and dashing off" in pursuit of passing insects
which it captures in the air, all the time keeping up a
continual twittering from which its name of Stonechat or
Stonechatter is derived. Its song is agreeable, though
short. The nest is built on or close to the ground
under the shelter of a bush ; it is composed of moss and
grass. The eggs are five or six in number, greyish-
blue, speckled with reddish-brown at the larger end.
THE WHINCHAT (Saxicola rubetra) resembles the
preceding species in its general habits, and in its par-
326
PASSERES. BIRDS. SYLVIUS.
tiality for furze-covered commons even exceeds it ; but
it is a bird of passage in this country, only dwelling with
us through the summer. The- nest resembles that of
the Stonechat, but the eggs are bluish-green, with a few
very small specks of reddish-brown.
THE WHEATEAK (Saxicola (Enanthe), which is nearly
allied to the preceding species, is a migratory bird, reach-
ing us in March, and taking its departure for the south
in September. It is much prized for the table ; and in
the autumn great quantities of Wheatears are captured
upon our south downs by the shepherds, by a simple
trap consisting of a covered passage cut in the turf,
within which is a small stick supporting two horse-hair
nooses. The birds run into the passage at the least
alarm, when they can hardly avoid catching their necks
in one of *he treacherous loops of horsehair.
THE INDIAN NIGHTINGALE (Kittadncla jnacroura),
a species nearly allied to the Stonechats and Kedstarts,
is a splendid songster, which, like the European night-
ingale, sings beautifully at night. Mr. Tickell, describing
the melody of this bird, says — "The strains sweep with
a gush of sweetness through the enchanting solitudes
which this bird makes its favourite resort, at times when
other birds are silent in rest ; and in unison with the
surrounding scenery, in which Nature seems to have
lavished every fantastic invention of beauty, the effect
produced upon the mind and ear can alone be appre-
ciated by those who have witnessed the magnificence
of a tropical forest." In Calcutta many thousands of
these birds are kept in confinement, with their cages
darkened by several folds of cloth wrapped round them,
and the richer natives employ servants to carry their
birds about in the streets. Mr. Blyth informs us
that the birds, although shut out from all light and air,
" like Mahometan ladies enjoying their evening drive,"
nevertheless sing forth most lustily and melodiously.
THE HEDGESPABEOW (Accentor modularis).—0f
the genus Accentor, which includes a considerable
number of species, found in various parts of the world,
we have one species which is an abundant and per-
manent resident in Britain. This bird, tha Hedge-
warbler or Hedge-sparrow, is very generally distri-
buted about hedges and gardens, where it builds its
nest of moss and roots, lined with wool and hair, com-
pleting it so early in the season that, from the hedges
being bare of leaves, it is veiy easily discovered, and is
consequently exposed to be plundered by every mis-
chievous urchin that passes by. The delicate greenish-
blue eggs of the Hedge-sparrow, indeed, generally
constitute the greater proportion of those which are
to be found on the strings of country-boys, so that, as
Mr. Knapp observes, it is almost a wonder that the
species is not extirpated. The birds, however, rear
two broods in a season, which may to some extent
compensate for the wholesale destruction of their eggs
that takes place in the spring. The male Hedge-
sparrow has a short but sweet song, which it continues
to utter nearly all the year round. In the winter it
frequently approaches houses like the Robin in search
of food.
THE YELLOW-THROATED WAEBLEB (Sericornis
citreogularis), a native of the brushes of New South
Wales, measures about six inches in length, and is of
a brown colour, with the belly white, the throat yellow,
and the sides of the face black ; above each eye is a
long yellow streak. This bird constructs its nest in
the bunches of moss which are often suspended from
the extremities of the branches of trees in the Austra-
lian forests, and which consequently swing about vio-
lently when agitated by the wind. This, however,
does not appear to disturb the bird, who probably
considers that such an inconvenience is amply com-
pensated by security from other dangers.
THE YELLOW - TAILED ACANTHIZA (Acanthiza
chrysorrhcea). — Of several species of the genus Acan-
ihiza found in various parts of Australia, this is the
most abundant and generally distributed, being found
in all the southern parts of that continent, and also in
Van Diemen's Land. It is a small bird, of an olive-
brown colour above, whitish beneath, with the rump
and upper tail-coverts bright yellow. It builds a domed
nest of grasses and leaves, and rears three broods in
the season. This is one of the birds in whose nest the
Bronze Cuckoo of Australia deposits its egg.
THE BLUE TIT (Partis car alms'), a well-known
British bird, frequently called the TOMTIT and the
TITMOUSE, is a diminutive, but handsome, active, and
lively creature. It is seen commonly in woods and
plantations during the summer, but in the winter fre-
quently resorts to gardens and orchards, where it may
be observed ch'nging to the branches in every possible
position, engaged in a minute search for the insects
which shelter themselves from the inclemency of the
weather in the crevices of the bark and within the buds.
The Blue Tit will also peck at meat, and has been
known to visit the butchers' shops for this purpose.
The nest of this bird is made with a large quantity of
moss, hair, and feathers in a hole in a wall or tree,
and here the female lays usually from eight to ten
eggs, although twelve, fourteen, and even eighteen
have been found in a nest. The eggs are white,
spotted with pale red. When sitting, the female
exhibits great courage in the defence of her eggs ; she
does not quit her nest when threatened with danger,
but puffs out her feathers, hisses at the intruder, and
pecks at his fingers, a habit from which the boys in
some parts of England have bestowed the expressive
name of " Billy Biter" upon the Blue Tit. This bird
is abundant in all the temperate parts of the European
continent, and is also recorded as a native of Japan
and Formosa.
THE GEEAT TIT (Parus major], which is the
largest species of its genus, measures nearly six inches
in length, and like the preceding species, which it
resembles in habits, is a common bird in this country.
This bird is said occasionally to kill small birds by
repeated blows on the head with his hard and sharp
bill, after which he breaks open the skull, and picks
out and eats the brains of his victim.
THE COLE TIT (Parus ater) and the MARSH TIT
(P. palustris), are common British species, especially
in the southern parts of the island ; the latter is
distinguished by its preference for marshy districts,
where it dwells amongst the willows and alders.
THE CEESTED TIT (Paruscristatus), a less abundant
species, distinguished by the possession of an elegant
THE BEARDED TIT. BIRDS. THE WHITE-EYED WARBLER.
327
crest of black and white feathers, is found principally
in fir woods, both in this country and on the continent.
The exotic species of the genus resemble the preceding
in their habits, and need not be specially alluded to.
THE LONG-TAILED TIT (Mecistura caudata)— Plate
10, fig. 32 — is an abundant and generally distributed
bird in Britain, where, like its allies, it haunts the
woods, hedges, and gardens in search of insect food,
to which it appears to restrict itself more decidedly
than some of the preceding species. It is readily dis-
tinguished from them by its long and graduated tail.
This bird also differs from the other Tits in its mode
of nidification ; its nest being a neat and comfortable
structure, firmly placed amongst the branches of a thick
bush, composed of moss and wool, thickly lined with
soft feathers, and adorned externally with fragments
of white lichens, which give it an elegant appearance.
It is of an oval form, snugly domed over at the top,
and with a single opening rather high up on one side
for the entrance of the bird.
THE BEAEDED TIT ( Calamophilus biarmicus), unlike
the other Tits, resides amongst the reeds and sedges
which fringe our rivers, lakes, and ponds. Its food
consists partly of insects and seeds, and partly of the
small shelled mollusca which abound in the vicinity
of water ; it is provided with a muscular gizzard by
which the shells of these animals are speedily broken
up. Its nest is built amongst the sedges near the
ground.
THE BLUE-EYED YELLOW WARBLER (Mniotilta
cestiva) is an example of a considerable group of the
family of Warblers, which possesses a certain resem-
blance in habits to the creepers. This bird is a common
species in the United States of America, where it is a
summer visitor, arriving in the middle states early in
May, and departing in September. It retires for the
winter to the West Indies, and the tropical parts of
South America. The plumage is greenish-yellow
above, golden-yellow beneath, with the breast streaked
with dark red ; the bill and eyelids are blue. It is an
active and familiar bird, which is seen in the gardens
and shrubberies creeping about with sprightly move-
ments upon the fruit-trees and bushes in search of its
food, which consists principally of small green cater-
pillars. Its nest is neatly made of flax or tow, on a
forked branch, and lined with hair and vegetable down.
THE WORM-EATING WARBLER (Mniotilta vermi-
vord). — Besides the preceding, numerous species of
the group to which it belongs are found in America,
and of these the Worm-eating Warbler is, like it, a
summer visitor to the United States. It is an exceed-
ingly active and sprightly bird, and feeds upon small
caterpillars and spiders.
THE WHITE-EYED WARBLER (Zoster ops palpebrosus),
is a common East Indian species, nearly allied to the
two preceding. It migrates from the plains to the
mountains at the approach of the hot season, ascend-
ing to a considerable elevation, and feeding partly
Fig. 110.
The Pied Wagtail (Motacilla Yarrellii,).
trpon insects which it captures in the flowers, and
partly on the small black berries of a species of Eham-
nus. The nest of this bird is described by Captain
Hutton as being suspended by means of silk from two
thin twigs of a tree, composed of the same materia.
with moss, cotton, and other vegetable matters, and
lined with hair, the silk being used to bind the other
materials together; the whole forming a little oval cup,
328
PASSERES. BIRDS. -
which is so well put together that, although it looks
so slight and fragile that the weight of the parent bird
would be thought capable of bringing it down, it will,
with its contents, outride a gale that will bring the
weightier nests of jays and thrushes to the ground.
THE PIED WAGTAIL (Motacilla Yarrellii).—Fig.
109, preceding page. — The Wagtails and Pipits with
which we close the present family, form together a
peculiar group which evidently approaches the Larks,
in the conirostral family of the Finches. The charac-
ters which chiefly indicate this analogy, consist in the
great development of the hinder claw, and in the struc-
ture of the wings, which have the tertiary quills much
elongated and pointed. Both the Wagtails and the
Pipits are lor the most part terrestrial in their habits,
and run upon the ground by the alternate motion of
their feet.
The Pied Wagtail is a well-known British bird,
usually found in the immediate vicinity of water,
where its elegantly pied plumage and graceful move-
ments render it a conspicuous obj ect. On the margins
of rivers and ponds, and in damp meadows, this beau-
tiful little bird may constantly be seen running about,
or flying from one spot to another with a graceful and
buoyant flight, and accompanying every movement
with a singular perpendicular wagging of the tail, a
habit common to all the species and from which their
popular name is derived. The food of this species, as
of all the other Wagtails, consists principally of insects,
which it finds in abundance in the damp places fre-
quented by it, where also small mollusca and worms
occur freely, and doubtless form a portion of its diet.
Frequently also the Wagtail may be seen wading in
the shallowest parts of the water, and from an obser-
vation made by Mr. Rayner of Uxbridge, it would
appear that when thus engaged these birds are in pur-
suit not only of aquatic insects, but also of fish. They
will also capture insects on the wing, in the manner of
the flycatchers, by flying up from the ground in pursuit
of them as they pass along.
In the southern counties of England this bird is a
permanent resident. It is common in the summer in
the north, and extends its range into Norway and
Sweden, but does not occur in the more southern
parts of the continent of Europe, where its place is
taken by a nearly allied species. The nest is composed
of moss, grass, and roots, and lined with hair and
feathers. It is placed sometimes on the ground, some-
times in a hole in a wall, a thatched roof, a hay rick or
wood stack, or in some similar position. The eggs are
four or five in number, white, with ash-coloured spots,
and the birds appear to rear two broods in the season.
THE WHITE WAGTAIL (Motacilla alba) with which
the preceding species was formerly confounded, is an
abundant bird all over the continent of Europe, but is
only an occasional visitor to this country. The habits
of the two birds seem to be very similar. The dis-
tinctions between the two species according to Mr.
Yarrell, are "that the beak of our Pied Wagtail is
broader than that of the White Wagtail throughout its
whole length from the point to the more dilated base ;
and that while our pied bird changes on the back from
ash-grey to black in the breeding season, the back of
the white bird remains as light in colour as it is in
winter."
THE GEAY WAGTAIL (Motacilla boarulu) is another
abundant British species ; it performs a nearly total
migration within the boundaries of our island, being a
summer visitor to the northern counties, and a winter
visitor to the southern ones. Its habits are similar to
those of the Pied Wagtail, but it is even more aquatic,
and feeds freely upon the common small fresh-water
bivalves (Cyclas cornea}, and probably upon other mol-
lusca. It often runs upon the tops of weeds in ditches.
BAY'S WAGTAIL (Budytes Rayi), unlike the pre-
ceding species, is a summer visitor to this country,
where it arrives about the end of March, taking its
departure again in September. The plumage of its
upper surface is pale olive, with the wings brown, and
that of the lower surface bright yellow. In its habits
it is less aquatic than any of the preceding Wagtails,
but frequents pastures and cornfields in search of insects,
not unfrequently attending sheep and cattle whilst
grazing, and running about almost under their feet to
pick up the insects and worms disturbed by their
movements. The nest is placed on the ground.
THE MEADOW PIPIT (Anthuspratensis), also known
as the TITLARK, is a permanent resident in Britain,
and occurs all over the continent of Europe, in Northern
Africa, and in Asia. It measures about six inches in
length, is of a brown colour above, and whitish beneath,
with the breast spotted with (Jark brown. Commons
and waste lands are the favourite resort of this bird,
where it seeks its food, consisting of insects, worms,
and slugs, upon the ground, running along with great
facility, and occasionally vibrating its tail in the manner
of the Wagtails. The nest is built upon the ground
amongst herbage, and usually contains from four to six
eggs ; it is one of the favourite nests with the cuckoo
for receiving her eggs. The song of the male is soft
and musical, but short; it is usually uttered whilst
hovering over the nest.
THE TREE PIPIT (Antltus arboreus), a summer
visitor to Britain, is found only in the wooded parts of
the southern counties. Like the preceding species, the
Tree Pipit runs freely upon the ground, where it seeks
its insect food, and constructs its nest ; but the male
perches upon the branch of a tree or bush when
engaged in singing.
THE ROCK PIPIT (Anthus pdrosus), a third common
British species, is a permanent resident in our island,
where it haunts every part of the sea-coast. In its
general habits it resembles the preceding species, seek-
ing its food by running about upon the wet beach, and
carefully examining the sea-weed left by the retiring
tide, in search of small Crustacea and other marine
animals. Its nest is made upon the ground, or on the
ledge of a rock, usually facing the sea. A fourth
species, RICHARD'S PIPIT (Antkus Richardi), has
occasionally been met with in this country ; but it is
very rare, not only here, but also on the continent.
THE COMMON INDIAN PIPIT (Anthus rufulus), and
the INDIAN TREE PIPIT (A. agilis), are abundant
birds in India during the cold season, probably migra-
ting to the northward fjr the summer. The former
resembles our Meadow Pipit in its habits ; the latter is
TURDID.E. BIRDS. THE MISSEL THRUSH.
329
found in small flocks about trees, and in gardens, and
wooded water- courses, and feeds both upon the ground
and amongst the branches. According to Mr. Elliott,
" its flesh is used by falconers as a restorative to the
Bhyree (Falcoperegrinus')" and is said to be very delicate,
THE BROWN LAKE (Anthus ludovicianus) is an
American species of Pipit which migrates southward
into the United States in the autumn, returning again
towards the north in April and May. It is six inches
in length, brownish-olive above, brownish-yellow
beneath, with black spots on the breast ; the quill
feathers of the wings are brown, the tertials black,
and the tail black, with the outside of the external
feathers white. It breeds in the Hudson's Bay Terri-
tory, and on the Labrador coast, and probably in all
the northern parts of the American continent, making
its nest on the ground at the foot of the rocks.
FAMILY II.— TURDIDJE.
The birds of this family, which includes the well-
known Thrushes, and a great number of allied species,
have a bill of moderate length and thickness, with the
upper mandible arched and keeled above, and finely
notched or toothed near the tip on each side. The
hinder part of the gape is bordered with a row of
rather short bristles ; and the nostrils, which are ol
considerable size and oblong in form, are placed on the
sides of the base of the upper mandible, and partly
covered by a membranous scale. The wings are gene-
rally well developed, as are also the legs, which have
the tarsi compressed, and usually clothed in front with
seven shields, of which, however, some are frequently
united so as to form a single plate, covering nearly the
whole front of the tarsus.
These birds are distributed in all parts of the world.
Their food consists partly of insects, worms, and terres-
trial mollusca, and partly of fruits. Many of them possess
great powers of song.
THE MISSEL THRUSH (Turdus wacnjortte)— -fig. 110
— which is also a permanent resident in this country, is
a much larger bird than the preceding, measuring about
eleven inches in length. The spots on the belly and
breast of this bird are rounded in form. The Missel
Thrush is generally met with in small woods, orchards,
and hedgerows ; its food consists of insects, worms, and
slugs, and in autumn and winter of fruits and berries.
Of the latter the berries of the misseltoe are said to
constitute a favourite portion of its food ; and by its
devouring these berries, and afterwards passing the
Fig. 110.
The Missel Thrush (Turdus viscivorus).
seeds uninjured from its body, it is supposed to con-
tribute greatly to the diffusion of that singular plant.
The song of this Thrush is far inferior to that of the
Song Thrush, and somewhat resembles that of the
Blackbird ; it is often heard before storms of wind and
rain, and hence the bird is sometimes called the Storm-
cock. The nest is built in the forked branch of a tree,
VOL. I.
and is composed .externally of moss, grass, and lichens,
and lined with a coating of mud, within which there is
a layer of fine grass. The eggs are greenish-white,
with reddish-brown spots ; there are usually four or five
of them in the nest.
THE SONG THRUSH (Turdus musicus). — This well-
known British bird, whose spotted breast and sweet
530
PASSERES. BIRDS. TCRDID.E.
song must be familiar to every one, is found in all parts
of Europe during the summer, but quits the extreme
northern countries at the approach of winter, when
even our island receives a considerable accession of
numbers from Denmark and Sweden. It is found in
the wooded districts, and commonly haunts orchards,
and gardens containing trees, where it commits con-
siderable depredations upon the fruit. On the conti-
nent the Thrush feasts in autumn upon the ripe grapes,
and at this time its flesh is highly esteemed there as an
article of food. Besides fruit, it devours caterpillars
and other insects, and thus no doubt fully repays the
gardener for any damage it may do to his fruit crops;
and the equally destructive snails also constitute a
favourite portion of its diet. In getting at the latter
delicate morsels, the Thrush exhibits much ingenuity;
it breaks their shells upon a stone, shakes off the frag-
ments most dexterously, and then swallows the soft
body. Of all the larger singing birds, the Thrush is
probably the best, as its song is rich, powerful, and
varied, and continued with but little intermission from
early in the spring till autumn. Its nest, which is built
early in the year, is usually placed in the centre of a
thick bush ; it is cup-shaped, composed externally of
moss and fine roots, and neatly plastered inside with a
mixture of cowdting and rotten wood. The nest gene-
rally contains four or five eggs, which are of a light
blue colour, with a few black spots at the larger end.
THE REDWING (Turdus iliacus) is a winter visitor
to this country and to all the southern parts of Europe,
passing the summer and breeding in the north. It is
rather smaller than the Song Thrush, and is of a rich
clove brown colour above, and whitish beneath, having
the breast and belly spotted with dark brown in the
same way as the Song Thrush. It arrives in England
about the middle of October, coming in flocks from the
Scandinavian peninsula and Denmark, and taking up
its abode amongst the trees in our parks and pleasure
grounds. The food of this species consists of insects,
worms, and slugs, but it scarcely seems to eat berries,
and in severe weather the Redwings are observed to be
the first birds that suffer. In the north of Scotland,
and sometimes even hi more southern localities, the
Redwings have been known to stay through the summer;
but most of them quit us in the spring, and take then-
way to the north, where they build their nests and
bring up their young. The song of the male is so
beautiful, that it is called the Nightingale of Norway.
THE FIELDFARE ( Turdus pilaris) . This bird, which
is a winter visitor to Britain, is a permanent resident
in Central Europe, and a summer visitor to Sweden,
Russia, and Siberia. It is a hardy bird, and is the
latest of our winter visitors in its arrival. In its general
habits it resembles the preceding species, but, unlike
the Redwing, feeds freely upon berries, as well as upon
insects, slugs, and other small animals. Its song is
described as soft and sweet.
THE BLACKBIRD (Turdus merula), with his deep-
black plumage, and bright yellow bill, is too well
known to need any description. This bird is a
permanent resident in Britain, and in the southern
l>arts of Europe, but migrates for the winter from the
more northern regions. It haunts woods and planta-
tions, and is a shy and vigilant bird, flying off when
disturbed with a loud cry, sufficient to alarm all the
other inhabitants of the grove. The food of the
Blackbird consists of the same materials as that of the
preceding species, although, perhaps, he exhibits a
still greater partiality for fruit than even the Song
Thrush, and his depredations in the garden are so
extensive, that he is everywhere regarded as an enemy
by gardeners. In this case, however, as in many others,
it may fairly be questioned whether the bird does not
amply pay for the fruit that he consumes by his ser-
vices in ridding the garden of insects, slugs, and snails,
of which he destroys great quantities in the spring and
early summer.
The nest of the Blackbird is built early in the spring,
usually in the midst of some thick bush. In its struc-
ture it resembles that of the Missel Thrush. The eggs,
usually four or five in number, are of a pale blue colour,
speckled with reddish-brown. During the breeding
season the male has a loud and powerful song; which,
however, is not very varied. In captivity he has been
known to imitate various sounds, even clucking like a
hen that has just laid an egg, and crowing exactly like
a cock, " apparently enjoying the sound of the responses
made by the fowls of the neighbouring farmyard."
THE RING OUZEL ( Turdus torquatus), which is nearly
allied to the Blackbird, is one of the largest species of
tin's family, measuring about eleven inches in length.
The colour of its plumage is brownish-black, and
across the breast there is a distinct white band. Unlike
any of the preceding species, the Ring Ouzel is a sum-
mer bird of passage in this country and in the north of
Europe generally ; its winter quarters being in the most
southern parts of the European continent, and in the
north of Africa. In this country the Ring Ouzel resides
and breeds in the rocky and mountainous districts,
building a nest somewhat similar in its construction
to that of the other thrushes, on the ground, under
shelter of a stone or bush, or amongst the heath. In
its food and general habits it resembles the Blackbird.
Besides the preceding, two other species of the genus
Turdus have been met with in Britain, namely,
WHITE'S THRUSH (T. Whitet), a Japanese species,
and the GOLD-VENTED THRUSH (T. aurtienter), a
native of Africa.
THE RED-BREASTED THRUSH (Turdusmigratorius),
called the ROBIN in the United States of America, is
about the size of our Song Thrush, and is of an ash
colour above, with the head, wings, and tail black, the
throat black, and the breast dark orange. This bird
resides in immense flocks during the winter in the
maritime states of the Union, migrating in the spring
to the higher regions of the interior. The nest is
usually placed in an apple-tree, and is plastered in the
inside with mud, like those of our British thrushes.
The female lays five eggs of a delicate sea-green
colour.
THE "WOOD THRUSH (Turdus melodus], another
American species, resembles our Song Thrush in its
colouring, as also in the sweetness of its song. It is
found in all parts of the North American continent,
but migrates to the south for the winter. Its usual
resorts are shady hollows, and it is of a shy and soli-
THE MOCKIXG BIED. -BIRDS. THE CAT BIRD.
331
tary disposition, being usually seen either singly or in
pairs. The nest is built in a bush, and composed
externally of a large quantity of dead beech leaves,
within which is a cup formed of dry grass and mud,
smoothly plastered and lined with the fine fibrous roots
of plants. The eggs are four or five in number, and
of a uniform light blue colour.
THE MOCKING BIRD (Mimus polyglottus)— Plate 10,
fig. 34 — the most celebrated of the American thrushes,
is found not only in the United States, but also in the
West Indies and South America, being stationary in
the warmer regions, but migratory, or partially so, in
the colder. It is between nine and ten inches in
length; the plumage of the upper parts is brownish-ash
colour, with the wings and tail nearly black ; the lower
parts are brownish- white. The Mocking Bird is found
principally in the woods of low districts, where it feeds
upon the berries which grow in profusion on the luxu-
riant thickets of the swamps, and also upon insects,
which it often captures on the wing with great dexte-
rity. The nest is placed in a thick bush or tree, and is
usually composed of twigs, straws, dry grass, wool, and
tow, and lined with a layer of fine fibrous roots ; the
eggs are generally four in number, of a grayish-blue
colour, with large brown patches. During the season
of incubation, the male attacks every creature that
approaches the nest, exhibiting a particular animosity to
the black snake, which, as Wilson tells us, is " the mortal
enemyof his eggs and young." " Whenever," says Wil-
son, " the insidious approaches of this reptile are discov-
ered, the male darts upon it with the rapidity of an arrow,
dexterously eluding its bite, and striking it violently
and incessantly about the head, where it is very vul-
nerable. The snake soon becomes sensible of its
clanger, and seeks to escape ; but the intrepid defender
of his young redoubles his exertions, and, unless his
antagonist be of great magnitude, often succeeds in
destroying him." After a victory of this kind, the
bird places himself on the top of the bush containing
his nest, and pours forth a perfect torrent of song, and
this, from its power and wonderful variety, is described
as equal to that of any other bird, not even excepting
the nightingale. Like that charming English songster
he sings both by day and night, and at the latter season
his melody is described as " making the whole neigh-
bourhood ring." But the most remarkable point
connected with the vocal performances of this bird,
consists in his wonderful power of imitation, the
notes and cries of almost every bird or animal being
mixed up with his own proper song in the most extra-
ordinary manner. " In his domesticated state," says
Wilson, " when he commences his career of song, it is
impossible to stand by uninterested. He whistles for
the dog; Csesar starts up, wags his tail, and runs to meet
his master. He squeaks out like a hurt chicken, and
the hen hurries about with hanging wings and bristled
feathers, clucking to protect its injured brood. The
barking of the dog, the mewing of the cat, the creaking
of a passing wheelbarrow, follow with great truth and
rapidity." The songs and notes of other small birds
are also imitated, and even unproved upon by the Mock-
ing Bird; and so perfect are the imitations of this
incomparable mimic, that he not unfrequently deceives
the sportsman, and even the birds themselves whoso
note he borrows." This fondness for imitation cannot
but impair the beauty of the bird's song, and yet
Wilson seems to think that it constitutes one. of its
chief excellencies, " as these changes give a perpetual
novelty to his strain, keep attention constantly awake,
and impress every hearer with a deeper interest in what
is to follow."
THE CAT BIRD (Mimus felivox), which is nearly
allied to the preceding, owes his name to the singular
note, resembling that of " some vagrant orphan kitten
bewildered amongst the briers," which he is fond of
uttering. He is a bird of passage in the United
States, in the southern parts of which he arrives as early
as the end of February ; he takes up his abode in the
thickets, and feeds both upon insects and fruits, resort-
ing to the gardens in search of the latter. The nest
is placed in a thick bush, and resembles that of the
Mocking Bird in its construction.
THE WHITE HEADED BABBLER (Malacocercus
griseus), an inhabitant of India, is rather less than our
blackbird, and is of a gray colour, with the crown of
the head and back of the neck white, and the lower
surface tinged with red. It is an abundant and
sociable bird, dwelling in hedges, groves, and gardens,
and seeking its food, which consists principally of
insects and worms, on the ground, where it is seen
turning over the dead leaves, and even searching
heaps of dung, whence the name of Dirt-bird is given
to it by the English in India. This bird has no song.
THE LAUGHING THRUSH (Pterocydus cachinnam'),
another Indian species nearly allied to the preceding,
is especially abundant in the thick woods which clothe
the Neilgherries, where it is usually seen among the
lower branches of the trees, but appears rarely to
alight on the ground. Its food consists principally of
fruits, varied with catterpillars and other soft-bodied
insects. It is a noisy bird, and its name is derived
from its peculiar cry, which is described by Mr. Jerdon
as " a sort of cracked Punch and Judy laugh."
THE BLACK-FACED BABBLER (Garrulax chinensis),
a native of China, where it is known by the name of
Shanhu, is about the size of the common blackbird, and
of an olive brown colour above, gray beneath, with the
orbits, chin, and throat black. It is an inhabitant oi'
the woods, and is a good songster; also imitating
almost every sound that it hears. Its food consists ot
insects and other small animals, and in confinement it
has even been known to kill a snake of a foot in length
by striking it through the head with its bill.
THE WHITE EYE-BROWED THRUSH (Pomatorhimis
superdliosus). This bird, which is an inhabitant of
the whole southern portion of Australia, is described
by Mr. Gould as the most restless, noisy, and queru-
lous bird that he ever encountered. It runs and hops
about amongst the branches of the trees uttering a
" jarring, chattering, and discordant jumble of notes,
which are sometimes prec eded by a rapidly repeated
shrill piping whistle." These birds are usually me'1
with in small flocks of from six to ten in number ; the}
feed upon the ground under the trees, and when dis-
turbed fly up to the lowest branch, and then go off in
a line to the top of the tree, whence they usually
332
PASSER*
-BIRDS. TURDID.E.
flit to another. The nest is a large domed structure
of dried sticks, with the entrance at one side.
THE SPOTTED GROUND THRUSH (Cinclosoma
punctatum), another Australian species, is found only
in the eastern part of New Holland, and in Van
Diemen's Land. Its favourite haunts are stony hills
and rocky gullies, where it runs about with great
rapidity, its power of flight being very small. In
Hobart Town, where it is highly esteemed for the
table, it is known as the Ground Dove. The food of
this bird consists of seeds and caterpillars. Its nest is
slightly constructed of leaves and the bark of trees ; it
is placed on the ground under the shelter of a stone or
tuft of grass, and contains two or three eggs of a white
colour, with olive-brown blotches.
THE GOLDEN OEIOLE (Oriolus gdbula}— fig. Ill—
is a common bird in the southern parts of the Euro-
pean continent, where, however, it is a summer visitor,
and specimens occasionally find their way into Britain.
It frequents secluded woods and the borders of forests,
living sociably in small parties, and feeding partly
upon caterpillars and other insects, and partly
upon fruits. The nest is cup-shaped and rather flat,
placed upon the horizontal forked branch of a tree,
Fig. 111.
The Golden Oriole (Oriolus galbula).
and composed of long grass and wool, carefully and
ingeniously interwoven. The eggs are generally
four or five in number, of a purplish white colour,
with a few gray and reddish spots. The Golden
Oriole is rather more than nine inches in length.
The general colour of the plumage in the male is
bright yellow, with the wings and tail black, more
or less variegated with yellow, and with a dark streak
running from the bill to the eye ; the female is olive-
coloured above, grayish-white beneath, with the wings
and tail brown.
THE RED-VENTED BULBUL (Pycnonotus hcemor-
rJioiis), one of the most abundant of Indian birds, is of
a brownish colour above, with the head and tail black,
and whitish beneath, with the vent red. The head
exhibits the appearance of being crested. This bird is
found either in pairs or in small flocks in gardens,
fields, and jungle, but always in open parts of the
latter ; it feeds principally on fruits and insects, and is
occasionally destructive to peas in gardens. It is often
kept in confinement for the purpose of fighting, for
which it exhibits considerable aptitude ; the com-
batants seizing each other by the red feathers of the
vent, and endeavour to pull them out. When caged
it is said to imitate the notes of other birds.
THE JOCOSE BULBUL (Pycnonotus jocosus), a species
nearly allied to the preceding, and like it a native of
India, is a sprightly bird, which is found both in woods
and gardens. It is active and lively, always on the
move, and warbling its pleasant chirping notes,
which are far sweeter than those pf the
preceding species. The food of this species
consists chiefly of fruits and seeds, but it also
eats insects. It is a favourite with the Hindoos,
who train it to sit upon the hand, and carry
it about with them to their bazaars and
other places of resort.
THE CAYENNE ANT-THRUSH (Formi-
carius cayanensis). This bird is an example
of a peculiar group of Thrushes inhabiting
the tropical regions of both hemispheres,
which are especially organised for a terrestrial
existence, having the wings and tail short,
and the tarsi long and well-developed. They
are called Ant-thrushes from their fondness
for ants, which, with other insects, constitute
their nourishment. The Cayenne Ant-thrush
measures about eight inches in length ; it is
of an ash colour above, and whitish beneath,
with the wings black. It dwells principally
on the ground, where it busily turns over
the dead leaves in search of insects, and runs
with great ease.
THE KING ANT-THRUSH (GrallariaRex),
another South American species, has the tarsi
longer than in the preceding, so that some of
the older writers seem to have hesitated
whether to regard it as a gallinaceous bird.
It inhabits the forests, where it runs upon
the ground and destroys great quantities of
white ants. It is generally seen solitary, and
rarely perches on trees.
THE BENGAL PITTA (Pitta lengalensis).
Of the species of the group of Ant-thrushes inhabiting
the Old World, those of the genus Pitta, some of which
are abundant in the East Indies, are distinguished by
the beauty of their plumage. The Bengal Pitta is
green above, yellow beneath, with the head and neck
black, streaked with white and orange, and the quill
THE WATER OUZEL. BIRDS. THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER.
333
feathers of the wings and short tail black. It is found
in gardens and groves, usually in small flocks, feeding
on the ground, principally upon beetles.
THE GIANT PITTA (Pitta ccerulea), a native of
Sumatra, one of the largest species of this group,
measures about nine inches in length, and is of a
brilliant blue colour above, with the top of the head,
a collar, and the quills of the wings black ; the throat
is whitish, and all the rest of the lower surface has a
brownish tint.
THE HILL BLACKBIRD (Myiophonm ccentletts), a
common bird on the Himalayas, is of a metallic blue-
black colour ; and, from this and its fine song, it has
been compared by the English residents in India with
our Blackbird. Its musical whistle is said by Mr. Vigne
to be the sweetest note heard in the hills. Its nest is
built upon the ledges of some nearly inaccessible rock,
and is composed of moss and lichens, lined with fine
roots. In its habits this species greatly resembles the
European Blackbird.
THE WATEE OUZEL (Cinclus aquaticus), sometimes
called the Dipper, is now generally regarded as being
most nearly allied to the Ant- thrushes and Pittas, not-
withstanding the peculiarity of its habits and mode of
life. This singular bird, which is an inhabitant of
Europe, and is found not uncommonly in this country,
is about eight inches in length, of a dark grey colour
above, with the head and neck brown ; and brownish-,
red beneath, with the throat white. It resides in the
vicinity of water, exhibiting a decided preference for
the clear streams and lakes of mountainous districts ;
and it is in the water, and not on its banks, that the
bird seeks its food. The older naturalists supposed
that this bird walked into the water, carrying down
with it a supply of air for respiration during its sub-
mersion ; but the impossibility of this is proved by the
fact that the bird does not walk even on land, whilst
the lightness of its body would prevent its either walk-
ing or hopping at the bottom of the water. From the
observations of the late Mr. M'Gillivray, it would
appear that the aquatic progression of the Water
Ouzel is effected by the agency of the wings ; the
bird actually flying under water, as is the case with
many of the short- winged swimming birds. On rising
to the surface, the Water Ouzel swims well, and can
dive again without rising from the water. The food
of this bird consists of aquatic mollusca and. insects,
and perhaps also of the spawn and young of fishes.
The nest is made of moss, completely domed over, so
as to have only a small aperture for the ingress and
egress of the bird. It is placed in some convenient
situation about the bank of the stream or lake, and
contains five or six pure white eggs. The birds rear
two or three broods in the year.
FAMILY IE.— MUSCICAPID^.
The birds of this family are characterized by having a
rather short but broad and depressed bill, with the gape
very wide, running back nearly as far as the eyes, and
fringed on each side at the base with long and strong
bristles springing from the upper mandible. In these
respects they present a certain amount of resemblance
to the fissirostral birds, as also in the small develop-
ment of the legs, which are generally short and slender.
Their wings are generally long.
These birds are generally of small size, and strictly
insectivorous in their habits, although some of the
larger species of the family kill and devour the smaller
vertebrate animals. The English name of Flycatchers
applied to the best known species, indicates that these
feed principally upon flying insects, and may also be
regarded as indicating the mode in which the typical
species of the family capture their prey. The birds
are in the habit of perching upon some post or rail, or
on the branch ot a tree, watching for the passage of
insects, in pursuit of which they immediately dash off,
returning again to their original position when the
capture is effected, there to look out for more. This
mode of feeding is, however, by no means universal in
the family, nor is it peculiar to the birds of this group.
We have already had occasion to notice the prevalence
of the same habit in several insectivorous birds ; and
the writer has even seen it practised by the common
house-sparrow.
THE SPOTTED FLYCATCHER (Muscicapa griseola)
—Plate 10, fig. 35. — Of the typical genus of this family
we have two British species, and of these the Spotted
Flycatcher is by far the most abundant. It is a summer
visitor to this country, and one of the latest in arriving
here, usually making its appearance hi the south about
the 20th of May ; but, in the course of the summer, it
diffuses itself very generally over the whole island, and
may be seen almost everywhere taking up its position of
observation upon a post or paling, and performing its
short irregular flights in pursuit of passing insects.
This bird is sometimes accused of devouring cherries
and raspberries, but probably without cause ; its object
in visiting these fruits, when ripe, being no doubt to
feed upon the flies which are attracted by them, as no
remains of fruit have ever been found in its stomach.
The nest of this bird, which is supposed to be gene-
rally made by the female alone, is usually placed in the
side of a faggot stack, a hole in a wall, or upon a beam
in some outhouse, but sometimes in trees, especially
when trained against a wall. The bird sometimes,
however, chooses singular situations in which to con-
struct her dwelling ; one nest has been built upon the
head of a garden-rake left accidentally standing against
a wall ; another in a bird-cage ; another, recorded by
Mr, Atkinson, on the angle of a lamp post in one of the
streets of Leeds ; and another, mentioned by both Jesse
and Yarrell, in a still more remarkable place — namely,
within the crown on the top of one of the lamps in
Portland Place in London. The nest is cup-shaped
and neatly constructed of moss, roots, and grass, usually
lined with hair, wool, and feathers. The eggs, which
are four or five in number, are of a bluish- white colour,
with pale red spots.
THE PIED FLYCATCHER (Muscicapa atricapilla),
which is also a summer visitor to Britain, is compara-
tively a rare bird in this country, and is most abundant
in the lake district of Cumberland and Westmoreland.
It is rather a smaller bird than the preceding, mea-
suring little over five inches in length; the male is black
above and white beneath, with a spot above the base
334
PASSERES. BIRDS. MCSCICAPID.E.
of the bill, the outer webs of the tertial wing feathers,
and of a portion of those of the tail white ; the female is
brown above and dull white beneath, and is destitute of
the white spot on the forehead. In its general habits
this bird resembles the Spotted Flycatcher ; but its
nest, which is loosely made of grass and roots, is placed
in the hole of a decayed oak or other pollard tree. The
eggs, of which these are sometimes as many as eight in
one nest, are of a uniform pale blue colour.
THE AMERICAN REDSTART (Setophaga ruticUla).—
This bird, which is a summer visitor to the United
States, has received the name of Redstart from its
resemblance to the European birds so called, although
its characters and habits are very different It is
nearly allied to the preceding species ; the.total length
is about five inches ; the colour of the plumage on the
back, head, neck, and the upper part of the breast is
black; the wings have a broad orange band across
them, and the quills from thence to the tip are brownish;
the belly is white ; the four middle feathers of the tail
are black, and the remainder orange with black tips.
The female is of an ashy-olive colour above, and dull
white beneath ; she wants the orange band across the
wing, and has the middle tail feathers brown, and the
• others greenish-yellow.
This bird, according to Wilson, is one of the most
expert of Flycatchers. It will pursue " a retreating
party of flies from the tops of the tallest trees, in an
almost perpendicular, but zigzag direction, to the
ground, while the clicking of its bill is distinctly
heard ;" and Wilson adds that it no doubt secures
ten or twelve flies in a descent of three or four seconds.
Its nest is built in a low bush, where it is attached
to two twigs ; it is composed of flax moistened with the
saliva of the bird, and lined with soft down. The
eggs are white, speckled with gray and black.
THE PARADISE FLYCATCHER* (Tchitrea parodist).
— This elegant species is found in all parts of India
and in Ceylon. The male measures about twenty inches
in length ; but two-thirds of this is due to the great
elongation of the two middle feathers of the tail, which
are about fifteen inches long ; these long feathers are
wanting in the female. The head, which is adorned
with a small pointed crest, and the neck are greenish-
black ; the body is white, and the wings and tail streaked
with black. It is abundant in the woods and dense
jungle, and is restless in its habits, feeding upon insects,
which it captures in the air as it flits about, making a
loud snap with its bill as it seizes its prey.
THE BLACK FAN-TAILED FLYCATCHER (RMpidura
motacilloides). — This bird, which is distributed over all
parts of the Australian continent, is remarkable for its
long and broad tail, which it spreads out into a fan,
thus acquiring an elegant appearance. It is of a glossy
black colour, with the wings brown, the lower surface,
except the throat, and a small streak over each eye,
pure white. It is a lively, active, and familiar bird,
haunting the neighbourhood of the houses, and seeking
for its insect food, not only in the gardens, but also
about the cattle, upon the backs of which it will fre-
quently alight and run along. Much of its prey is
sought on the ground ; then its appearance resembles
that of the European Wagtails ; like them, it has the
habit of shaking its tail, but the movement is from side
to side, and not perpendicular. It constructs a beauti-
ful cup-shaped nest of dry grass, roots, and strips of
bark, held together by cobwebs, and usually rears two
or three broods in the season.
THE WHITE-BROWED FLYCATCHER (Rhipidura
albofrontata), a nearly allied Indian species, is common
in the northern parts of the peninsula of Hindostan,
where it frequents both the jungle and gardens. It
captures much of its food upon the wing, but, like its
Australian relative, is sometimes seen perched upon the
backs of cattle. Mosquitoes constitute a great portion
of the diet of this bird, and hence one of its Indian
names signifies " Mosquito-catcher."
THE RESTLESS FLYCATCHER (Seisura volitans) is
an abundant species in all the southern parts of Aus-
tralia, where it is known to the colonists as the " Grinder,"
or the " Razor-grinder," from a remarkable noise which
it emits while engaged in the pursuit of its prey. It
feeds on insects, which it not only captures in the air
in the ordinary manner of the Flycatchers, but also by
flying over the fields, with regular beats of the wings,
like the Kestrel, and dropping perpendicularly upon
any insect which it perceives beneath it. The flight
of the bird is described as peculiarly graceful, forming
a striking contrast to the harsh grinding note uttered
by the bird. Mr. Gilbert seems to think that this note
is emitted for the purpose of attracting the notice of the
insects below ; for he observed, that, after uttering the
cry, the bird always descends to the ground, picks up
something, and carries it off to the nearest tree.
The Restless Flycatcher is about eight inches in
length. The plumage is black above, and white
beneath, and the breast often exhibits a pink tint.
The nest is cup-shaped, neatly made of fine grasses
held together by cobwebs, and lined with fine roots,
and sometimes a few feathers.
THE WHITE-EYED FLYCATCHER ( Vireo novcbora-
censis),is a common summer bird in the United States of
America, where it arrives rather early in the year from its
winter haunts in the West Indies and tropical America.
It is rather more than five niches in length, the plumage
of the upper parts is yellowish-olive, of the lower sur-
face white, with the sides of the breast yellow ; round
each eye is a yellow line, and near each nostril is a
spot of the same colour. This flycatcher is an active,
lively, and sociable little bird, possessing a strong voice,
and a song of considerable variety. It builds a neat
nest in the form of an inverted cone, suspended by the
upper edge ; the materials of which the nest is com-
posed, are fragments of rotten wood, dry stalks, and
similar articles, and it is remarkable that, amongst
these, pieces of paper are almost always found,
Wilson says that the bird exhibits so great a predi-
lection for fragments of newspapers, that some of his
friends gave it the name of the Politician. The mate-
rials of the nest are held together with the silk of some
caterpillars, and the lining consists of fine dry grass
and hair.
THE RED-EYED FLYCATCHER ( Vireo olivaceus). This
and the preceding species belong to a small group of
Flycatchers peculiar to America, and to which the
name of Grcenlets has been given, from the prevalence
THE TYRANT FLYCATCHER. — -BIRDS. THE CRESTED TYRANT.
335
ot green or olive tints in their plumage. Like the pre-
ceding it is a summer visitor to the United States,
whilst its \vinter is passed in warmer latitudes ; it is a
well-known bird in Jamaica, where it is called, " Whip
Tom Kelly," from a fancied resemblance in its song to
those words. Wilson says that by listening attentively
for some time to the note of this bird, it requires little
imagination to fancy that it pronounces the words —
" Tom Kelly, Whip Tom Kelly," very distinctly, but
Mr. Gosse dissents from the general opinion, and says
that the notes resemble the syllables, " John-to-whit,"
the last syllable pronounced with emphasis.
The Red-eyed Flycatcher is a little larger than the
preceding species ; its general colour above is yellowish-
olive, beneath white ; a white line runs from the nostril
over the eye, which has a red iris. The nest of this
species is likewise conical in form, and paper is one of
its constant materials. Both these species are fre-
quently selected by the Cow-bird, as foster parents to
its offspring.
THE YELLOW-BREASTED FLYCATCHER (Icteria
riridis), another nearly allied American species, is
larger than either of the preceding, measuring seven
inches in length. Its plumage is of a fine olive-green
colour above, and white beneath, with the throat and
breast of a brilliant yellow. During the period of
incubation, the male of this bird behaves in a most
extraordinary manner, uttering loud cries and ascend-
ing and descending in the air with a singular dancing
motion. He exhibits the greatest jealousy of any
intruders on the thicket which he has selected for his
residence, " scolding any passenger," says Wilson, "as
soon as they come within view, in a great variety of
odd and uncouth monosyllables." The nest, for the
protection of which all these exertions are made, is
usually placed in a bramble bush in the midst of some
impregnable thicket, and composed externally of dry
leaves, within which is a layer of strips of vine bark,
and an inner lining of fibrous roots and fine grass.
THE TYRANT FLYCATCHER (Tyrannus ivtrepidus),
which is also called the KING-BIRD, is an example of
another American group of Flycatchers. In these birds
the bill is larger and stronger than in the ordinary
Flycatchers, indicating an approach to the Shrikes.
The Tyrant Flycatcher is about eight inches in
length, the plumage of the upper parts is slaty ash-
colour, with the head and tail black, the feathers on
the former being capable of elevation, so as to form a
sort of crest, when a subjacent bed of a brilliant orange
colour is displayed, which is commonly called the
crown of the King-bird. The lower surface is white.
The names of King and Tyrant bestowed upon this
bird, refer to the extraordinary authority which he
arrogates to himself during the breeding season, over
all the rest of the feathered creation. At this period,
as described by Wilson, " his extreme affection for his
mate, and for his nest and young, makes him suspi-
cio is of every bird that happens to pass near his
residence, so that he attacks without discrimination
any intruder. In the months of May, June, and part
of July, his life is one continued scene of broils and
battles; in which, however, he generally comes off
conqueror. Hawks and crows, the bald eagle, and
the great black eagle, all equally dread a rencountei
with this dauntless little champion, who, as soon as
he perceives one of these last approaching, launches
into the air to meet him, mounts to a considerable
height above him, and darts down on his back, some-
times fixing there to the great annoyance of his sove-
reign, who, if no convenient retreat or resting-place be
near, endeavours by various evolutions to rid himself
of his merciless adversary. But the King-bird is not so
easily dismounted. He teases the eagle incessantly,
sweeps upon him from right and left, remounts, that
he may descend on his back with the greater violence ;
all the while keeping up a shrill and rapid twittering,
and continuing the attack sometimes for more than a
mile, till he is relieved by some other of his tribe,
equally eager for the contest." The only bird which
appears to get the better of the King-bird in these
encounters is the Purple Martin, whose determined
enmity to all birds of prey is somewhat like his own.
The power of wing possessed by the martin is so great,
that the King-bird has little chance of touching him,
and occasionally the attacked party becomes the
attacker, when the King-bird is compelled to seek
safety in an ignominious flight, before the rapid and
easy swoops of his assailant. Wilson says that he has
also seen the King-bird greatly irritated by his vain
efforts to dislodge the Redheaded Woodpecker, the
latter dodging him round a rail, and appearing highly
amused at the impotent rage of his assailant. This
quarrelsome demeanour is laid down by the King-bird
at the close of the breeding season, and he then be-
comes a peaceable denizen of the wood or the orchard.
This bird arrives in the United States from his winter
quarters about the month of April, generally in small
parties of five or six. The nest is built on the branch
of a tree, and composed of small twigs and dried
flowers, interwoven with tow and wool, and made
very compact. The lining consists of fine grass and
horsehair. The eggs, which are usually five in num-
ber, are cream-coloured, with a few large purple spots
and small pale brown ones, principally at the larger end.
The only song of this bird is a shrill twitter. His
food consists principally of insects, which he captures,
sometimes by flying steadily over the fields, and dash-
ing down upon them as they pass below him, and
sometimes in the manner of the ordinary Flycatchers,
by taking his position on the summit of a post or tall
weed, and sweeping off after them as they pass.
Under the latter circumstances, he is observed to
exercise a certain amount of discrimination in select-
ing his prey, often allowing two or three insects to fly
by him, before he makes his dash. This has been
repeatedly noticed in the case' of bees, a species of
food to which he is partial, and his fondness for which
often leads to his destruction by the owners of the
hives ; when he takes up his position to watch a bee-
hive, he is seen evidently to select certain individuals
from the crowd of passers in and out.
THE CRESTED TYRANT (Tyrannus crinitus) is a
little larger than the preceding species, which it re-
sembles in its general habits, but does not attack
birds of prey in the same way. This bird builds its
nest in the hole of a tree, constructing it of hay, fea-
33G
PASSERES. BIRDS. AMPELIDJJ.
thers, and hairs, with fragments of cast snake's skin ;
the latter, according to Wilson, being always present.
THE PIED ALECTETTEUS (Alectrurus tricolor). This
bird is remarkable among the Flycatchers for having
the tail feathers elongated and vertical, forming a tail
like that of a cock, from which the generic name is
derived. The present species, which is a native of
tropical South America, is nearly six inches in length,
and is pied with black and white, but with the back
ash-colour. It generally inhabits the vicinity of water,
flies lightly, and perches upon rushes and other aquatic
plants, and not upon the branches of trees. The male
sometimes rises nearly perpendicular to a height of
thirty or f6rty feet by rapid beats of his wings ; when
thus engaged, he looks more like a large black and
white butterfly than a bird.
FAMILY IV.-AMPELID^E.
In the birds of this family, which are often called
Chatterers, the notches characteristic of the dentirostral
birds, although small, are always distinctly to be seen
on each side of the tip of the bill, which is rather short,
and broad and depressed at the base, so that when
viewed from above it is clearly triangular. The ridge
of the upper mandible is more curved than in the pre-
ceding families. The wings in these birds are gene-
rally long, and the tail short ; the feet are slender, and
the toes are terminated by curved, acute claws, grooved
along their lower surface.
Most of these birds are met with in the warmer
regions, where they feed both upon insects and fruits.
Their plumage is often very beautiful, and brilliant in
its colouring.
THE BOHEMIAN CHATTEEEE (Bombycilla gar-
rula). Although as already stated, the majority of
the birds of the present family are found in hot coun-
tries, there are some, forming the genus Bombycilla,
which dwell in the cold regions of the north ; amongst
these the Bohemian-chatterer is the best known.
During the summer this bird inhabits the northern
parts of both continents, but migrates southwards at
the approach of winter, at which season it is not
unfrequently seen in this country.
It is a gay and handsome bird, of a light brown
colour above, paler beneath ; the face and chin are
deep black, and the top of the head is adorned with a
crest of elongated light brown feathers, which the bird
can erect at pleasure ; the feathers of the short tail are
grey with bright yellow tips, and the quills of the wings
black spotted with yellow. Four of the secondary
quills, and a portion of. the tertials, are terminated by
small flat palettes of a bright red colour, exactly re-
sembling portions of red sealing-wax attached to the
extremity of the shaft of each feather; from these the
bird has received the appropriate name of the Waxwing.
The Bohemian Chatterer, or Waxwing, is an active
and lively bird, generally haunting the hedges in this
country, and feeding on the berries of the hawthorn,
mountain ash, and ivy. In North America, according
to Sir John Richardson, it makes its appearance, coming
from the south, at the Great Bear Lake about the end
of May, when it feeds upon the berries of the arbutus,
cranberries, and other fruits, then just exposed by the
spring thaw. Its breeding places appear to be the rugged
mountain districts of high latitudes, where its food con-
sists principally of the berries of the juniper. In default
of fruits, it is said sometimes to feed on insects, which
it captures dexterously in the air in the manner of a
Flycatcher. Its note is a frequently repeated chirp.
THE CEDAE BIED (Bombycilla carolinensis), a
species nearly allied to the preceding, is peculiar to tho
North American continent, in all parts of which, from
Mexico to Canada, it is to be met with. It appears to
migrate only from one part of the country to another
in search of an abundance of its favourite food, the
berries of the red cedar. It also feeds upon other
berries, and is said to evince a decided partiality for
cherries when in season. The nest of this species is
built in a tree, usually in an orchard. It is composed
of grass, and generally contains three or four eggs of a
bluish-white colour spotted with black.
THE BLUE-EIBAND COTINGA (Ampelis Cotinga}.
The Cotingas, forming the typical genus of this family,
are all inhabitants of the tropical parts of South
America, of which they are amongst the most brilliant
birds. They live in the forests, generally on the shores
of the small rivers and in marshy places, and feed
principally upon insects. The Blue Riband is of a
fine azure-blue colour, with the throat, breast, and
upper part of the belly of a beautiful purple ; an azure
band separates the purple of the breast from that of
the belly, and from this the name of the bird is derived.
The female of this, as of the other species, is far more
sober in her colouring.
THE POMPADOUE COTINGA (Ampelis Pompadora},
so called from its having been introduced into France
for the celebrated mistress of Louis XV., is one of the
most beautiful of American birds, its whole plumage
being of a bright carmine colour, with the exception of
the wing-quills, which are white ; the wing-coverts are
elongated, stiff, and slender, and so placed as to cross
the quills. '
THE CAPPED MANAKIN (Pipra pileata}. The
Manakins, which are, like the preceding, inhabitants
of the forests of tropical South America, are also
beautiful little birds of great liveliness and activity, so
that they have been regarded by one writer as personi-
fications of perpetual motion. Most of them are very
small, and as they are in incessant action upon the
branches of trees and shrubs, searching for the insects
which constitute their food, they present no distant
resemblance to the little blue Tits of our own country.
Small fruits also constitute a portion of their diet.
The Capped Manakin is of a fine cinnamon-brown
colour above, yellow beneath ; the crown of the head
is covered with black feathers, which are capable of
being raised so as to form a sort of crest, and over
each eye is a yellow streak. The quill feathers of the
wings are black.
THE EED-HEADED MANAKIN (Pipra rubro-capillata)
is of a deep lustrous black colour, with the head orange
red ; and the WHITE-HEADED MANAKIN is also black,
with the head pure white. The BLUE-HEADED
MANAKIN is olive-green above, with the head blue and
the rump yellow ; the lower surface is yellow, and the
r
THE COCK OF THK ROCK. BIRDS. THE SPOTTED PAUDALOTE.
661
quill feathers are black. All these species are little
more than three inches in length.
THE EED CHATTERER (Phcenicocercus carnifex),
although a much larger bird than the preceding species,
is nearly allied to them, and like them inhabits the
damp forests of Brazil and Guiana. It is about seven
inches in length, and the male is a magnificent bird,
with plumage of a fiery-red colour, except the upper
part of the back, which is reddish-brown, and the
breast, which is blood red ; the tail feathers are crimson
with black tips.
THE ORANGE COCK OF THE ROCK (Rupicola
aunmtia) — Plate 11, fig. 36 — which is also allied to
the Manakins, is considerably larger than even the
precediug species, being about the size of an ordinary
pigeon. The plumage is of a bright orange colour ; the
head is adorned with a crest formed by two flat plumes
of feathers so inclined as to touch by their edges,
where they are finely bordered with brown and bright
yellow. The wings are brownish, marked with white
at the bend and in the middle, and the tail feathers are
blackish-red margined with yellow. The bird is sup-
ported upon stout legs and feet, having some resem-
blance to those of a gallinaceous bird, and with these he
is said to scratch in the ground like a fowl. The
Cock of the Rock is a native of tropical South Ame-
rica, where it dwells amongst the rocks bordering the
mountain streams, and breeds in the numerous caverns
with which the mountains of South America abound.
The nest is composed of bits of stick and dry grass,
and the female lays two white eggs about the size of
those of a pigeon. The food of this bird consists of
insects and small wild fruits. A nearly allied but
distinct species (Rupicola peruviana) inhabits the
mountains of Peru and Mexico.
THE GREEN CALYPTOMENA (Calyptomena viridis).
This bird, which is generally regarded as nearly
related to the Rock Cocks, is remarkable, not only for
the beauty of its plumage, but also for being the only
species of the small group to which it belongs, which
is found out of America. It is an inhabitant of Singa-
pore and Malacca, where it resides in the heart
of the forests and feeds upon vegetable matters,
principally fruits and seeds. Its length is about six
inches and a half, and the male is of a most beautiful
green colour, with some black spots on the head, and
three black bands on the wings, of which the primary
feathers are blackish-brown. The tail feathers are
green above and blue-black below. The feathers of
the head are directed forwards, so as almost to conceal
the bill, which is depressed and broad at the base.
THE YELLOW BUD -HUNTER (Ldothrix luteus).
This is a common Indian species of a small group
which resembles the Tits in some respects, and espe-
cially in the habit of minutely examining the buds of
trees in search of small insects. It is found abun-
dantly in Upper India, and migrates to the hills during
the hot season. Its food consists partly of insects and
partly of fruits and seeds.
THE THUNDER BIRD (Pachycephala gutturalis).
This species is a native of the whole southern part of
Australia, where it is abundant in the forests of
Eucalypti and Acacias. It measures about seven
VOL. T.
inches in length ; the male is olive-coloured above,
and bright yellow beneath, with the head and a band
across the front of the neck black, and the throat white.
The female is greyish-brown. The food of this species
consists of insects.
THE BANDED THICK-HEAD (PnclycepJidla pecto-
ralis) resembles the preceding species in the arrange-
ment of its colours, but has the lower surface reddish-
buff instead of yellow. It is found over the whole
southern part of the Australian continent, dwelling
amongst the leafy branches of tall trees in the thinner
parts of the forests. Its song is animated and lively,
being described by Mr. Gould as a " loud, continuous,
ringing whistle, frequently terminating in a sharp
smack," like that of a whip, which is also a character-
istic note of the two preceding species.
THE YELLOW ROBIN (Eopsaltria australis). The
bird which is known under this name by the colonists
of New South Wales, is an abundant species in the
brushes of that country, and also frequently makes its
appearance in the gardens. It is a lively and sprightly
bird, presenting a considerable resemblance to the
robin in its actions. The whole length of the bird is
about six inches ; its colour is gray above, with the
rump yellow ; beneath bright yellow with the chin
white. It breeds in September and October, building
a beautiful cup-shaped nest upon the forked branch of
a tree ; this is composed of strips of bark, roots, and
sometimes grasses, held together outside by cobwebs,
to which fragments of lichen and bark are often
attached so naturally, as to render the detection of the
nest almost impossible. The eggs are of a bright green
colour spotted with brown.
THE SPOTTED PARDALOTE (Pardalotus punc-
tatus), the DIAMOND BIRD of the colonists of New
South Wales, is common over the whole of the southern
part of the Australian continent and in Van Diemen's
Land. It is an active, sprightly, and beautiful little
creature, measuring only a little more than three inches
and a half in length to the extremity of its short tail ;
the male has the head, wipgs, and tail black, with a
pure white spot at the tip of each feather, and a white
streak over each eye ; the sides of the neck gray ; the
feathers of the back fawn colour, edged with black, and
gray at the base ; the rump reddish-brown, with the
upper tail coverts crimson; and the whole lower surface
yellow, the throat especially being of a very bright
orange-yellow. The female is less brilliantly coloured.
This bird frequents both the forests and gardens, where
it is constantly to be seen amongst the branches of the
trees, clinging in every possible position, whilst busily
engaged in seeking its insect food amongst the toliage.
It is remarkable on account of the situation which it
selects for its nest ; for whilst the other species of this
genus build in the holes of trees, the Spotted Pardalote
descends to the ground for this purpose, digs a hori-
zontal gallery two or three feet in length into some
bank, and at the end of this forms a chamber in which
the nest is made. The nest is very neatly constructed
of strips of the inner bark of the gum trees; it is of a
nearly spherical form, with a hole for entrance at one
side. The bird rears two broods in the season, laying
four or five pure white eggs.
338
PASSERES. BIRDS.-
THE STREAKED PARDALOTE (Pardalotus striatus)
is another species which enjoys a wide distribution over
the south of Australia ; it has not yet been met with in
Van Diemen's Land. It does not exhibit the pure
white spots which give so much beauty to the plumage
of the preceding species, and its lower surface is of a
paler yellow. Its nest is neatly made of soft grasses
and strips of bark, and placed in the hollow branch of
a tree, or sometimes in a hole of the trunk.
THH WHITE - SHOULDERED CATERPILLAR -EATER
(Campephaga humeralis), another Australian species
of this family, is a summer visitor to the south of New
Holland, in all parts of which it is common from Sep-
tember to January. It is active and lively, and has a
pleasing song, which it emits constantly during its search
for food ; this consists of insects, which it captures on
the wing, on the branches of trees, and on the ground.
The nest of this bird is small and cup-shaped ; it is
composed of fragments of bark, short twigs, and grasses,
interwoven with other fine vegetable fibres, moss, and
cobwebs ; it is placed on the forked branch of a tree,
and so arranged that it is not easily detected from
below. The whole length of the bird is about seven
inches. The two sexes differ greatly in colour. The
male has the upper parts black, with the rump gray,
and the lower parts white ; the shoulders and upper
wing-coverts are white, forming a broad band along the
wing. The female is brown above, and buffy white
beneath. The bill and feet are black, or blackish in
both sexes, palest in the female. Several other species
of this genus are found in Australia.
THE GRAY CATERPTT.T.AR-EATER (Campephaga
fimbriata), an inhabitant of the woods of India, is about
the same size as the preceding species ; it is of a slate
colour, with the head, wings, and tail black, the latter
bronzed ; and the tail has a gray spot at the tip of each
of the outer feathers. The principal food of this species
is caterpillars, grubs, and other soft wingless insects ;
but it also feeds on winged and even hard-shelled
insects, and on berries and seeds.
THE BLACK CATERPILLAR-EATER (Campephaga
nigra), one of the best-known African species, is com-
mon at the Cape of Good Hope. It is about seven
inches long, and is of a shining metallic black colour,
with the lower wing-coverts green.
THE LOBED CATERPILLAR-EATER (Campephaga
lobata), which is an inhabitant of Sierra Leone and
other parts of the west coast of Africa, is remarkable
for having a large, red, naked wattle at the base of the
bill in the male.
THE CRIMSON.RUMPED CHATTEEEE (Pericrocotus
peregrinus), an abundant species in India, is about six
inches in length, of a gray colour above, with the rump
crimson, and white beneath ; the wings are brown, and
the tail black, with the tips of the four middle feathers
yellow. This bird is met with in the jungle, and in
hedges and groves of trees; it is restless, lively, and
active, resembling a Tit in its habits ; it feeds on insects,
especially larvae, which it captures on the trees.
THE FLAMMEOUS CHATTERER (Pericrocotus flam-
meus) is another Indian species, of which the male is
splendidly adorned with black and orange plumage.
It is abundant in the jungles, and ascends the moun-
tains to a considerable elevation. It is seen in small
parties of three or four at the tops of the high trees,
frisking about and picking the insects off the twigs and
leaves, or occasionally capturing them in the air.
THE MTJRASING CHATTERER (Artamus fuscus]
is an Indian example of a small group of Chatterers
peculiar to Southern Asia and Australasia. They have
the wings very long and pointed, often extending even
beyond the tail, whence they have received the name
of Swallow- shrikes.
The habits of this bird somewhat resemble those of
the Flycatchers, as it captures the greater part of its
food, which consists of soft, winged insects, in the air ;
but it is sociable in its habits, several collecting in a
small flock on the top of a palm-tree, or on a bare twig
projecting from the upper part of some other tree, and
flying off from time to time to make a short circuit
in pursuit of insects, after which they all return and
perch together as before. These flocks also frequently
hawk about in the air like swallows, sometimes over
water.
THE WOOD-SWALLOW (Artamus sordidus) is an
inhabitant of the whole southern portion of the Aus-
tralian continent, and also of the island of Van Die-
men's Land, where however, it is decidedly migratory,
arriving in October, at the commencement of the
summer season. It measures about six inches in
length, and presents a sufficient resemblance to a Swal-
low in its long wings and slightly forked tail, and also
in many of its actions, to justify the colonists in select-
ing the name of Wood-swallow to distinguish it. The
general colour of its plumage is a sooty gray, the wings
are blue black, with the outer edges of the second, third,
and fourth primaries white ; the tail is also blue-black,
with the tips of all the feathers, except the two middle
ones, white. The power of flight possessed by this
bird is very great, and its evolutions in the air are
singularly graceful. It captures a portion of its insect
prey while soaring aloft in the manner of a Swallow,
but also seizes passing insects in the same way as the
Flycatchers; or flies away from its perch, and sails
round the tree, returning again to its original position.
It is not a solitary bird, but three or four individuals
may be seen sitting together on a twig side by side,
and generally quite close to each other ; they do not
fly off hi a party, but each bird as his desires prompt
him, takes a short flight in pursuit of prey, and returns
independently to his perch. They also perch in the same
way upon a rail, and fly down one by one to pick up
insects amongst the grass of the pastures. The most
remarkable peculiarity in the habits of this bird is " its
manner of suspending itself in perfect clusters, like a
swarm of bees ; a few birds suspending themselves in
the under side of a dead branch, while others of the
flock attach themselves one to the other, in such num-
bers that they have been observed nearly of the size
of a bushel measure." — (Gilbert, quoted by Gould.)
Several other species of the genus Artamus inhabit
various parts of Australia.
THE INDIAN KING-CROW (Dicrurus macrocercus).
This is a very abundant species in most parts of India,
where it has received the name of King-crow, or King of
the Crows, from the incessant hostility which it exhi-
THE KING-CROW. BIRDS. THE UMBKELLA BIRD.
339
bits towards any corvine intruders on its place of abode.
As soon as these make their appearance, the King-crow
attacks them with great clamour, following them per-
tinaciously, and pouncing down upon them from time
to time. The food of this bird consists of insects, and
he may be seen looking out for these from a hedge or
bush, or some similar slight elevation, or even from the
backs of cattle and sheep when grazing in a field. On
observing the stirring of an insect in the herbage below
him, he instantly darts down, seizes his prey, and
flies up with it to his perch, where he devours it
at his leisure aud then looks out for more. He also
captures winged insects in the air, and, in company
with other birds, is a constant attendant at the issuing
of the winged termites from their nests, an occasion
which furnishes a rich feast. The note of this bird is
described as a sort of crow or chuckle. Its flight is
undulating, and not very rapid, except when in pursuit
of a crow, or some other enemy. Its nest is composed
of grass, twigs, and roots, carelessly put together, and
contains from three to five eggs, of a white colour, with
pale brown or purplish spots.
The King-crow is ten inches in length, of which,
however, about half is made up by the long forked
tail. It is a slender and graceful bird of a black
colour. Several nearly allied species inhabit India,
and have much the same habits as the common King-
crow. Other species occur in Africa, and one, the
SPANGLED DRONGO (Dicrurus bracteatus), in the
northern part of Australia.
THE PARADISE DRONGO (Edolius paradiseus), ano-
ther Indian species, is of a blue-black colour, with
the head crested, and the two outer feathers of the
tail much elongated, forming two long naked stalks,
terminated by small palettes formed of barbs. This
beautiful bird is abundant in the lofty jungles of
Western India, where it is generally seen in small
parties, and like the common King-crow, often pur-
sues crows and birds of prey, and chases them from
its haunts. Its food consists principally of large
coleopterous insects, which it usually catches in the same
way as the common King-crow ; it also snaps up flying
insects in the air, or snatches them from a branch.
The note of this species is very peculiar, consisting of
two parts, the first a sort of harsh chuckle, and the
second a singular metallic sound, something like the
creaking of a heavy wheel. It has other notes, and is
said by the Hindoos to imitate the notes of all other
birds ; whence it has been called by them the Huzar
Dustan, or " Bird of a Thousand Tales."
THE BARE -NECKED PEUIT-CKOW (Gymnoderus
fcetidus.) We conclude the family of the Chatterers
with a singular series of American species, which
exhibit so much analogy with the Crows, that by
some ornithologists they have even been placed in
that family of conirostral birds. The type of this
small group is the Bare-necked Fruit-crow of Cayenne,
a bird about the size of a pigeon, which does not
appear to be very common in its native country, and
the habits of which are almost unknown, except that it
it said to feed principally upon fruits. This singular
bird has a moderately long and stout bill, of a whitish
colour, with the tip nearly black ; the groove in which
the nostrils are placed, is rilled up and concealed by a
thick covering of small velvet-like feathers, which, with
the similar plumes of the head and upper part of the
neck, are black. The skin of the neck is naked, with
the exception of a few very minute black feathers,
which are scattered here and there upon its surface ;
the plumage of the body is black, the wing-coverts
and tertials bluish ash-colour, and the tail feathers
black.
THE BALD-HEADED FRUIT-CROW (Gymnocephalus
calvus), which is also an inhabitant of Cayenne, is
about the size of a crow, and has the upper part of
the head bare of feathers, from which the negroes of
Cayenne have given it the name of the Oiseau-mon-
pere. The general colour of the plumage is olive,
with a greenish tint on the upper, and a reddish tint on
the lower surface ; the wings are brown, and the tail
blackish. Scarcely anything is known of the habits
of this bird ; it is supposed to live principally upon
fruits.
THE UMBRELLA BIRD (Cephalopterus ornatus) — fig.
112 — is perhaps one of the most extraordinary of birds,
at least as regards the singular ornaments with which it
is provided. It is about the size of a crow, and, as the
whole of its plumage is of a deep black colour, it has
a good deal of the corvine character in its aspect. But
its head is adorned with a large and spreading crest,
which appears as if intended by nature to serve as a
parasol to keep the light from the eyes of the bird ; it
is at least as large hi proportion as the articles com-
monly carried by ladies for that purpose. Mr. Wallace,
who observed the bird in its native haunts, gives the
following description of this singular ornament: — "The
crest," he says, "is perhaps the most fully-developed
and beautiful of any bird known. It is composed of
ong, slender feathers, rising from a contractile skin on
the top of the head. The shafts are white, and the
plume glossy blue, hair-like, and curved outwards at
the tip. When the crest is laid back, the shafts form
a compact white mass, sloping up from the top of the
Siead, and surmounted by the dense hairy plumes.
Even in this position it is not an inelegant crest ; but it
s when it is fully opened that its peculiar character is
developed. The shafts then radiate on all sides from
the top of the head, reaching hi front beyond and below
the tip of the beak, which is completely hid from view.
The top then forms a perfect, slightly elongated dome
of a beautiful shining blue colour, having a point of
divergence rather behind the centre, like that in the
luman head. The length of this dome from front to
back is about five niches, the breadth from four to four
and a half inches." As if this remarkably beautiful
crest was not sufficient to distinguish the bird amongst
ts fellows, it is also furnished with a second singular
ornament, nothing resembling which is to be found in
he whole series of birds. "This," to borrow Mr.
Wallace's words again, " is a long cylindrical plume of
eathers depending from the middle of the neck, and
either carried close to the breast, or puffed out and
langing down in front. The feathers lap over each
other, scale-like, and are bordered with fine metallic
lue. On examining the structure of this plume, it is
bund not to be composed of feathers only growing
340
PASSERES. BIRDS.-
from the neck, as seems to have been hitherto supposed.
The skin of the neck is very loose ; looser and larger,
in fact, than any bird I know of. From the lower part
grows a cylindrical fleshy process, about as thick as a
Fig. 112.
goose-quill, and an inch and a half long. From this
grow the feathers to the very point, thus producing the
beautiful cylindrical plume quite detached from the
breast, and forming an ornament as unique and elegant
as the crest itself "
The Umbrella-bird is found along the course of the
Brazilian rivers, principally upon the islands, at least in
the lower parts of the great streams. Its food is said
to consist of fruits; the stones of stone-fruits being
ejected by the mouth. Its note is very loud, for which
reason the Indians of the region bordering the Rio
Negro call it the Piper-bird.
THE ARAPUNGA (Chasmarhynchus albus), the last
species of this family to which we shall refer is called
the Bell-bird in Guiana, from the similarity of its notes to
those of a muffled-bell. It measures about twelve inches
in length, and is of a white colour ; at the base of the
bill is a cylindrical, fleshy wattle, clothed with minute
white feathers, which is flaccid and pendent when the
bird is quiet, but becomes inflated when he is under the
influence of any emotion, and then attains a length of
two inches or more, and a diameter of about a third of
an inch at the base. This effect is said to be produced
by the impulsion of air, which is afterwards confined
in the cavity. The note of this bird and its allies
is usually heard only during the height of summer, for
which reason the name of Ave de Verano, or " Bird of
Summer," has been given to one of the species ; this
is contracted into Averano. Waterton states that the
note of the Bell-bird may be heard at a distance of
three miles. The food of this bird consists of fruits
and berries, occasionally varied with caterpillars and
The Umbrella Bird (Cephalopterus ornatus).
other soft insects,
solitary bird.
It lives in the forests, and is a
FAMILY V.— LANIID^E.
The dentirostral section of the passerine birds is
concluded by the family Laniidse, the ordinary species
of which are commonly known as Shrikes. These
birds have a tolerably long and stout bill, more or less
compressed, hooked at the tip, and armed on each side
of the upper mandible, near the tip, with a very distinct
tooth or notch. The hinder part of the gape is fur-
nished with about five strong bristles on each side,
springing from the base of the upper mandible. The
wings are moderately developed, with the first primary
quill feather much shorter than the second. The feet
are stout, with a long hind-toe, and all the toes are
armed with long, curved, and acute claws.
The majority of the species of this family are inhabit-
ants of the Eastern hemisphere, a few only being found
in the New World. Their food consists, like that of
the birds of the preceding families, of insects, worms,
and mollusca ; but many of them are not content with
such small game, and kill and devour the smaller birds
and quadrupeds. In fact, the hooked tip of the bill,
the strong teeth with which the upper mandible is
armed, and the curved and acute claws, seem at once
to indicate that the character of these birds is more
predaceous than that of their nearest allies, and by
Linnaeus, and several of the older naturalists, they were
placed in the same order with the Raptores.
THE BED-BACKED SHRIKE (Lanius collurio] is the
THE GREAT CINEREOUS SHRIKE. BIKDS. THE CRESTED SHRIKE.
341
most abundant British species of this family ; it is a
summer visitor to this country, where it is most com-
monly seen in the southern counties, and does not
appear to advance further to the north than Cumber-
land. It arrives here from its African winter-quarters
about the end of April, and quits us again in September.
This bird is found in most parts of Europe, as far north
as Norway and Sweden; in Africa it has been met with
in various places from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope.
The male is about seven inches and a half in length ;
the female a little larger. The male has the back of
the head and neck gray, the chin and throat white, and
a band running over the base of the bill, and through
the eyes, black; the back and wing-coverts are chestnut-
red, the upper tail-coverts gray, the wings black, with
the margins of the feathers red, and the lower surface
pale red. The two middle tail-feathers are black, the
rest white at the base, and black at the extremity, the
extreme tips of all being white. The female has the
whole upper surface reddish-brown, with no black on
the head, the tail brown, and the lower surface grayish-
white, with numerous brownish transverse lines. The
food of the Eed-backed Shrike consists partly of insects,
particularly the common cockchafer ; and partly of
small vertebrate animals, such as mice, shrews, and
small birds. Of the latter it has been known to kill
birds as large as finches, and has even been seen in
pursuit of a blackbird. In common with many other
species of this family, this bird has the singular habit
of hanging up its prey, either by fixing it in the forked
branch of a tree or shrub, or by impaling it upon a
thorn, so as to pluck off the feathers of birds, and tear
away their limbs with more facility. Even its insect
prey is served in this way, cockchafers being often
found impaled by it upon a thorn passing through the
thorax, and with the abdomen torn away. From this
curious habit the Shrikes are frequently called Butcher-
birds.
The Red-backed Shrike makes a large nest of a
cup-like form, composed of the coarse stalks of plants,
moss, and roots, and lined with bents and hair. The
nest is placed in a strong hedge or thick bush, and
contains four or five eggs, which vary in colour, being
either bluish, greenish, or reddish-white, and spotted
with different shades of brown. The ordinary note of
the male is a chirping noise, like that of a sparrow; but
he is said sometimes to utter a sort of song.
THE GREAT CINEREOUS SHRIKE (Lanius exculritor)
— Plate 11, fig. 37 — is also met with in this country,
but appears to be only an occasional visitor here ; on
the continent of Europe it is a well-known bird, and is
abundant in France. It is a good deal larger than the
preceding species, measuring about ten inches in length ;
the head is marked with black as in the Red-backed
Shrike ; the upper surface is pearly-gray, the lower
surface pure white, and the wings and tail are black ;
the former with a white bar near the base of each fea-
ther, and the latterwith each quill tipped with white, the
amount of white increasing toward the sides of the tail.
The female resembles the male, but is duller in colour.
In its habits this bird agrees with the preceding, and
its food consists of mice, shrews, small birds, frogs,
lizards, and insects. These it fixes upon a thorn or
forked branch, before proceeding to devour them ; and
it is a popular notion that the bird captures nine birds
or other animals, and suspends them in this way,
before beginning to eat any of them. Hence is derived
one of its common names— Ninekiller. It is a bold and
combative bird, attacking crows and other birds much
larger than itself, when they come into its haunts; and
it has even been used instead of a falcon to fly at small
birds. The foreign falconers often make a very dif-
ferent use of it, employing it in trapping hawks during
the autumn and winter. The Shrike is fastened to the
ground, and, on the approach of the hawk, begins
screaming loudly, and thus gives the falconer notice
of the fact ; from this he is called excubitor, or the
sentinel.
THE WOOD-CHAT (Lanius rutilus) is about the size
of the Red-backed Shrike, but has the back of the
head and neck rich chestnut-red, the back black, and
the lower surface white. In its habits, it resembles
the Red-backed Shrike, and like it is a summer visitor
to Europe, in the southern parts of which it is not
uncommon, but does not advance far towards the
north, and is only an occasional visitor to this country.
It builds its nest upon the forked branch of a tree,
generally selecting an oak.
THE AMERICAN GRAY SHRIKE (Lanius borealis),
a common species in the United States, resembles the
Cinereous Shrike of Europe in size and general aspect,
and indeed, was formerly regarded as identical with
it. The principal differences consist in the presence
of transverse dusky lines on the lower surface, and in
the bluish colour of the bill, which has the tip alone
black ; the whole bill being black in the European
species. In its habits, this bird agrees with its eastern
congeners, feeding on small vertebrate animals and
insects, which it impales upon thorns ; amongst insects,
grasshoppers are said to be its favourite food.
THE LOGGERHEAD SHRIKE (Lanius ludovicianus),
another American species, is found only in the
southern states of the American Union. It is common
in the rice -fields of Carolina and Georgia, where it is
regarded with favour, on account of its destroying
mice, for which it will watch for hours, like a cat,
beside the stacks of rice. It also devours crickets and
grasshoppers.
THE CRESTED SHRIKE (Lanius cristatus). Numer-
ous species of shrikes inhabit India and the neighbour-
ing countries ; and amongst these, the commonest is
the Crested Shrike. It is about the size of our Red-
backed Shrike ; the head is crested, and has a black
spot on the ears ; the plumage is reddish-brown above,
pale tawny beneath, with transverse brownish lines ;
the tail is reddish. This bird resembles the preceding
species in habits, preying, like them, upon insects and
small birds, and building its nest in thickets and
bushes. It has a peculiarly harsh chattering note ;
which, according to Mr. Blyth, affords one of the
earliest intimations of the advent of the cold season in
Calcutta, when it is heard with a favour not due to
its musical properties.
THE INDIAN GREY SHRIKE (TepTirodornis pondi-
ceriana) is a common bird in Southern India, but also
occurs in Nepal and other northern districts, being
PASSEKES. BIRDS. LAMID M.
apparently a migratory species. It is a small bird,
of a gray colour above and white beneath, with the
sides of the tail white, and is generally seen in small
flocks consisting of four or five pairs. Its food con-
sists of insects, which it seeks upon the branches of
the trees. When disturbed, it emits a sharp cry, but also
possesses a fine mellow note ; for the sake of which it
is sometimes kept in confinement.
THE CAYENNE GEEEN SHEIKE (Cyclorhis guia-
nensis), an inhabitant of tropical South America, is
about six inches in length, and of a green colour, with
the head gray, and the forehead and a stripe on each
side of the head red. In the thick forests, this bird
haunts the upper branches of the trees, but is also met
with upon the vast plains or campos of the interior of
Brazil, and here dwells contentedly in low bushes. It
is a solitary bird, but is active in its habits, constantly
moving about amongst the branches in pursuit of the
insects which constitute its food.
THE CEESTED SHRIKE-TIT (Falcunculus frontatus).
Among the Australian species of this family, the
species of the genus Falcunculus are remarkable as
presenting a striking analogical relationship to the
Tits. The present species, which is the most abun-
dant and best known, is an inhabitant of New
South Wales and South Australia, where it haunts
both the thick brushes and the trees in the open
plains. It is an active and sprightly bird, display-
ing great agility in pursuit of the insects which
constitute its food, and which it capturto on the
branches and trunks of the trees, often stripping off
the bark in search of beetles which feed beneath it.
In this operation, the great strength of its beak is very
serviceable; and so powerful is this organ that the
bird is able to break up and devour even the large
Cicadae which abound in Australia.
The Crested Shrike-Tit is about six inches in length.
Its head is adorned with a crest of black plumes, below
which on each side is a broad streak of white passing
over the eye ; the forehead is white, and a second white
streak passes beneath the eye, separated from that
above by a broad black band; the chin and throat
are black ; the upper surface is olive-coloured, the
quill feathers of the wings and tail are blackish-brown,
margined with gray, and the whole lower surface is
bright yellow. The bill is black, and the feet are
bluish gray. The only note of this bird is a low
piping. The nest, according to M. Verreaux, is
firmly attached to the twigs of trees, and composed of
small sticks and strips of bark.
THE WHITE BELLIED SHRIKE-TIT (Falcunculus
leucogaster) is a native of Western Australia, where it
represents the preceding species, presenting a close
general resemblance to it both in appearance and
habits. The principal differences consist in the colour-
ing of various parts of the plumage, but especially in
the whiteness of the abdomen and legs.
THE CRESTED BELL-BIRD (Oreoica gutturalis),
which is also an inhabitant of Australia, is about seven
inches in length, and of a light brown colour, with
the wings and tail darker ; the male has the face and
chin white, the breast marked with a large deep-black
crescent of which the horns reach up nearly to the eye
on each side, and the head adorned with a very full crest,
which is deep-black in front and gray behind. The
range of this bird extends over the whole southern por-
tion of Australia, but it has not yet been found in Van
Diemen's Land. In Swan "River it is called the Bell-
bird by the colonists ; the true Bell-bird of New South
Wales (Myzantha melanophrys) being wanting in that
colony. It is found in the open parts of the forest,
and passes a good deal of its time on the ground. Its
note is described by Mr. Gould as a peculiar, mournful
piping, and it is also a ventriloquist of great power,
its note often sounding as if at a considerable distance,
when in reality the bird is perched upon the branch of .
a neighbouring tree, and then gradually increasing in
volume until it appears to be just over the head of the
hearer. Its favourite food consists of grubs and cater-
pillars, in search of which it frequently resorts to newly-
ploughed land. The nest of this species is usually
placed in a grass tree, and is composed of strips of bark,
and lined with dry grass. It lays three eggs, which
are generally of a bluish-white colour, speckled or
streaked and spotted with black.
THE PORT- JACKSON THRUSH (Colluricincla har-
monica) an inhabitant of New South Wales and South
Australia, measures about nine inches in length, and is
of an olive-brown colour above, with the head and tail
grayish, and the wings slaty black ; the lower surface
is light brownish -gray, becoming white at the vent. It
haunts the brushes in all parts of the country in which
it is found, and is an active bird, hopping about amongst
the branches and feeding upon caterpillars, grubs, and
other insects. Whilst engaged in the pursuit of its
prey, the bird gives utterance to a number of powerful
swelling notes, louder than those of the European Song-
thrush, but less varied, and not so well combined into
a song. The nest is placed in various situations, such
as the hollow bole of a small tree, the decayed branch of
a larger one, or on the ledge of a rock; it is cup-shaped,
composed of strips of bark and leaves, and lined with
root-fibres. The eggs, which are three in number, are
pearly white, with a few larger blotches of light-brown
and bluish-gray.
Several nearly allied species are found in different
parts of Australia; thus the BUFF-BELLIED THRUSH
(C. rufiventris) inhabits the. Swan River colony, where
it is known as the Thrush by the settlers ; the BROWN
THRUSH ( C. brunnea] occurs at Port-Essington ; and
SELBY'S THRUSH (C. Selbii) in Van Diemen's Land.
THE SPOTTED BATARA (Thamnophilus n&mus). —
Numerous species of Shrikes belonging to the genus
Thamnophilus have been found in the tropical parts of
South America ; they differ from the ordinary Shrikes
in the greater length and slenderness of the bill, which
is also less strongly hooked at the tip. They have been
called Bataras, from the name applied by the Guaranis
to the species common in their country.
The Spotted Batara, one of the earliest known spe-
cies, is rather more than six inches in length. It is
black above, with white spots on the back and wing-
coverts ; the quill feathers are margined with white,
and those of the tail have white tips ; the lower surface
is ash colour. This bird inhabits Cayenne and Brazil,
dwelling amongst the bushes, usually in pairs, and
THE BLACK-THROATED CROW SHRIKE. BIRDS. QUOY'S CROW SHRIKE.
343
exhibits much familiarity, often approaching the dwell-
ings of man. The food of this and the other species
consists of insects and their larvae, which they gene-
rally capture upon the branches, rarely descending to
the ground in search of prey, and then carrying it up
into the bushes to devour it.
THE GONOLEK (Laniarius larbarus). — TheGonoleks
of Le Vaillant form an exclusively African genus, which
agrees with the preceding South American forms in the
slenderness and straightness of the bill. The present
species is about the size of the Red-backed Shrike ; it
is black above and reddish beneath, with the crown of
the head, the vent, and thighs, tawny yellow. In its
habits this species, like its congeners, resembles the
Thamnophili, living concealed amongst the bushes, and
feeding upon insects and their larvae.
THE BLACK-THROATED CROW SHRIKE (Cracticus
nigrogularis). — The Crow Shrikes or Cractici are pecu-
liar to Australia and the islands of the Pacific, where
they take the place of our common shrikes. The pre-
sent species is found only in New South Wales, where
it inhabits the rich districts known as apple-tree flats,
and undulating countries with scattered large trees.
It is usually seen in pairs, and haunts the lower
branches of the trees, from which it not unfrequently
descends to the ground in pursuit of its prey, consisting
of insects, small lizards, and mice. It also kills and
devours small birds. The nest of this species is rather
large, and resembles that of the common jay of Europe;
it is composed of sticks, lined with fine fibrous roots,
and is generally placed on a horizontal branch, where
it is concealed by the thick foliage. The eggs are
yellowish-brown, with darker spots.
From its size and elegantly pied plumage, this bird
is a conspicuous object upon the trees which it fre-
quents. The total length of the male is rather more
than twelve inches ; he is a little larger than the female.
In both sexes the head, neck, and chest are black ; the
back and wings are also black, the latter with the '
centre, the shoulder, and the basal part of the outer
edge white ; the lower part of the neck, the rump, and
the whole lower surface is white ; and the tail is black,
with the tips of all the feathers, except the two middle
ones, white. The feet are black, and the bill lead
colour, with the tip black.
THE PIED CEOW SHEIKE (Cracticus picatus} closely
resembles the preceding in the distribution of its colours,
but is a smaller bird, measuring only eleven inches in
length. It is found at Port-Essington in considerable
abundance.
THE AUSTRALIAN BUTCHER-BIRD (Cracticus de-
structor), another of the Crow-shrikes, is an inhabitant
of New South Wales and South Australia, throughout
which it is very generally distributed, haunting both
the brushes and the belts of trees in the open country.
It is seen sitting motionless upon the trees, watching
all that goes on around it, but especially keeping a
sharp eye upon the ground beneath, ready to pounce
down in a moment upon any large insect or small
lizard that may make its appearance there ; it also feeds
upon small birds and mice, and is observed to impale
or suspend its victims in the same way as the common
Shrikes of Europe. In its habits it is usually a shy and
retiring bird, but constantly reveals its presence in the
neighbourhood by its curious note, which, Mr. Gould
tells us, is " a jumble of discordant sounds impossible
to be described." The nest resembles that of the pre-
ceding species.
The length of this Butcher-bird is about eleven
inches. The head and back of the neck are black ;
the upper surface is dark grayish-brown, becoming
blackish on the wings and tail ; the middle secondaries
have their outer margins white, forming a white
streak when the wing is closed; the tail feathers,
except the two middle ones, are tipped with white on
their inner webs ; the plumage of the lower surface is
grayish-white, and an irregular band of white passes
up nearly to the nape of the neck ; the bill is lead
colour with the tip black, and the feet are blackish.
QUOY'S CEOW SHEIKE (Cracticus Quoyif), a large
and handsome species of this genus, occurs both in
New Guinea and on the opposite northern coast of
Australia. It measures nearly fifteen inches in length,
including the long bill, which is about two inches.
The whole of the plumage is glossy black, with the
edges of all the feathers shining green ; the bill is
usually gray, with the tip black, and the feet are black.
This fine bird is very shy and wary in its disposition,
inhabiting the thickest and darkest parts of the man-
grove swamps, searching for crabs, which constitute a
great portion of its food, upon the deep mud amongst the
roots of the trees. It also feeds occasionally upon insects.
With the Crow Shrikes we close the series of
Dentirostral birds. The next division, that of the
Conirostres, commences with the great family of the
Crows, in which we include some Australian species
presenting a considerable resemblance to the Crow
Shrikes; so close, indeed, is the analogy existing
between them, that by some ornithologists, they are
considered as forming a single group.
TRIBE IV.— CONIROSTRES.
In the birds of this group— which may be regarded
as including the types of the Passeres, and perhaps also
the types of the class of birds in general— the bill is
usually of a distinctly conical form, although it varies
a good deal in length and thickness, and is sometimes
more or less curved. The tip of the upper mandible
is generally straight, and its margin unarmed ; but in
some of the forms most nearly allied to the preceding
section, the edges of the upper mandible are notched
near the extremity, and the tip itself is slightly hooked.
The food of the majority of the species of this group,
especially those with straight and stout conical bills,
consists principally of seeds, for breaking which this
form of bill is peculiarly adapted. There are, however,
few, if any of these birds, which do not live partially
upon animal food, such as insects and their larvae, whilst
344
-BIRDS. CORVID.E.
some appear to devour almost anything that comes in
their way, and is fitted to afford them nourishment.
FAMILY I.— CORVID^).
This family includes the numerous species of crows
and other allied forms, many of which are amongst the
most omnivorous of birds; in fact, the Corvidae con-
stitute the principal portion of the order which M.
Temminck proposed to establish under the name of
Omnivores. They have a more or less elongated,
strong, and compressed conical bill, in which the ridge
of the upper mandible is curved, and its tip slightly
notched on each side. The nostrils are placed at the
base of the upper mandible, and concealed beneath a
group of small feathers which grow there. The wings
are generally long and powerful, and the feet of moder-
ate length, and strong.
These birds seem to be almost equally adapted for
a terrestrial and an aerial existence ; they walk and run
upon the ground with great facility, rise easily from the
ground, fly well, and display considerable activity
amongst the branches of trees. They are very generally
distributed over the face of the globe, and everywhere
readily find the means of living ; for most of them are
by no means particular about their diet, feeding indif-
ferently upon grain, fruit, insects, and carrion, or even
attacking and devouring small birds, and such weakly
animals as they can easily overcome. They are for
the most part noisy birds, with much slyness and
drollery in their disposition, and many of them, espe-
cially when tamed, exhibit a strong inclination for
thievery and mischief.
THE PIPING CROW (Gymnorhina tibicen). We
commence this family with the Piping Crow of Aus-
tralia, because this bird, with its immediate allies, is
evidently nearly related to the crow shrikes, with which
we concluded the preceding section ; in fact, by many
authors these birds have been placed together in a
single group, sometimes on one side, sometimes on the
other of the line of demarcation between the crows and
the shrikes.
The Piping Crow is a large species, measuring about
sixteen inches in length. The greater part of the
plumage is deep black, but the nape of the neck, the
wing-coverts, the rump, vent, and upper and lower
tail-coverts are white ; the tail feathers are also white,
largely tipped with black. The bill is bluish-ash colour
at the base, and black at the tip, and the feet are black.
The nostrils in this and the allied species are not con-
cealed as in the ordinary crows, but form elongated
slits in the sides of the upper mandible.
This handsome bird is an inhabitant of New South
Wales, over which it is very generally diffused, haunt-
ing the trees in the vicinity of cleared lands and plains,
and, when not disturbed in any way, approaching the
habitations of the settlers with the greatest boldness
and familiarity. It lives almost entirely upon insects,
which it generally captures on the ground; and Mr.
Gould states that it devours immense numbers of
locusts and grasshoppers. In captivity it feeds upon
animal food of almost any kind, and displays many of
the amusing qualities of the ordinary crows ; but it has
one advantage over the latter in the beauty of its
note, which is a rich and mellow pipe, capable of con-
siderable modulation. In fact, this bird will learn to
whistle tunes with great accuracy. The Piping Crow
builds a large, round, cup-shaped nest among the
branches of a tree, constructing it of sticks, leaves, and
wool, and lining it with finer materials. It begins to
breed in August, and rears two broods in the season,
which lasts till January.
THE WHITE-BACKED PIPING CROW (Gymnorlrina
Uuconotd) is about the same size as the preceding
species, which it closely resembles in its appearance,
but may be at once distinguished by its pure white
back. It is an inhabitant of South Australia, where
it exactly represents the Piping Crow of New South
Wales, but is a shy and wary, instead of a bold and
familiar bird.
THE TASMANIAN PIPING CROW (Gymnorhinn or-
ganica), a smaller species than either of the preceding,
measuring only thirteen inches in length, resembles the
White-backed Crow in its white back, but has the
whole lower surface black. It is found only in Van
Diemen'a Land, where it resides amongst the trees in
the open parts of the country. In its habits it resem-
bles the New South Wales species, feeding upon insects,
which it procures on the ground. In the early morning
this bird perches upon the dead branch of a gum-tree,
and "pours forth a succession of notes of the strangest
description that can be imagined, much resembling,"
says Mr. Gould, "the sounds of a hand-organ out of
tune, which has obtained for it the colonial name of
the Organ-bird." In captivity it readily learns to
whistle tunes or to articulate words, so that it becomes
a most amusing pet.
THE PIED FRUIT CROW (Strepera graculina) is an
abundant and generally distributed bird in the colony
of New South Wales, inhabiting alike the brushes of the
coast, the sides of the mountains, and the forests of
Eucalypti of the intermediate plains. It is a large and
handsome bird, measuring nearly eighteen inches in
length ; the whole of the plumage is jetty black, with
the exception of a large patch on each wing, the under
tail-coverts, and the bases and tips of the tail feathers,
which are pure white. The food of this bird consists
principally of fruits, berries, and seeds, of which it finds
an abundance among the branches of the trees, so that
it descends lessJrequently to the ground than the pre-
ceding species, to which, in other respects, it is nearly
allied. Its flesh is frequently eaten, and by some people
regarded as a delicacy.
THE HILL FRUIT CROW (Strepera arguta), an
abundant species in Van Diemen's Land, and also met
with, but rarely, in Southern Australia, is larger than
any of the preceding, measuring about two feet in
length. It is of a sooty-brown colour, with a patch on
the wing the under tail-coverts- and the tips of the
inner webs of the tail feathers white. According to
Mr. Gould, the food of this bird consists principally of
insects, and its note is loud and ringing, resembling the
distant sound of the strokes on a blacksmith's anvil.
THE SOOTY FRUIT CROW (S. fuliginosa), a smaller
species, which is also common in Van Diemen's Land,
is known to the colonists as the Black Magpie.
THE JAY. BIRDS. THE BLUE JAY.
345
THE JAY (Garrulus glandarius). — This handsome
bird, which is abundant in the wooded districts of
Europe, measures nearly fourteen inches in length, and
is of a general reddish-brown colour, paler oeneath ;
the crown of the head is adorned with a small erectile
crest, of which each feather is streaked with black ;
on each side of the chin is a moustache-like black
streak ; the quill feathers of the wings are black, with
the outer webs of the primaries dusky-white, and a
pure white spot near the base of the secondaries ; the
primary wing-coverts are barred with black, white,
and bright blue; and the tail feathers are black.—
Fig. 113.
The Jay is well known in England and the southern
parts of Scotland, inhabiting the thick woods, and
building its nest either in a tall bush or amongst the
lower branches of a tree, but always in a situation
which affords it a safe concealment. The nest is cup-
shaped, and composed externally of small sticks and
twigs, lined with roots and grasses. The eggs, which
Fig. 113.
The Jay (Garrulus glandarius).
are five or six in number, are of a yellowish-brown
colour, minutely speckled with light brown. The
young birds are said to accompany their parents for
several months.
The food of the Jay consists partly of insects and
worms, and partly of vegetable matters, especially
acorns and beech mast, its predilection for which is
alluded to in its specific name. Occasionally, during
the summer, this bird lays aside a certain portion of its
natural shyness, and ventures into the gardens to feast
upon peas and ripe cherries, a habit which causes the
VOL. I.
gardener to regard him as an enemy, and destroy him
with as little compassion as the gamekeeper, who con-
siders him as a destroyer of eggs and young birds.
The general note of the Jay is harsh and grating, but
Montagu says that in the spring he will utter a soft
and pleasing song, and in captivity there is scarcely
any sound that he will not learn to imitate ; the cries
of fowls, ^the bleating of a lamb, the mewing of a cat,
the barking of a dog, the neighing of a horse, and even
the articulate sounds of the human voice are repro-
duced by him with the greatest exactness. Bewick
mentions his having heard one imitate the sound of
a saw so exactly, that though it was on a Sunday,
people could hardly be persuaded that there was not
a carpenter at work in the house.
THE BLUE JAY (Cyanurus cristatus).— This bird,
which is an inhabitant of most parts of North America,
is more elegant in its form than the preceding species,
which it resembles in its general habits, and in its live-
liness and imitative talents. Its plumage is light
purplish blue above, and white beneath;
the head is adorned with a handsome crest
of blue feathers, and the neck with a cres
cent-shaped black mark; the wings are
blue, as are also the feathers of the long
wedge-shaped tail; the wing-primaries, and
tail feathers being elegantly marked with
transverse black bands, and tipped with
white. The whole length of the bird is
about eleven inches. The Blue Jay is an
inhabitant of the woods and forests, amongst
which his singular and varied notes are
constantly heard during the spring season.
His favourite diet consists of chestnuts,
acorns, and Indian corn ; but he also visits
the gardens occasionally in search of fruit,
and frequently picks up insects or cater-
pillars upon the branches of the trees. Some-
times he indulges his taste for animal food
in a less innocent fashion, plundering the
nests of his fellow-inhabitants of the woods,
destroying their eggs, and tearing in pieces
and devouring their helpless young. At
the same time he exhibits a hypocritical
enmity to the smaller hawks and owls,
especially the latter, leading on the small
birds to attack these enemies of their race
with the greatest spirit and perseverance.
The nest of this bird is placed in a tree,
composed of twigs, and lined with dry root
fibres. The eggs are five in number and
of a dull olive colour, spotted with brown.
THE RAVEN (CorvitA cor ax). — Of the British species
of this family, the Raven is the largest and most
powerful, the adult male measuring about twenty inches
in length. It has a long and strong bill of a black
colour, and the feathers springing from the base of the
upper mandible and covering the nostrils are about an
inch and a half long. The whole of the plumage is
black, with a purple or bluish gloss; the irides are
brown and grey, and the feet black. This bird is
found in all parts of the northern hemisphere, extending
its range even into the frozen regions of the Arctic
2 X
34G
PASSERES. BIRDS. CORVID.K.
zone, the severe winters of which it is able to survive.
It is usually an inhabitant of the wildest and most
secluded districts, haunting the rocks of the sea-coast or
the sides of mountains, or the forests occupying exten-
sive plains, and from its vigilance and sagacity its
destruction is by no means an easy matter.
In the choice of his food the Raven is not at all par-
ticular, but feeds indiscriminately upon everything
capable of supplying him with nourishment ; he preys
upon the smaller mammalia, birds, and reptiles, plunders
birds' nests, and devours any carrion that falls in his
way, diversifying this sufficiently varied diet by picking
up insects, grain, and fruits. On the coast the dead
fish and other animal matters constantly washed up by
the waves, furnish him with abundant nutriment. His
boldness also prompts to attack even the sickly and
young individuals of large mammalia, and the sheep in
mountainous districts are constantly exposed to his
assaults. Whenever he observes an opportunity of
securing a supply of food by this means, he commences
by attacking the eye of his victim, and then proceeds
to regale himself upon the flesh. When his appetite is
satisfied, he retires to allow his food to digest, but soon
returns for more. The remarkable instinct which leads
the Raven and several of the other large crows to any
spot where a supply of carrion is to be obtained, has
often excited the wonder of naturalists ; especially as
they frequently come together in considerable numbers
at a spot where none were to be seen but a short time
before. As in the case of the vultures, the means by
which they are enabled to dete ct the existence of their
distant food has long been a matter of dispute among
naturalists; some thinking that they discover their
repast by the sense of smell, and others by that of
sight. The most probable supposition seems to be that
put forward by Mr. M'Gillivray, namely, that those
which come from a distance are induced to undertake
their journey by observing the movements of others
within sight of the feast.
The voice of the Raven is a hoarse croak, and this,
coupled with his intense black colour and the sagacity of
his appearance, has no doubt had much to do with the
evil reputation conferred upon this bird by the inhabi-
tants of most countries. Almost everywhere indeed
the Raven is regarded as a bird of ill omen, sharing
with the owls in the superstitious horror of the ignor-
ant. By the ancient Icelanders this bird was dedicated
to Odin, and that deity was said to possess two ravens
which were let loose every morning to ascertain what
was going forward in the world, and returned at night
to perch on Odin's shoulders, and whisper their intelli-
gence into his ears. Even in the present day the
Icelanders believe that the Raven is acquainted not
only with what is going on at a distance, but also with
what is to happen in the future. The superstitious
notions of other nations with regard to the Raven
seem all to partake more or less of the Icelandic cast.
Nevertheless, in the present day at any rate, the Raven
is not unfrequently kept in confinement, when his
sagacity, and love of fun and mischief, render him
amusing. Of all British birds he is perhaps the one
which manifests the greatest power of imitating the
human voice, and this is the more striking as his own
natural note is one of the lea^t attractive in nature.
He is also sometimes friendly with other domesticated
animals, and has been known to attend upon a wounded
dog with great kindness, bringing him bones, and using
every endeavour to console the sufferer under his
affliction. Strange dogs, however, are generally re-
garded by him as enemies, and he is fond of giving
them a sly nip with his powerful bill ; one of the
favourite amusements with tame Ravens being to con-
ceal themselves until a dog passes by, when they rush
out and endeavour to pinch his tail.
The nest of the Raven is built on a forked branch,
sticks, and lined with wool and hair ; the
bird generally selects a very high tree for the reception
of its nest, and places it among the most inaccessible
branches. The same nest serves, with a little repair,
for several successive seasons, and it is remarkable that
the same trees are so constantly resorted to b)7 these
birds that many trees have been known as " Raven-
trees" from time immemorial.
THE CARRION CEOW (Corvus Car one}, like the
Raven, enjoys a very wide geographical range, being
found in all the northern parts of the eastern hemis-
phere ; it does not, however, occur in North America,
where its place is taken by a closely allied species.
The Crow measures rather more than eighteen inches
in length, and is of a black colour, glossed with violet
and green in certain lights ; the feathers covering the
nostrils are shorter than in the Raven, and the irides
are brown. In its general habits it resembles the
Raven, dwelling and breeding in wooded countries,
and feeding both upon carrion and upon small animals,
which it captures and tears to pieces like a raptorial
bird. To sickly sheep and lambs it is, like the Raven,
a dangerous enemy. Its note is a hoarse croak. The
Carrion Crow is not so frequently domesticated as the
Raven, but when kept in captivity it displays a con-
siderable amount of sagacity. Mr. M'Gillivray mentions
an example of the accurate memory of one of these
birds which had buried a dead mole in his owner's
garden, covering it over so cleverly that, although he had
been watched through the whole operation, the place
of burial of the mole could not be discovered. He was
excluded from the garden for nearly a week ; but on
getting in he went directly to the spot where the mole
was buried, and brought it out immrnediately.
THE AUSTRALIAN CROW (Corvus coronoidcs), the
only known species of true Crow inhabiting Australia,
is very nearly allied both to the Raven and the Carrion
Crow, between which Mr. Gould regards it as inter-
mediate. It measures about twenty inches in length,
and is of a shining purplish black, with a greenish gloss
on the throat. The iris is white. This bird is met
with in every part of Australia and in Van Diemen's
Land ; in its general habits and voice it resembles the
European Carrion Crow.
THE HOODED CROW (Corvus Cornix), a third
British species of the genus Corvus, appears to have
nearly the same geographical distribution as the Car-
rion Crow, but is to a certain extent a migratory bird,
breeding in the most northern countries of the eastern
hemisphere, and only visiting the southern districts in
the winter. Thus, even in Britain, the Hooded Crow
THE ROOK. BIRDS. THE JACKDAW.
347
is well known in the extreme northern parts of Scot-
land, and in the Orkney and Shetland Islands, where
it breeds, but is rarely seen in England except during
winter. It is abundant about Koyston from October
to March, and hence is frequently called the Royston
Crow. The adult male is about twenty inches in
length, the female rather less. The bill and feet are
shining black ; the whole of the head, the front of the
neck, the wings and tail, are blue-black ; and the re-
mainder of the plumage gray, tinged with brown in the
female. The general habits of this bird resemble
those of the Carrion Crow, and like that species and
the Raven it is charged with destroying young lambs
and poultry. When these birds take up their abode
on the coast, they feed upon marine animals, including
shell-fish, such as cockles and mussels, and in order to
obtain the latter, they will fly up with them into the
air and drop them upon a rock. The nest of this
species is built either in a tree or upon a ledge of rock ;
it is formed of sticks and straws, and lined with wool
and hair, and serves for several successive seasons.
One remarkable circumstance in the history of this
bird is that it has been known repeatedly to pair and
breed with the Carrion Crow, the Hooded Crow being
usually the female.
THE EOOK (Corrus frugilegus) another well-known
British species, is distinguished from the preceding mem-
bers of its genus by its gregarious and sociable habits,
which indicate, as Pennant says, that it is the Corvus
of Virgil, and it is known as the Crow in many parts
of this country. Rooks live constantly in flocks at all
Fig. 114.
Head of the Rook (Corvus frugilegus).
seasons of the year, and, as Mr. Yarrell remarks, further
evince " the sociability of their dispositions, by appear-
ing to prefer situations in the immediate vicinity of the
abodes of man. There are not wanting instances," he
adds, " where long-established rookeries near a mansion
have been deserted by these birds, when it has happened
that the house has been pulled down, or even aban-
doned as a habitation." In fact, so constantly is the
Rook a companion of man, that we can hardly see
these birds busy about their nests, or returning to their
trees to roost in the evening, or hear their not over-
melodious voices, without associating these sights and
pounds with a human dwelling-place. They are not
disturbed even by the bustle of great cities, and one or
two pairs have frequently built their nests in a single
elm tree at the corner of Wood Street and Cheapside,
notwithstanding the constant roar of the traffic in the
latter great thoroughfare. They have been known to
exhibit great sagacity in selecting the trees on which
to build their nests, avoiding those which were so
decayed as to be in danger of coming down; and an
instance is recorded of their forsaking those trees from
which a portion of bark had been removed as an indi-
cation that they were to be felled. The nests, of
which seven or eight are often seen on the same tree,
are composed of twigs, and lined with grass and roots,
and during the process of building, constant squabbles
arise among the architects, caused by their endeavouring
to plunder each other's materials at every opportunity.
The same nest serves for several years.
The food of the Rooks consists principally of worms,
snails, slugs, and the grubs of insects, in search of
which they frequent meadows, pastures, and ploughed
fields. They have frequently been regarded as enemies
by the farmer, but in this he is certainly in error ; they
may, indeed, occasionally consume some small portion
of his produce, but the quantity of noxious insects
destroyed by them is so enormous, that the benefits
conferred by them upon the husbandman far exceed
any damage they may do him. One of the commonest
charges against the Rooks is, that they injure the
pastures, by plucking up the grass and other meadow
plants, apparently for the sake of mischief; but the fact
is, that on investigation the plants pulled up are found
to have been previously destroyed by the grubs of
insects devouring their roots, and it is in order to obtain
these that the Rooks render themselves liable to a
charge of doing mischief which was in reality ready
done to their beaks. In searching after the earth-
loving insects which constitute their principal food, the
Rooks dig into the ground with their beaks, and in
consequence of this the feathers at the base of the bill
and on the throat, which are present in young birds,
become gradually rubbed off and destroyed, leaving a
rough naked skin on these parts. The bill is sometimes
liable to curious malformations, specimens having been
shot with the mandibles crossed, or with one mandible
produced to a great length beyond the other, rendering
it difficult to understand how the birds could continne
to pick up their living. In captivity the Rook is said
to exhibit the same amusing qualities as his congeners,
except that his powers of imitation seem to be more
limited.
THE JACKDAW (Corvus monedula), a smaller species
than any of the preceding, resembles the Rook in living
together sociably in considerable flocks throughout the
year. It is a common inhabitant of Britain, and also
of the continent of Europe, extending southward to the
northern shores of Africa, and eastward at least as far
as Lake Baikal in Central Asia. The Jackdaw is a
bold and familiar bird, generally inhabiting cultivated
and well-peopled districts, and frequenting especially
the towers and belfries of churches and similar elevated
buildings, amongst the nooks and crannies of which it
builds its nest and brings up its young. In more rural
districts and on the coast the Jackdaw builds in the
348
-BIRDS. COKVID.E.
cavities of rocks, cliffs, and quarries, and also in chim-
neys, which are sometimes quite stopped by the quantity
of materials brought in to form the nest. It has also
been known to breed in a hollow tree. The nest is
composed of a great mass of sticks lined with wool and
other soft substances, and the quantity of materials
brought together is sometimes enormous. A curious
illustration of this was furnished in Cambridge, in the
neighbourhood of the botanic garden, from which the
numerous Jackdaws residing in its vicinity, took it into
their heads to carry off the labels stuck into the ground
beside patches of newly-sown seeds, to the great diggust
of the gardeners. These labels were pieces of deal
laths, about nine inches long and one inch broad, and
no fewer than eighteen dozen of these sticks were
taken out of a single chimney in the neighbourhood,
occupied by Jackdaws as a breeding place. In another
case, a pair of Jackdaws built their nest on a winding
staircase in a church in Lincolnshire ; and, finding that
the steps were too narrow to furnish a secure resting-
place, they actually piled up a mass of sticks, occupying
five or six steps.
The Jackdaw is of a black colour above, but not so
deep and shining as the preceding species, and he has
the back and sides of the neck of a sooty -gray colour ;
the lower surface is rusty black. The bill and feet are
black, and the irides white. His length is about four-
teen inches. Like the larger crows, he is by no means
particular in his diet, feeding indiscriminately on grain,
fruit, insects, or carrion ; and, when he inhabits the coast,
on shell-fish, Crustacea, and dead animal matters thrown
up by the waves. He does not, hpwever, appear to
be predatory in his habits, although he is occasionally
to be seen on the backs of sheep, either plucking out
wool to line his nest or searching for the parasitic insects
which infest those animals; this habit is commemorated
in one of the fables of ^Esop, although the object of the
bird was misunderstood by the Grecian sage, and con-
sequently the moral derived from it wih1 hardly hold
good. Young Jackdaws taken from the nest are easily
tamed, when they become very amusing, and may even
THE INDIAN HOODED CEOW (Corvus splendens]
resembles our Hooded Crow in its general appearance,
but is a far more handsome bird. It has the top of
the head and the face black; the nape, neck, back, and
breast ash coloured ; the wings shining violet blue ; the
belly slate colour ; and the rump and tail black, with a
violet blue gloss. This, which is the common crow of
India, is a bold, familiar, and impudent bird, coming
freely into the towns and villages, and seeking for its
food in the streets, without allowing itself to be dis-
turbed by the bustle of the passengers. It will even
come into the houses and carry off anything that lies
in its way. It is, however, exceedingly cunning, and
seems to know by intuition when any one has a design
against it, so that it is a most difficult matter either to
shoot or capture a specimen. Its sagacity is well
illustrated by the following anecdote related by Lieu-
tenant Burgess : — " Some crows," he says, " had been
sitting near a young dog, watching him whilst engaged
with a bone. Having apparently concerted the plan,
one of them alighted, stepped up, and took a peck at
the dog's tail ; the dog, irritated, made a snap at the
bully ; on which a comrade, who appears to have been
ready, made a dash and went off with the prize."
These birds seem to agree very well among themselves,
however, and even to manifest a certain amount of
kindness to each other. Mr. Blyth mentions his having
seen two nearly blind crows, amongst a party of about
twenty, which were fed by their companions like nest-
lings.
THE INDIAN CAEEION CEOW (Corvus culminatus)
closely resembles our Carrion Crow in appearance and
habits, and seems to take the place of that species in
India. It is found in the forests and wooded districts,
and is a predatory bird, attacking young poultry and
pigeons, and hastening the death of wounded or sickly
animals of larger dimensions, making its first assault
upon their eyes in the same way as the Raven and
Carrion Crow of Europe.
THE CAFFEAEIAN CEOW-VULTUEE (Corvultur
albicollis). — Two African species of this family are
remarkable on account of the form of the bill, which is
large, much compressed, its height being twice its width,
and much curved along the ridge of the upper mandible.
Both these birds are black, with a large white spot on
the back of the neck ; in the present species this spot j
is semilunar, and the wing-coverts are brownish. It
is an inhabitant of Caffraria, and is a bold, noisy bird
of about twenty inches in length ; its food consists
principally of carrion, but it also kills lambs and young
antelopes, and even attacks large quadrupeds, such as
oxen, buffaloes, and even elephants, when their skins
present any wounds or ulcers. In this, however, the
Crow is often doing his apparent victims a service, by
ridding him of insect parasites.
THE ABYSSINIAN CEOW-VTJLTTJEE (Corvultur
crassirostris) resembles the preceding in its habits ; it
is especially abundant about the slaughter-houses, where
it feeds upon the blood and offals thrown out.
THE BALD HEADED CEOW (Picathartes gymnoce-
phalus) presents a remarkable resemblance to the vul-
tures in having the head quite bare of feathers, and the
neck clothed with short feathers. It is of a brown
colour, with the back blackish, the neck white, and the
bare head reddish ; the bill is black, and the feet yellow.
The whole length of this singular bird, which inhabits
the west coast of Africa, is about sixteen inches ; its
habits are unknown.
THE MAGPIE (Pica cauctata)— Plate 11, fig. 38.—
This handsome bird, which is abundant in many parts
of Britain, is distributed throughout the northern parts
of both hemispheres. As it generally frequents inha-
bited districts in this country, and is very commonly
kept in confinement, its elegantly pied plumage, and
lively, cunning aspect, must be so familiar to every one
as to render a description unnecessary. As food
scarcely anything comes amiss to the Magpie ; in its
general habits it is strongly predaceous, destroying
young poultry, game, and other small animals, and
even occasionally attacking young lambs and sickly
sheep in the same way as the larger crows, whilst, when
.these delicacies cannot be got, it will take up with
carrion, worms, and insects, and even with fruit and
grain. Hence, its fondness for the vicinity of human
THE NUTCRACKER. BIRDS. PARADISEID^:.
349
habitations is by no means reciprocated by the occu-
pants of the latter ; and, in this country, at all
events, it is subject to so determined a persecution,
that, as Mr. Yarrell observes, " but for its sagacity,
eminently evinced in its self-preservation, it would be
a rare bird."
The Magpie usually dwells in woods and plantations,
where it builds its nest in a high tree, but sometimes
frequents tall hedges, and builds in a thick bush. The
nest, which serves for several seasons, is a domed
structure, with an aperture on one side. It is com-
posed of thorny sticks, strongly interlaced, plastered
with mud on the inside, and lined with grass and root
fibres. The eggs, which are laid early in the spring,
are six or seven in number, and of a pale bluish- white
colour, with numerous spots of ash colour and brown.
If taken young, the Magpie is easily tamed, when,
like the other species of this family, he becomes very
amusing, and exhibits great power of imitating sounds
of all kinds. He is, however, the most thievish of all
the crows, possessing a stealing monomania so strong
that he cannot resist the temptation of picking up and
concealing any bright object that may fall in his way,
although, of course, his hoards of this nature cannot be
of the slightest use to him.
THE NUTCRACKER (Nucifraga caryocatactes], a rare
occasional visitor to Britain, is not uncommon in some
parts of the continent of Europe, and is said to be
abundant in the pine forests of Russia and Siberia. It
measures about fourteen inches in length, and is of a
clove-brown colour both above and beneath, the plumage
being marked with triangular whitish spots on the extre-
mity of each feather. The crown of the head is dark
brown, without any spots, the wings are blackish-brown,
as are also the tail feathers ; but the whole of the latter,
except the two middle ones, have a white tip, which
gradually increases in extent towards the sides. The
food of this bird consists of insects, seeds, and nuts ;
the latter it is said to crack in the same way as the
Nuthatch, by fixing them in the crevice of the bark of
a tree, and hammering at them with its powerful beak.
The Nutcracker exhibits some resemblance to the
woodpeckers in its habits. It climbs, or rather runs
upon the bark of trees, supporting itself by means of
its tail, of which the feathers are thus usually more or
less worn, and it nidificates in the holes of trees, which
it enlarges to suit its purpose by means of its bill.
The eggs are five or six in number, and of a yellowish-
gray colour, with a few light brown spots.
THE ALPINE CHOUGH (Pyrrhocorax alpinus), a
native of the mountainous countries of southern Europe
and Asia, is of a black colour, with a greenish gloss,
which is most brilliant on the upper surface ; the bill
is orange-yellow, and the feet vermilion. The whole
length of the bird is about sixteen inches. Its food
consists of seeds, berries, worms, and insects, but in
times of scarcity it is known to content itself with
carrion. Its nest is built in the clefts and caverns of
the rocks, and it lays four or five white eggs, spotted
with dull yellow.
THE CORNISH CHOUGH (Fregilus graculus), a
species nearly allied to the preceding, is generally
distributed in the rocky and mountainous temperate
parts of the eastern hemisphere ; in this country it is
a rather rare bird, and is generally met with about the
cliSs of our southern coast. Its name of Cornish
Chough is given to it from its being better known in
Cornwall than elsewhere in our island. The plumage
of this bird is black, with a bluish gloss ; the irides
exhibit two rings, of which the inner is red, the outer
blue, and the eyes are surrounded by red eyelids ; the
bill and feet are vermilion, and the claws black.
From the bright red colour of the feet, the bird is
frequently known as the RED-LEGGED CROW.
The food of the Chough consists of berries, grain,
and insects, and he has been seen following the plough
like a rook, to pick up the grubs from the broken
ground. In confinement grasshoppers and fernchafers
have been found to be favourite articles of food with
him, but the cockchafer appears to be too large to be
swallowed whole ; he places it under one foot, pulls it
to pieces, and thus devours it. The nest is composed
of sticks, and lined with wool and hair ; it is built in a
cavity of some high cliff, or of some lofty ruined castle
or tower, and contains four or five eggs of a yellowish-
white colour, spotred with gray and light brown.
THE WHITE-WINGED CHOUGH (Corcorax leucop-
terus) is generally distributed over the whole of New
South Wales and South Australia, evincing a preference
for the open parts of the forests, except during the
breeding season, when it haunts the borders of brooks
and lagoons. It is of a black colour, with a greenish
gloss, with the exception of the wing pinions, which
have the greater part of their inner webs white. The
iris is scarlet, and the bill and feet black. The nest is
composed of mud and straw, in the form of a cup or
basin, and placed upon the branch of a tree, usually
overhanging the water. It contains from four to seven
eggs, and Mr. Gould thinks that several females may
sometimes deposit their eggs in the same nest, as four
or five of them may be seen on the trees close to one
engaged in sitting.
FAMILY II.-PARADISEID^E.
The small family to which the Birds of Paradise
belong is evidently intermediate between that of the
Crows, of which we have just described some of the
more striking examples, and that of the Starlings to
which we shall next have to refer. These birds
appear, however, to be most nearly allied to the Crows,
with which they have been arranged by some ornitho-
logists. By others they have been placed with the
Epimachi, amongst the tenuirostral birds.
The general characters of the Birds of Paradise are
briefly as follows : — In the form of the bill, the position
of the nostrils, and the presence of a tuft of plumes
concealing the latter, they resemble the crows; the
sides of the upper mandible are notched towards the
tip ; the wings are long and rounded at the tip ; the
tarsi are long and strong, and covered in front by a
single long plate, followed by two or three smaller
shields, or by three or four large plates of nearly equal
size ; the toes are well developed and terminated by
long, curved claws, the posterior toe being very long,
and the inner anterior one shorter than the outer. But
350
PASSERES. BIRDS. PAKADISEID.E.
the most remarkable character of the birds of this
family consists in the great development in the males
of some portions of the plumage, usually the feathers
of the sides of the body and neck, which often present
the most singular forms and give the birds a very pecu-
liar appearance. In most cases they are adorned with
brilliant and delicate colours, and some of them consti-
tute well-known and elegant ornaments of ladies' dress.
The Birds of Paradise are confined to a very limited
portion of the earth's surface, namely, New Guinea
and the neighbouring islands. Amongst the luxuriant
forests of these regions they live together in large
troops, and their appearance when flitting about under
the deep shadow of the trees must be most beautiful.
They are polygamous, like the gallinaceous birds, which
they resemble in the magnificence of the attire of the
male. Their food consists principally of fruits.
THE EMEEALD BIRD OP PARADISE (Paradisea
apoda) — Plate 12, fig. 39 — is one of the species so com-
monly imported into Europe for the adornment of ladies'
bonnets and other head-dresses. It is an inhabitant
of New Guinea and the islands lying to the west of
that singular country, migrating from the one to the
other with the monsoons. The general appearance of
this bird is well known, and as it is represented in our
figure, we need only state that the beautiful yellow
plumes, which render it so elegant an ornament, spring
from the sides of the body beneath the wings, and are
of the structure commonly known as decomposed, that
is to say, the barbs of the feathers are distinct from
each other, and do not adhere by means of barbules as
in ordinary feathers. The two centre feathers of the
tail are elongated into long filaments, with very short
barbs ; these filaments and the yellow plumes are want-
ing in the female.
The inhabitants of the districts frequented by these
birds kill them in great numbers, by climbing up into
the trees at night, and shooting them with short arrows
on their roosting places. The legs of the birds are
then cut off, and their bodies dried by a fire, in which
state they are sold to Malay dealers, by whose inter-
vention they reach the hands of civilized merchants.
For many years no specimens of the Emerald Bird of
Paradise reached Europe except in this way, and thus
it became a general opinion that this bird was naturally
destitute of feet ; so that, being incapable of perching,
it was compelled to pass its whole life on the wing, and
Linnaeus, although aware that this notion was errone-
ous, gave the species the name of Paradisea apoda, or
the footless bird of paradise, which it still retains. As,
however, it would evidently be inconvenient to the
bird to sleep on the wing, it was popularly supposed
that the long filaments of the tail were conferred upon
it to enable it to suspend itself head downwards from
the branches of trees, in which somewhat uncomfortable
position it was supposed to enjoy its repose. Several
other absurd notions were also entertained regarding
the habits of this bird, all arising from its assumed
imperfections. To these we need not refer.
The appearance of the male Bird of Paradise in his
native forests is so beautiful, that those ornithologists
who have had the opportunity of seeing him there,
speak of it with the greatest enthusiasm. Of this, the
following passage from the pen of the distinguished
French naturalist, M. Lesson, may serve as an exam-
ple : — " Scarcely had I proceeded a few hundred yards
into these ancient forests," he says, " the sombre gloom
of which is perhaps the most magnificent and imposing
spectacle that I have ever seen, when a Bird of Paradise
attracted my attention ; it flew with grace, and in an
undulating manner ; the feathers of its sides formed a
graceful and airy plume, which, without hyperbole,
bore no distant resemblance to a brilliant meteor.
Struck with surprise and admiration, I feasted my
eyes upon this magnificent bird with inexpressible
pleasure; but my disturbance was so great that I forgot
to fire at him, and did not recollect that I had a gun till
he was far away." The females, this author tells us,
collect in bands at the summits of the highest trees in
the forests, and cry out in concert to attract the males.
The latter generally occur in the midst of a seraglio of
about fifteen females, for whose delectation they display
their beautiful plumage somewhat in the manner of the
peacock. By a sort of vibration of the entire plumage,
they raise the whole of their feathers until the long
delicate plumes of the sides surround the birds almost
completely like a golden halo, " in the centre of which,"
says M. de Lafresnaye, " the bright green head forms a
disc, looking at the moment like a little emerald sun, with
its rays formed by the feathers of the two plumes."
A specimen of this bird, sent home by Mr. Wallace,
and mounted in accordance with his descriptions, is
one of the most splendid ornaments of the ornitholo-
gical gallery in the British Museum. The drooping
feathers of the lateral plumes scarcely justify their
comparison with a halo ; they rather remind one of
the fabled fountain of golden water, which plays so
important a part in one of the Arabian Tales. The cry
of the male is described by Lesson as resembling the
words, voike, voike, voike, voiko, strongly articulated.
That of the female is similar, but weaker.
THE LITTLE EMERALD BIRD OF PARADISE (Para-
disea papuensis) is about an inch shorter than the
preceding species, the one measuring twelve, the other
thirteen inches in length. The two birds are very
similar in colouring, but the upper part of the back in
the present species is yellow, and the lateral plumes
are rather shorter in proportion. This is a more abun-
dant species in New Guinea than the preceding one,
and is commonly imported into Europe for the pur-
poses of ornament.
THE RED BIRD OF PARADISE (Paradisea rubra)
has the face, the sides of the neck, and the throat
covered with small velvet-like black feathers, exhibiting
an emerald and golden lustre. The back of the head
and neck, the upper part of the back and of the breast
are yellow ; the shoulders and back are cinnamon red,
and the wings, rump, and belly, chestnut brown. The
plumes of the sides, which are of a closer texture than
in the Emerald Bird of Paradise, are rather longer than
the bird itself, and of a most brilliant carmine red
colour ; the tail is furnished with two very long fila-
ments, which, however, are curled up for a considerable
part of their length. The whole length of the bird is
about thirteen inches. The female is destitute of the
lateral plumes and caudal filaments, and has the face
BIRDS OF PARADISE. BIRDS. BIRDS OF PARADISE.
351
and throat chestnut colour instead of black. This bird
is an inhabitant of the island of Waigiou.
THE GOLDEN-BREASTED BIRD OF PARADISE
(Parotia aurea), a native of New Guinea and Waigiou,
is of about the same size as the preceding species, but
is easily distinguished from all other known Birds of
Paradise by the presence of six long filaments springing
from the head, three on each side, measuring about six
inches in length, and bearing at their extremities a few
barbs, which form a small flat palette. The colour of
these filaments and palettes is black, as is also the rest
of the velvet-like plumage, except on the throat and
the upper part of the breast, which are covered with
scale-like feathers, exhibiting the most brilliant golden,
coppery, and green tints. The frontal plumes are
erect, and white at the tip, forming a sort of pearly-
gray tuft on the front of the head ; and the flanks are
covered with a dense tuft of rather elongated, black
decomposed feathers, which conceal the wings. The
female exhibits two ear-like tufts on the head, in the
place of the singular filaments of the male. Her
plumage is black, becoming sooty-brown on the back,
and chestnut-red on the rump; her chin is reddish-
brown, chest pale-tawny, and belly reddish, marked
with deep brown longitudinal streaks.
THE SUPERB BIRD OF PARADISE (Lophorhina
superba) is smaller than any of the preceding species
of this family, measuring only about nine inches in
length. It is distinguished by having a small tuft of
black plumes springing from each nostril. The plumage
of this splendid bird is black, presenting green and
purple glosses in different lights ; the front of the neck
and breast are covered by a sort of breastplate of
imbricated feathers, hanging down in front and terminat-
ing in a wide fork. This breastplate exhibits the most
brilliant tints of bronzed green and violet ; from the
sides of the neck spring numerous plumes, gradually
increasing in length, and of a rich violet black colour,
which form a sort of mantle, partly concealingthe wings.
Of this species, which is one of the rarest of its family,
the female is unknown. It is an inhabitant of Waigiou
and New Guinea.
THE KING BIRD OF PARADISE (Citinnurus regius)
is a still smaller species, measuring less than six inches
in length. It is of a bright red colour above, and the
whole of its plumage is of a velvet-like softness, both to
the eye and to the touch. The plumes which clothe
the nostrils and the forehead are of a fine orange colour;
at the angle of the eye there is a small black spot ; the
chin and throat are brilliant yellow, bounded be-
neath by a transverse brownish streak, below which is
a broad band of metallic green ; the rest of the lower
surface is white. On each side of the body, beneath
the wings, there is a broad, flat plume of feathers, form-
ing a sort of fan, in which each feather is truncated at
the extremity. These feathers are gray, but towards
their tips they are traversed by two bands — one white,
the other red ; and beyond these bands the extremities
of the feathers are brilliant emerald-green. From the
tail, which is reddish-brown, spring two long, naked,
red filaments, which acquire barbs towards the extremity,
where they are rolled up in a spiral form ; these filaments
are curve i in such a manner as somewhat to resemble
those in the tail of the Lyre-bird. The female is red-
dish-brown above, and reddish-yellow, finely streaked
with brown, beneath. This rare bird is a native of New
uin ea.
THE MAGNIFICENT BIRD OF PARADISE (DiphylMes
magnifica), which is likewise known o/ily as an inha-
bitant of New Guinea, measures about eight inches in
length, and is distinguished by the presence on each
side of the neck of two peculiar tufts of feathers. The
ippermost of these tufts consists of small, narrow,
yellow feathers, each with a black spot at the tip, which
stand out nearly at a right angle from the neck ; the
lower tuft, which is larger, but less prominent, is com-
posed of long, detached barbs, springing from short
tubes ; they are of a straw colour, and truncated at the
extremity. The front of the neck and breast are
marked with alternate transverse lines of bright green
changing to blue, and dark green ; the colour of most of
the rest of the plumage is brown ; the wings are reddish-
yellow, and the head exhibits a metallic lustre. The
tail is furnished with a pair of filaments about a foot in
length, which terminate in a fine point, and exhibit
brilliant blue and green tints. The female is unknown.
THE INCOMPARABLE BIRD OF PARADISE (Astrapia
nigrd). — The name of Incomparable was given to this
bird by Le Vaillant on account of the great beauty of its
plumage, in which it seems to exceed all the other
species of this magnificent family. Its body is about
nine inches long ; but the middle feathers of its elon-
gated tail measure more than twice this length ; they
are rounded at the extremity, so that the apex of the
tail exhibits a strong notch, and the remaining tail-
feathers, which gradually diminish in length, are applied
beneath them, in such a manner that the tail appears
to consist only of these two feathers. The feathers of
the sides and back of the head are elongated and silky,
and carried back on the sides of the neck so as to form
a sort of double crest ; the colour of the head is black,
with a brilliant greenish gloss. The back of the neck
and the back are of a brilliant golden greenish-bronze
colour, exhibiting a wonderful play of tints when viewed
in different lights ; the feathers of these parts are firm
and imbricated, resembling the bright scales of a fish.
The front of the neck is also clothed with scale-like
feathers, forming a sort of gorget ; the centre of this
gorget is of the same colour as the back, but it is bor-
dered by a sort of collar of the most brilliant colours —
ruby-red, golden-orange, and violet. The remainder
of the lower surface is of a deep, lustrous green colour.
The wings and tail are violet black, but the feathers
of the latter are marked beneath with transverse bands
of brown. This splendid bird, which is exceedingly
rare in collections, is a native of New Guinea. ' The
female is still unknown.
FAMILY III.— STURNID^E.
The third family of the Conirostral birds includes our
common British Starling and a great number of other
interesting species. These birds have a long and com-
pressed bill, of which the upper mandible is nearly
straight to the tip, where it is usually more or less
curved downwards. Near the apex also the edges of
352
-BIRDS.-
the upper mandible generally exhibit a slight notch-
The wings in the Starlings are long and generally
pointed ; the tarsi are of moderate length, stout, and
covered in front with broad shields ; the toes are long
and tolerably powerful, the hinder one especially being
of considerable length and stoutness, and the outer
front toe is united to the middle one as far as the third
joint.
It is impossible to mistake the close alliance of these
birds with those of the family Corridas, with which
they have much in common both in their structure and
habits. They are for the most part sociable in their
habits, collecting in flocks, especially during the autumn
and winter ; and even during the breeding season they
are generally to be seen in company. Their food con-
sists of worms, insects, fruits, and grain — articles which
also constitute a considerable portion of the diet of the
Crows ; but the Starlings do not appear to imitate the
latter birds either in their taste for carrion or in their
predatory propensities. They are, however, sagacious
birds, and become docile and amusing in captivity,
when some of them may be taught various tricks, and
even to speak a few words.
THE COMMON STABLING (Sturnus vulgaris), Plate
12, fig. 40. — This well-known bird, which occurs
abundantly in almost every part of the British isles, is
also an inhabitant of the continent of Europe, and
appears to be generally distributed over the whole of
the eastern hemisphere. It is a handsome bird, its
black plumage exhibiting tints of purple and green,
according to the direction in which the light falls upon it,
and being also adorned with numerous spots and streaks
of buff and pale reddish- brown. In the autumn the
Starlings collect into large flocks, consisting of old and
young birds, which fly together in search of food, and
roost together at night. Sometimes many of these
flocks select some mass of trees as a common roosting
place, to which they come, night after night, in thou-
sands, until at last, from the accumulation of excrement,
the place becomes most offensive. The food of these
birds consists of worms, insects, slugs, and snails,
together with berries and seeds, the latter especially
during the autumn and winter. In pursuit of insects
and worms, they may constantly be seen in small
parties upon meadows and lawns, sometimes in com-
pany with rooks and other birds. When thus engaged,
they run by the alternate movement of their feet. The
nest is built in a hole in some rock or building, or
occasionally in a hollow tree, and the Starling is accused
of building sometimes in pigeon houses. The materials
of the nest are small twigs, straw, grass, and roots.
These appear to be collected and arranged principally
by the female. The eggs are four or five in number,
and of a beautiful pale blue colour.
In confinement the Starling is an intelligent, docile,
and sprightly bird, which may be taught many tricks,
and exhibits a good deal of resemblance to some of the
Crows in his disposition. He will learn to whistle short
times, and even to repeat a few words, although, not-
withstanding the celebrity he has acquired in this
respect from Sterne's well-known story, his power of
imitating the human voice is far inferior to that of the
raven or the magpie.
THE ROSE-COLOURED PASTOR (Pastor roseus), a
common bird in Asia and Africa, is also met with in
the south of Europe, and specimens have occasion-
ally found their way into this country. It is of the
same size as the Common Starling, namely, eight inches
and a half in length ; the plumage of the body is of a
delicate rose colour, and the head, neck, wings, tail,
lower tail-coverts, and legs, are black, with a blue gloss.
The feathers of the crown of the head are elongated,
so as to form a sort of crest. In its habits this bird
resembles the Starling, associating in large flocks, and
feeding upon insects, worms, and grain. From the
great quantities of insects, especially locusts, which
these birds destroy, they are in some places regarded
almost in the light of sacred birds. Like our Starlings,
they exhibit a great fondness for the vicinity of cattle
and sheep, upon which they are nearly constant attend-
ants, and this habit is alluded to in their name of
Pastor. Their principal object in frequenting the
society of cattle is to seize the insects which are dis-
turbed by them from their resting-places in the grass ;
but the Pastors also frequently perch upon the backs
of cattle, and seek for the parasitic insects which infest
their hair.
THE COMMON MYNAH (Acridotheres tristis), which
is very nearly allied to the preceding, is a native of
India, where it is a very abundant and familiar bird.
Its habits present a sort of combination of those of
the Starling and the Jackdaw. It is fond of the vici-
nity of cattle, like the Bose-coloured Pastor, and is very
destructive to locusts and other insects. This bird is
remarkable as having been introduced into the Mauri-
tius in order to destroy the locusts with which that
island was infested at one time. It has performed its
part so thoroughly, and increased to such an extent
under the fostering care of the government, that insects
are now very rare in the Mauritius. The nest is built
in the hole of a tree, or in some nook about a house or
other building.
THE BANE MYNAH (Acridotheres ginginianus},
another abundant Indian species, is remarkable for
digging deep holes in the banks of rivers for the recep-
tion of its nest. In other respects it resembles the
preceding species.
THE AMERICAN MEADOW LARK (Sturndla Ludo-
viciana). — The bird known as the Meadow Lark in the
United States is a species of the present family, nearly
allied to the common Starling. It is found throughout
the eastern part of North America, from Canada to
Florida. This bird is about two inches and a half in
length ; its plumage above is elegantly variegated with
black, yellow, and bright bay ; the lower surface, and
a line from the eye to the nostril, are rich yellow;
across the front of the neck there is a crescent-shaped
deep black band, and the four outer tail feathers on
each side are white.
In its habits the American Meadow Lark presents a
considerable resemblance to our Starling, collecting
together in flocks, except during the breeding season,
and feeding upon insects, worms, and seeds. When
these birds perch on trees, they generally select the
highest branches, and on alighting send forth a long,
clear, melancholy note of great sweetness. They select
THE WATTLED STAKLING. 15IKDS. THE SATIN BOWEU-BIRD.
353
a very different situation for their nests from that chosen
by the Starling, building a structure of grass on the
ground close to or within a bush or tussock of grass.
During the autumn and winter they are much esteemed
as an article of food ; and as they fly in flocks, and are
easily shot at this season, they are brought to market
in great numbers.
THE WATTLED STAELING (Dilophus carunculatus),
an inhabitant of South Africa, is chiefly remarkable for
having the skin of the face quite bare of feathers, and
produced into a pair of wattles, whilst another pah-
descend from the base of the bill along the front of the
throat These naked parts are black; the general
colour of the plumage is reddish-gray, palest beneath,
and the wings and tail are black, with a variable bronzed
lustre. The length of the bird is ten or eleven inches.
This bird is gregarious and noisy, and in other respects
resembles the Starling ; it frequents the herds of buf-
faloes and other cattle, and feeds on insects, worms,
and berries. According to Le Vaillant, it has the
cunning shyness of the crows, keeping carefully out of
gunshot, while an unarmed man may approach it with-
out exciting alarm.
THE OXPECKER (Buphaya africana), which is
also sometimes called the Beef -eater, is a common bird
in many of the warmer parts of Africa, where it follows
the singular mode of life from which it has obtained its
name. Perching upon the backs of oxen and other
cattle, it sets to work busily to extract from their skins
the larvae of the cestridse or bot flies, with which they
are almost constantly infested, and which often give
rise to painful tumours ; it creeps about in all direc-
tions upon the body of the ox by means of its powerful
feet, which exhibit some resemblance to those of a
woodpecker, although the toes are in the ordinary
position. The bill of the bird is well adapted for
digging and squeezing out the larvae; it is short and
stout, and inflated towards the extremity. The cattle
are said to submit with exemplary patience to the
operations of the bird, as if aware of the benefit to be
derived from them. The Oxpecker is a small bird,
measuring between eight and nine inches in length ;
its plumage is reddish-brown above, and pale tawny
beneath, with the belly nearly white ; the bill is yellow
at the base, and coral-red at the extremity. It lives
in small bands, consisting of seven or eight individuals,
and is very shy.
THE SATIN BOWEK-BIRD (Ptilonorhynchus holoseri-
cem).— None of the birds of this family are more deserv-
ing of notice than the Bower-birds of Australia, on
The Satin liower-bird (Ptilonorhyuchus holosericeus).
account of the singular habits from which their name
is derived. These birds construct a sort of bovver or
arbour of twigs, which they adorn in various ways, and
then amuse themselves by running about and through
their edifice as if enjoying the pleasures of a dance.
VOL. I.
The Satin Bower-bird — fig. 115 — which is an inha-
bitant of the forests of New South Wales, measures
about thirteen inches in length, and is of a brilliant
blue-black colour, with the wings and tail black, and
the bill and feet yellow.
The female is of an olive
2 Y
354
PASSEKES. BIRDS.-
5TURXIU.E.
colour, with the wings and tail brown ; the lower sur-
face is streaked with black, and the front of the neck
with white. The bower of this bird is placed under
the sheltering branches of a large tree, and is described
by Mr. Gould as consisting of a large platform of sticks
firmly interwoven, on the centre of which the true
bower is raised, this being composed of finer and more
flexible twigs so arranged as to curve over, and nearly
meet at the top; the materials being placed so that any
forks on the twigs may project outwards, thus leaving
:
Bower of the Satin Bower-bird.
a perfectly free passage for the birds through their
singular edifice. This curious structure has nothing
to do with the nest, but appears to be simply a place
of resort for numerous individuals of both sexes, which
play about the platform and run through the arch
formed by the bower seemingly for the mere purpose
of amusing themselves. These assemblies may, how-
ever, be in some way counected with the courtship of
the birds, although Mr. Gould states that the bower is
seldom entirely deserted. The platform and its vicinity
are always ornamented with a variety of objects, such
as shells and small bones, and the bower itself with
bright coloured feathers. Scarcely anything seems to
come amiss to the birds in the embellishment of their
favourite resort, and the natives are so well aware of
their habit of carrying off anything that they can fly
away with, that on losing any small article, they seek
it at the nearest bowers, not uncommonly with success.
THE AUSTRALIAN CAT-BIBD (Ptilonorhynchus
Smithii), another of these curious little architects, is
also a native of New South "Wales, where it has re-
ceived its name from its singular note, of which Mr.
Gould says — " In comparing it to the nightly concerts
of the domestic cat, I conceive that I am conveying to
my readers a more perfect idea of the note of this
species than could be given by pages of description ;"
and from what follows, it would almost appear that
Mr. Gould considered the sound to be of a nature to
sooth the exiled Londoner with reminiscences of home.
The Cat-bird is of a green colour, more or less spotted
with white. Its length is about eleven inches.
THE SPOTTED BOWER-BIRD (Chlamydera macu-
lata) displays even more elegance of design in the
preparation of its bower than the Satin bird. Mr.
Gould describes the bowers of this species as " con-
siderably longer and more avenue-like than those of
the Satin Bower-bird, being in many instances three
feet in length. They are outwardly built of twigs, and
beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their
heads nearly meet ; the decorations are very profuse,
and consist of bivalve shells, crania of small mammalia,
and other bones. Evident and beautiful instances of
design are manifest throughout the bower and decora-
tions formed by this species, particularly in the manner
in which the stones are placed within the bower, appa-
rently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed
firmly in their places ; these stones diverge from the
mouth of the run on each side, so as to form little
paths, while the immense collection of decorative
materials, bones, shells, &c., are placed in a heap
before the entrance of the avenue, this arrangement
being the same at both ends."
The constructors of this curious edifice inhabit the
interior of the Australian continent. They are about
the same size as the Satin Bower-bird, and their plum-
age is of a brown colour, elegantly spotted and varie-
gated with yellow. The lower surface is grayish-white,
with indistinct brown lines on the flanks ; and across the
THE PURPLE GKAKLE. BIRDS. THE BALTIMORE ORIOLE.
355
back of the neck is a broad rose-coloured band, com-
posed of somewhat elongated feathers, formiug a sort
of transverse occipital crest
THE CAPE STARLING (Amydrus mono), an inhab-
itant of Southern Africa, is very common in the colony
of the Cape of Good Hope, where it is known to the
settlers under the names of Mountain Starling and Red-
winged Starling. It is about eleven inches long, and
of a shining blue-black colour, with the primary and
secondary feathers of the wings reddish-brown, tipped
with black, the bill black, and the feet brown. TJiis
bird flies in immense flocks, and feeds principally
upon fruits. It is especially fond of grapes, and causes
great damage in the vineyards in consequence of this
predilection; in fact, without great vigilance on the
part of the growers, the Starlings in some districts
would completely ruin the crops of grapes. They build
their nests in the clefts of rocks, lay from four to six
eggs, and breed twice in the year.
THE JUNGLE GEAKLE (Gracula religwsa\ an in-
habitant of Tndia and Ceylon, is about twelve inches in
length, and of a brilliant black colour, with a violet and
greenish gloss on some parts. Each of the seven last
quills of the wings has a white spot on its outer margin,
and behind each eye there is a naked membrane, of a
rich yellow colour, which nearly meets that of the
opposite side on the occiput. This bird is met with in
the lofty jungle, where it does not appear to be either
common or generally distributed ; it is generally seen
in small parties of four or five, frequenting the tops of
the highest trees, and feeding on fruits and berries. It
has a fine and varied song, for the sake of which it is
often kept in confinement ; it is also said to surpass all
other birds in its power of imitating the human speech.
THE PUEPLE GEAKLE (Quiscalus versicolor}. —
All the remaining birds of this family to which we
have to refer are inhabitants of the Western hemi-
sphere; they form a peculiar group confined to America,
and distinguished from the other Sturnidae by some
peculiarities hi the form of the bill and tail.
The Purple Grakle, which is also known as the
CROW BLACKBIRD, is about twelve inches in length,
and of a black colour, exhibiting blue^violet, coppery,
and green tints on some parts of its plumage in certain
lights. The bill is long and stout, and the inside of
the upper mandible is furnished with a sharp process,
resembling the broken blade of a penknife, which is
no doubt useful to the bird in comminuting its food.
This occurs in several other species nearly allied to
the Purple Grakle.
This bird is migratory in its habits, visiting the
United States of North America during the summer,
and retiring, before the inclement season, to the warmer
parts of the American continent and islands. Its
depredations on the corn fields of the farmers are too
great to render it a very welcome visitor ; nevertheless,
at their first arrival, these birds destroy immense
numbers of caterpillars and grubs, " as if to recompense
the husbandman beforehand," says Wilson, " for the
havoc they intend to make among his crops of Indian
corn." This, indeed, appears to be sufficiently serious
to render some payment absolutely necessary, iar the
birds do not confine themselves to plundering the corn
fields when ripe or nearly BO, but attack the plants at
ah1 stages of growth. But it is when the ears are in a
milky state that the greatest amount of damage is done.
The Grakles, and some other birds, mostly near rela-
tives of the present species, then descend in formidable
bodies upon the fields, strip off the outer covering of
leaves with which the ears are protected, and devour
the milky grain with such avidity as to leave nothing
but the cobs for the farmer. At this time the gun
makes sad havoc among them, but the only effect of
this persecution is to drive them to another field, or to
another part of the same field, and, in some cases,
these impudent plunderers succeed in devouring half
the crop. In some places, Wilson tells us, the farmers
generally allow one-fourth of the Indian-corn crop to
the Blackbirds, among which the Purple Grakle conies
in for a good share.
These birds roost on the cedars and pine trees, and
build their nests on the highest branches of these.
The nest is composed of mud, mixed with grass and
roots, and lined with fine bents and hair. The eggs
are about five in number, of a bluish-olive colour,
spotted and streaked with black and dark-brown. Wil-
son states that the Purple Grakle frequently constructs
its nest, and rears its young, in the interstices left
between the large sticks in the nest of the Osprey, and
that the two birds observe all the duties of good
neighbourhood.
THE EUSTT GEAKLE (Scolecophagus ferrugineus)
is also a migratory bird, and resembles the preceding
species in its general habits. It is about nine inches
long, and of a glossy dark-green or greenish-black
colour, when adult ; but the young males have the body
plumage rusty, and the females are brown. This bird
breeds in the extreme northern parts of the American
continent, and only passes through the middle states
on its journey to and from its breeding places. It
winters in the southern states, and exhibits a strong
predilection for Indian corn, although it cannot do the
same damage to the crops as the preceding species.
THE BALTIMOEE OEIOLE (Tphantes Baltimore},
which is a summer visitor to the United States of
America, receives its name from its black and orange
plumage; those colours being the livery of Lord Balti-
more, formerly proprietary of Maryland. Its colours
have also procured it several other names, such as Fire
bird, Golden Robin, &c. It is about seven inches in
length, and has the head, throat, upper part of the back,
and wings black ; the remainder of the plumage is
bright orange, becoming vermilion-red on the breast ;
the wing-feathers are edged with white, and the tail-
feathers black and orange. The female exhibits nearly
the same arrangement of colours as the male just
described ; but the black is brownish, and the orange
tints are paler and duller.
The nest of the Baltimore Oriole is a beautiful
pendulous structure, composed of fibrous materials
neatly and strongly interwoven, and suspended from
the flexible extremities of the branches of trees.
Selecting two of these high up in a tree, the bird fas-
tens strong strings of hemp or flax around them, and
then proceeds to weave a sort of pouch of similar
materials, so well worked up as to form a coarse cloth-
I 356
PASSERES.-
-BIRDS. STURSID.K.
like fabric. This pouch, winch is six or seven inches
in depth, is lined with soft substances, firmly inter-
woven with the outer coat, and the interior is finished
with a layer of horsehair. The opening, which is at
the top of the nest, is generally sufficiently protected
by the overhanging leaves ; but sometimes it is fur-
nished with a horizontal cover. Almost any fibrous
material seems to be welcome to this ingenious little
weaver, when engaged in the construction of its nest ;
skeins of silk and hanks of thread are often carried off
and worked into the edifice, and even the bits of soft
band with which gardeners fasten their grafts and
buds are sometimes purloined and used in the same
manner. The eggs are five in number, of a pinkish
white colour, marked at the larger end with purple
dots, and on the rest of the surface with fine, irregu-
larly intersecting, hair- like lines. The food of this
bird consists principally of insects.
THE ORCHARD OBIOLE (Icte.rus spurius), a species
nearly allied to the preceding, is, like it, a migratory
bird, visiting the United States in the spring, and
remarining there through the summer, when it takes its
departure for the warm regions of the south. The
male has the head, neck, breast, upper part of the back,
wings, and tail black ; the rest of the plumage bright
chestnut. The female is of a yellowish-olive colour,
with the back and wings brownish. The length of the
bird is about six inches and a half.
The Orchard Oriole feeds principally upon cater-'
pillars, grubs, and other insects ; arid hence, although
he may sometimes plunder the farmer of his produce,
his residence in the orchard, where he prefers taking
up his abode, must be regarded as highly beneficial.
Like the Baltimore bird, he constructs a pendent nest,
usually suspending it from the twigs of an apple-tree.
The nest is composed of a long, tough grass, " knit, or
sewed through in a thousand directions, as if actually
done with a needle." Wilson says that an old lady to
whom he showed one of these nests, began to speculate
on the possibility of teaching the bird to darn stockings !
The nest is hemispherical, and about four inches in
diameter by three inches in depth. When the bird
selects the long pendent branches of the weeping
willow for the support of its nest, the latter is made
much deeper, and attached to several of the drooping
twigs, which then hang down all round it, and effec-
tually conceal it by their foliage. The eggs are gene-
rally four in number, of a very pale bluish tint, sparingly
speckled with brown and spotted with purple.
THE CHESTED ORIOLE (Cassicus cristatus). — This
bird, with some nearly allied species, is distinguished
from the other members of this family, by having the
base of the bill produced upwards on the forehead in
the form of a disc. It is about the size of a magpie,
and is of a black colour, with a loose crest of reddish
feathers on the back of the head, the rump and vent
reddish, and the outer tail feathers yellow. The bill
is yellow, and the feet are black.
The Crested Oriole is an inhabitant of Cayenne and
various parts of South America. It constructs a pen-
sile nest, composed of various vegetable fibres well
interwoven, forming a large pouch measuring about
three feet in length and ten inches in diameter at its
lowest part ; the entrance is at the top, and the bottom
is furnished with a thick bed of dry leaves. This bird
is less sociable than some of its congeners ; for D'Azara
mentions six as the greatest number of nests of this
species that he ever saw on the same tree, whilst Mr.
Edwards, on his voyage up the Amazon, saw no less
than forty-five nests of two other species (C. icteronotus
and C. hcemorrhous) suspended from a single tree.
These nests were about two feet in length, and hung so
close together as to leave only a small portion of the
top of the tree visible.
THE RED-WINGED STARLING (Agelaius phceniceus}.
— This bird, which, like the Purple Grakle, is most
destructive to the corn-crops of the United States, is
migratory in its habits, dwelling during the winter in
immense flocks in the southern states, and advancing
into the northern parts of the Union in the spring. The
male Red-winged Starling is about nine inches in length;
his plumage is glossy black, with the lesser wing-coverts
scarlet. The female is nearly two inches shorter than
her partner; she is black, mottled with pale brown
and white above, and streaked with black and white
beneath. In their winter quarters these birds find an
abundant supply of food in the gleanings of the rice and
cornfields ; during the summer they are engaged in the
business of incubation and bringing up their broods ;
but towards the commencement of September they
are at leisure to commence their work of devastation
amongst the Indian corn, the ears of which are then
in a succulent, milky state, presenting an irresistible
temptation to these and many other birds. Collecting
in great flocks, the starlings then descend upon the
fields, tear off the leafy coats with which the ears are
protected, and soon clear out the young grain, leaving
nothing but the chaffy cobs to the luckless proprietor
of the field. It is to be observed, however, that this
bird, like many other celebrated depredators, must be
regarded as in some measure earning a right to his
share of the farmer's produce by the multitude of grubs,
caterpillars, and other insects, which he destroys during
the breeding season, and of which Wilson justly remarks
that their " secret and insidious attacks are more to be
dreaded by theiimsbandman than the combined forces
of the whole feathered tribes together."
The male Red-winged Starling has a short song, in
which the notes conk-quer-ree are most common; when
taken from the nest, it is easily tamed, and may even
be taught to pronounce a few words. Its nest is usually
built in a thicket of alder bushes in a damp or marshy
situation, and sometimes in a tussock of grass, or even
on the ground ; it is composed of rushes and coarse
grass, and lined with fine bents. The eggs are gene-
rally five in number, and of a pale blue colour, marked
with black lines and dashes.
THE COW-PEN BIRD (Molothrus pecans'), also called
the Cow-BraxiXG, is remarkable in this group of birds
for its habit of depositing its egg in the nest of some
other bird, like our cuckoo. It is a migratory bird,
making its appearance in the middle states of the
American Union at the end of March or the beginning
of April ; it passes the winter in the southern states.
The name of Cow-pen Bird given to this species is due
to its habit of frequenting the inclosures in which cattle
FRIXGILLID.E. BIRHS. THE
357
are confined ; here it seeks for seeds, worms, and insects
amongst the excrements of the cattle. It is never known
to build a nest, but, as above mentioned, drops its eggs
singly in the nests of numerous species of small birds,
amongst which the yellow-throat and the red-eyed fly-
catcher appear to be its greatest favourites ; and in this
selection it is justified by the great care which these
birds take of their nurslings. The young Cow-bird,
like the young of the European cuckoo, is always found
alone in the nest of its foster parents, and probably
resorts to the same means of getting rid of the rightful
tenants of the nest that is adopted by the cuckoo, as it
is found, that when the egg of the parasite is deposited
in the nest before those of the owner, the latter deserts
its nest, and thus the object of the intruder is defeated.
It is a singular fact that the young of this bird, like that
of the cuckoo, seems to possess some power of attract-
ing to itself the affections of almost all other small birds,
as these cannot see it in a helpless state, and wanting
food, without immediately administering to its necessi-
ties. Wilson placed a young bird of this species in the
same cage with a cardinal grosbeak ; and the latter, as
soon as his companion began to be clamorous for food,
set to work to satisfy its appetite, and tended it like an
affectionate nurse. When he found that a grasshopper,
which he brought to his nursling, was too large for it
to swallow; he broke it into small pieces which he
passed through his bill to soften them, and then placed
in the expectant mouth of the little Cow-bird with the
greatest gentleness. The length of the Cow-pen Bird
is about seven inches. Its plumage is black, with a
greenish gloss ; the head and neck are of a deep silky
drab colour, and the breast violet. The female is of
a brown colour, paler below.
FAMILY IV.— FRINGILLID^.
The Finches, which form this family, present the
most decidedly conical form of bill occurring amongst
the Passeres. The bill is generally short and stout,
but tapering to a fine point, and the edges of the upper
mandible are destitute of the notches which occur near
its tip in many of the birds of the preceding families of
Conirostres. The tongue is rather fleshy, but horny
and usually slit at the tip. The feet are slender ; the
tarsi are generally covered in front with seven horny
plates, which, however, are sometimes amalgamated
into a single long shield ; and the toes are moderately
developed, and terminated with rather slender curved
claws. Amongst the vast number of birds belonging to
this group there is some difference in the development
of the wings, but these members are usually rather short.
The tail is composed of twelve feathers. The Finches
are all small birds, and exhibit much agility both in
hopping upon the ground or amongst the branches of
trees, and in flight. Their movement through the air
is generally performed in a series of undulations, the
bird rising by the action of its wings through a certain
space, then closing its wings and descending for some
distance. The food of the Finches consists principally
of seeds, for the consumption of which the form of the
bill is peculiarly adapted; they also pick up insects
and worms, especially during the breeding season.
Their adaptation to a diet of hard vegetable matters
is further shown by the structure of their digestive
organs, the oesophagus being dilated into a small crop,
in which the seeds are stored and partially softened,
and the stomach forming a powerful muscular gizzard
fitted for the comminution of the food.
THE CHAFFINCH (Fnngilla ccelebs} — Plate 13, fig.
44. — We commence with this well-known and hand-
some bird, as he is the type of the restricted genus
Fringilla, which, with Linna3us, included all the species
of the family known to him. The Chaffinch is generally
distributed and abundant in all parts of Britain, where
he is a permanent resident ; in the colder regions of
the north he is a migratory bird, passing southward at
the approach of winter to seek a more genial climate
for his residence during the cold season. At this time
a considerable number of Chaffinches visit our island.
Linnaeus states that in Sweden the female Chaffinches
migrate, but the males do not, and the specific name
(ccelebs, or the bachelor) given by him to this bird, is
an allusion to the lonely condition of these deserted
males ; it appears, however, that all the females do
not migrate southwards, although those that remain
seem to collect into distinct bands, and keep aloof from
the males ; this is the case also in the more northern
parts of our own country, and female Chaffinches are
more numerous in the south of England during the
winter than at other times.
The Chaffinch resides in orchards, plantations, and
hedgerows, and in the neighbourhood of these his
note may be heard at a very early period of the year.
It usually consists of a sharp repetition of a sound
resembling the syllable FinJ: or Pink ; from the former
of these words the word finch is derived. Notwith-
standing the imperfection of his musical powers, the
note of the Chaffinch is generally a welcome sound
from its association with the early spring, and the
gaiety and sprightliness of the bird render him an
almost universal favourite, except, perhaps, with some
gardeners, for whose early radish seed, sowed at a
period when food is probably rather scarce, he has so
strong a predilection, that he will be down upon the
bed almost as soon as the seed is covered in.
The nest is built in the fork of some bush or tree,
and is a neat structure, composed of moss, adorned
externally with fragments of lichens, and lined with
wool, hair, and feathers. The eggs are usually four or
five in number ; their colour is pale buff, streaked and
spotted with dark reddish-brown.
THE MOUNTAIN FINCH (Fringilla montifnngilla)
is a winter visitor to Britain, coming over in considerable
numbers from Sweden and Norway. It is an abundant
bird in the north of Europe in summer, and descends
in the autumn as far south as the Mediterranean in
quest of winter quarters ; it has also been met with
in Japan, and is probably an inhabitant of northern
Asia.
It is nearly an inch longer than the Chaffinch, and
is a handsome bird, having its plumage above mottled
with black, brown, and fawn colour, and its lower
surface white, with the exception of the throat and
upper part of the breast, which are fawn colour. In
this country the Mountain Finch frequents thick hedges,
358
PASSERES. BIRDS. FRINGILLIDJE.
from which habit it has probably obtained its name
of Brambling and Bramble Finch ; it is seen feeding
in stubble-fields in company with the Chaffinches,
Yellow Hammers, and other finches.
THE GOLDFINCH (Carduelis elegans), the most
beautiful of the British finches, and one of the most
elegant of British birds, is so well known as a cage-
favourite that any description of him is unnecessary.
He is found abundantly in most parts of Europe, dwell-
ing during the spring and summer principally in orchards
and gardens, but, during the autumn and winter, fre-
quenting the fields in large flocks to feed upon the ripe
seeds of thistles, dandelions, plantains, and other wild
plants. When thus engaged, the flock of bright-plum-
aged little birds presents a most pleasing spectacle ;
they may be seen clinging in every possible position to
the stems of the thistles, picking the feathered seeds
from their heads, or every now and then flitting from
one patch to another, with an elegant undulating flight,
accompanied by a continual twitter. The song of this
bird is very agreeable and often well sustained, fully
justifying the high estimation in which, notwithstand-
ing his abundance, he is held as a cage-bird. He is
also of a very familiar and docile disposition, soon
becoming attached to those who feed and take notice
of him, and readily learning to perform many little
tricks.
The nest of the Goldfinch is a very pretty cup-
shaped structure of moss, grass, fine roots, and twigs,
often intermixed with other suitable materials, and lined
with down, feathers, and hair. The female lays four
or five pale bluish eggs, marked with a few purple and
brown spots and lines.
THE SISKIN (Carduelis sjpinus), also called the
Aberdevine, is a winter visitor to this country, arriving
in considerable flocks from the high northern latitudes
of Europe in the autumn. It is more abundant in
the northern parts of Great Britain than in the south,
but a few specimens appear to remain occasionally
through the summer, and to breed even in the vicinity
of London. In the highlands of Scotland a few pairs
generally remain and breed. The male is rather more
than four inches and a half in length ; the top of his
head is black, his back is greenish-olive, with a few
longitudinal black streaks; the wing feathers are black,
tipped and bordered with yellow ; the tail is slightly
forked, yellow at the base, and black at the tip ; and
the whole lower surface is yellowish-green with numer-
ous black streaks, and the chin and throat black.
The female is rather smaller than the male, grayish-
olive above, and grayish-white beneath, streaked as in
the male with black. The Siskin feeds upon seeds of
different kinds, and has only a twittering note. It is,
however, often paired with the canary by bird-fanciers,
as the mules have a song which, unlike that of the
canary, is not too loud to be borne in a room.
THE YELLOW BIBD (Carduelis tristis), an inhabitant
of the United States, where it is also called the Gold-
finch, is a small species, measuring only four inches
and a half in length. The general colour of its plumage
is a rich brown-yellow, becoming white towards the
rump and vent ; its wings and tail and the fore part of
the head are black. This is the summer dress of the
male ; in the autumn his colour changes to a brownish-
olive, in which costume he closely resembles his partner.
The song of this bird resembles that of the European
Goldfinch, but is much weaker. Its food consists of
seeds, and like its European namesake, it is very
partial to those of the composite plants, which it picks
out of the heads whilst clinging to the plant in almost
any position. The nest is a neat structure, usually
placed amongst the twigs of an apple tree ; the female
lays five nearly white eggs, and usually rears two broods
in the season.
THE CANARY BIBD (Carduelis canaria). This
well-known bird, a native of the Canary Islands and
of Madeira, has long been introduced into Europe,
where it is now bred in captivity in great numbers,
on account of its great power of song. Our caged
canaries vary greatly in colour, some of them being of
a nearly pure bright yellow, with only a whitish tinge
on some parts of their plumage ; whilst others have
the wings and tail, or even the whole upper surface,
more or less tinted with olive-brown. In the wild birds
the brown colour predominates. In Madeira the
Canary, according to Dr. Heineken, builds in thick
bushes and trees, forming its nest of roots, moss,
feathers, and hair; it lays from four to six pale-blue
eggs, and breeds five or six times in the season. Even
in the wild state it is a delightful songster; having,
says Dr. Heineken, "much of the nightingale's and
skylark's, but none of the woodlark's song."
It is not our intention to describe the different
varieties of this admirable songster which have been
produced in the course of a domestication extending
now over more than three centuries. These will be
found fully treated of, with a full discussion of all their
qualities, in the works of the bird-fanciers, amongst
which Bechstein's " Chamber birds " holds a leading
place. The business of breeding canaries and mules,
or hybrids between the Canary and other Finches
(especially the Linnet and Goldfinch) is carried on to
a considerable extent, even in this country; but it is
in Germany that it attains to its highest development.
Here the birds are kept in large aviaries, and tended
with great care, and it is from Germany that by far
the greater portion of our best birds is derived.
THE LINNET (Linota cannaUna), another well-
known British Finch, is of a chestnut-brown colour
above, pale-brown beneath, with the quill feathers of
the wings and tail nearly black and edged with white ;
the male, during the spring and summer has the
crown of the head and the breast bright red. Its
total length is about five inches aud three quarters.
The female is a little smaller than the male, and has
the upper surface rather paler, but variegated with
patches of dark brown.
The Linnet is an abundant bird in the British
islands, and is found very commonly in all parts of
Europe, extending thence to the eastward as far as
Japan. It does not appear to migrate, but collects in
large flocks during the autumn and winter seasons.
During the breeding season, the Linnets frequent furze-
covered commons, and their nests are usually built in
the thickest part of a furze bush. It is composed of
small twigs and grass, and lined with wool, sometimes
THE REDPOLE. BIRDS. THE HOUSE SPARROW.
359
with the addition of hair or feathers. The eggs are
four or five in number, and the birds rear at least two
broods in the season. The Linnet feeds on seeds
of various kinds, especially those of cruciferous
plants; it is also partial to the seeds of flax, whence
probably its name is derived. It has an agreeable
song, for the sake of which it is very commonly kept
in captivity.
THE EEDPOLE (Linota linaria), which is nearly
allied to the Linnet, is to a certain extent a migratory
bird in this country ; for, although it is a permanent
resident in Scotland, and even in some of the northern
counties of England, by far the greater number of
those seen in Britain come to us in the autumn from
the more northern parts of Europe. It is a diminutive
bird, measuring little more than four inches in length ;
the general colour of its plumage is brown, palest be-
neath; the back is spotted with dark brown. The quill
feathers of the wings are nearly black, but edged with
pale brown ; the chin is black, and the flanks streaked
with dafk brown. The forehead is deep crimson, and
the breast of the male is strongly tinged with red.
This elegant little bird has a veiy wide geographical
range, extending apparently throughout the northern
parts of both hemispheres. It is found abundantly in
the arctic regions, and even visits the inhospitable
shores of Spitzbergen, near which several specimens
alighted on Captain Scoresby's ship. During its winter
residence in Britain the Redpole is seen in considerable
flocks frequenting woods and plantations, where it feeds
upon the seeds of various trees, especially the birch and
the alder. Its nest is built in a bush or low tree, and
is composed of moss, grass, and the down from the
catkins of the willow ; the latter substance also forms
the lining, and furnishes a soft and warm bed for the
eggs and young. It is a familiar and affectionate little
bird, and may be easily trained to perform a few tricks,
for which reason it is often kept in confinement, although
its song is merely a feeble twittering.
THE MEALY EEDPOLE (Linota canescens) is a larger
species than the preceding, which it closely resembles
in general appearance. It is found in the northern
parts of both hemispheres, migrating towards the south
for the winter; at which season it occurs, although
seldom in any abundance, in Britain.
THE MOUNTAIN LINNET (Linota montiuni) also
frequently called the Twite, is a common species in the
north of England and in Scotland, where it dwells
throughout the year and breeds, but makes its appear-
ance in our southern counties only during the winter.
It measures about five inches and a quarter in length,
the same as the Mealy Redpole, but is of a more slender
form, and furnished with a longer tail ; and it has no
red either on the head or the breast. This bird resides
upon hills and mountains, and builds amongst the
heath.
THE GREENFINCH (Chlorospiza C Moris) is one of
the commonest of British birds, and is a permanent
resident in the cultivated districts of our islands. It
occurs in most parts of the continent of Europe, and is
enumerated amongst the birds found by Kittlitz in the
island of Bonin, situated more than four hundred miles
to the east of Japan. It is distinguished from the pre-
ceding species by the stoutness of its short conical bill,
in which character it somewhat resembles the Gosbeaks.
The general colour of the plumage is yellow oryellowish,
becoming olive-green on the back ; the wing primaries
are grayish-black, with two-thirds of their outer edges
bright yellow; the tail-feathers are grayish -brown, with
the basal half of all, except the two middle ones, bright
yellow. The female is of a pale brown colour, more or
less tinged with yellow and green. The male is rather
more than six inches in length ; the female a little
The Greenfinch frequents gardens, orchards, and
woods, resorting in the winter to shrubberies and plan-
tations of evergreens for protection from the inclemency
of the weather. Its food consists of seeds of various
kinds. Its nest is built in a hedge or bush, rarely in a
tree, and composed externally of roots, moss, and wool,
lined with fine root-fibres, hair, and feathers.
THE HOUSE SPAEEOW (Passer domesticus). This
abundant and well-known British bird appears to be
generally distributed over the whole northern part of
the eastern hemisphere, and everywhere exhibits the
same fondness for the habitations of man, so that, as
Mr. Yarrell remarks, " from the thatch of the cottage
of the peasant to the elaborately ornamented architec-
ture of the palace of the prince, all buildings are alike
subject to its intrusion." The nest of this bird is in fact
built in any cranny that affords it a secure resting-place,
and in London, and other large cities, the architectural
ornaments of buildings are not unfrequently disfigured
by the protrusion of straws carried into some sheltered
nook by the sparrows. A curious example of this has
been furnished by the crocodile, which forms one of
the adornments of the pediment of the British Museum.
The sparrows, with a great contempt for the skill of the
sculptor, took it into their heads that the constantly
open mouth of this stone-monster would furnish an
excellent shelter for their nests, and accordingly carried
in such quantities of straw that it protruded freely from
between his teeth, as though he were engaged in the
consumption of this somewhat unnatural food. Some-
times, however, the sparrow builds in some tree in a gar-
den or orchard, composing its nest of hay and straw, and
furnishing it with a dome ; wherever the nest is made,
it is always lined with a profusion of feathers. Sparrows
usually rear three broods in the year, laying from four
to six eggs at each time. They feed their young with
great assiduity, principally upon caterpillars ; and if we
consider the number of those destructive insects which
must be destroyed by them in the course of each
summer, it will appear that they amply repay us for
any plunder that they may commit in the corn-field
and poultry yard. A singular and interesting instance
of the attachment of sparrows to their offspring is given
in the first volume of the " Zoological Journal," where
it is stated that a pan- of these birds, which had built
in the thatch of a house at Poole, being observed to
continue their visits to the nest, even until the winter
had set in, it was found on examination that one of
their young ones had been detained by a piece of
string, or worsted, accidentally twisted round its legs ;
as it was thus prevented from going abroad to seek
its own living, its parents had continued to feed it.
3GO
PASSERES.-
-BIRDS. FKIXGILI.II>.*.
THE TREE SPAEEOW (Passer montanus] is a smaller
bird than the house sparrow, to which it bears a con-
siderable resemblance, but is usually found at a dis-
tance from human habitations, building its nest in the
holes of trees, and similar situations, and also in the
deserted nests of magpies and crows. It has, however,
been known to breed in company with the house
sparrow in the thatch of a barn, or about other farm-
buildings. In its general habits this species resembles
its more familiar relative, but it is by no means an
abundant bird in England, especially in the southern
counties. It is found in the northern parts of the
European continent, and extends its range across
Asia to Japan.
THE AUADAVADE (Amadina Amandava), a native
of India, and other parts of tropical Asia, is a beautiful
little bird, measuring about four inches in length, of
which the rather long wedge-shaped tail makes up one
third. It has a bright red bill and red irides ; the lower
surface is red, and the upper brown, with numerous
pure white spots. It is a sociable little bird, and is
caught in great quantities and imported into Europe,
its lively habits rendering it an amusing cage-bird.
THE SPOTTED-SIDED FINCH (Amadina Lathamt),
which is generally distributed in the southern parts of
Australia, is of a brown colour above, with the top of
the head gray, and the rump and upper tail-coverts
scarlet. The lower surface is white, with a broad band
across the breast and the flanks deep black, each
feather of the latter having a large white spot at the
tip. The tail is black. The length of the bird is about
four inches and a half. The food of this Finch consists
principally of the seeds of grasses, which it seeks upon
the ground. It is remarkable for building its nest not
unfrequently among the large sticks forming the lower
portion of eagles' nests, even during the period when
the eagle is sitting ; and the little Finches may be seen
perched upon the small twigs close to their formidable
neighbour, who, however, does not appear to do them
any harm. At other times the nest is built on the
branch of a tree, when it is constructed of grasses, in
a nearly spherical form, with a short spout on one side
giving access to the interior.
THE GOULDIAN FINCH (Amadina Gouldue), one
of the most beautiful of the family of the Finches, is
worthily dedicated by Mr. Gould to the memory of his
wife, whose sympathy and aid had so much to do with
the success of his earlier works. In this charming
little bird the face and throat are black ; the back of
the head and neck are verdigris-green ; the whole upper
surface is yellowish-green, the lower surface rich yellow,
with a band of a beautiful shining lilac-purple colour
across the breast. The Gouldian Finch is a native of
North Australia. It is still rare in collections, and
nothing is known of its habits.
THE BEAUTIFUL GEASS-FINCH (Poephila mirabilis),
another North Australian species, is also a charming
little bird. It has the head and face carmine red, the
chin and throat black, and from the latter a narrow
black line is given off, which borders the red of the
back of the head. Behind this there is a narrow
collar of pale blue. The back and wings are green, the
rump and upper tail-coverts bright blue, the breast
lilac, and the belly yellow. The primary quills of the
wings and the central tail-feathers are blackish-brown.
Of the latter the two middle ones are very long, and
taper to a fine point. This last character occurs in the
other species of Po'ephila, of which several are found
in Australia.
THE FIRE-TAILED FINCH (Estrelda bella), an inha-
bitant of New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land,
is a pretty little species of an olive-brown colour above,
and gray beneath, marked all over, but especially on
the wings, tail, and lower surface, with transverse
black lines. The rump and the base of the tail-feathers
are scarlet ; the centre of the abdomen is black ; the
eyes are surrounded by a black circle, from which a
band runs to the base of the bill, and thence across the
forehead, and the bill is crimson. This bird is seen in
small parties both in the wooded gullies and in the
gardens of the settlers, with whom it is a favourite.
It feeds on the seeds of grasses and other plants which
it picks up on the ground. The nest is of large size
compared with its architect. It is domed, with an
opening on one side near the top. The bird is sociable
in its habits, several pairs usually building their nests
close together on the same tree.
THE EED-EAEED FINCH (Estrelda ocula), an abun-
dant species in Swan River, is nearly allied to the
preceding, from which, however, it is readily distin-
guished by a red spot behind each eye, and by its
having the feathers of the lower surface black, with a
large white spot at the tip of each, so that the abdomen
presents a sort of black reticulated pattern upon a white
ground. This bird inhabits swampy places, and feeds
upon seeds.
THE JAVA SPAEEOW (Oryzornis oryzivora), which
is well known as a cage-bird in this country, is a
native of Java and Malacca, and is about the size of our
Greenfinch, which it further resembles in the thickness
of its bright red bill. It has a black head, with an oval
white spot on each cheek ; the plumage of the back
and breast is of a fine bluish-gray, and that of the belly
pale rose colour. The primaries and tail-feathers are
black. In its native haunts it is said to be very
destructive to the rice plantations, and hence the nan.e
of RICE-BIRD is frequently given to it.
THE WHITE-THROATED SPAEEOW (Zonotrichia
albicollis), a native of the United States of North
America, measures about six inches and a half in
length, and has its plumage variegated with black, bay,
ash-colour, and light-brown above; white beneath,
with the breast ash-colour. The chin is white, and
the head exhibits three white stripes. This bird winters
in the southern states, where it haunts the rice fields,
and advances to the northward in the summer to breed.
THE SONG-SPAEEOW (Zonotrichia melodia], another
species nearly allied to the preceding, is only partially
migratory in the United States, where it is a very
common bird. Its song, which commences very earlv
in the year, and is often continued throughout the
whole summer and autumn, is described as very sweet
although short, resembling the beginning of the
Canary's song, frequently repeated. Its plumage is
variegated with black, brown, and yellow above ; the
breast is marked with elongated pointed spots of dark
THE SEA-SIDE FINCH. BIRDS. THE REED BUNTING.
361
chestnut ; the belly is white. The length of the bird
is six inches and a half. The nest is built on the
ground under a tuft of grass ; it is composed of grass,
lined with horsehair, and contains four or five eggs.
THE SEA-SIDE FINCH (Ammodromus marititnus),
another North American species, is found upon the
low islands of the Atlantic coast of the States, running
about upon the shore between tide-marks to pick up
the minute marine animals and fragments of larger
ones, which constitute its entire sustenance. Its flesh,
as might be expected from this diet, has a fishy
taste. The colour of this bird is brownish-olive, with
the chin and belly white, and the breast ash colour
streaked with buff. Its length is rather more than six
inches.
THE INDIGO-BIRD (Spiza cyanea), is another migra-
tory inhabitant of the United States. Its plumage is
of a rich sky-blue colour, changing to bright green,
with the wings and tail black. Its length is about five
inches. Besides his beautiful plumage, the male Indigo-
bird possesses an animated song, which he pours forth
for several months during the spring and summer.
His favourite haunts are gardens, clover-fields, and the
borders of woods, where he is fond of perching on the
top of a high tree, and singing vigorously for half an
hour together ; but his nest is usually built in a low
bush, where it is attached to two twigs, one passing
up each side. The nest is composed externally of flax,
and lined with fine dry grass. The eggs are five in
number, and of a pale-blue colour, with a purple
blotch at the larger end.
THE PAINTED BUNTING (Spiza ciris], also called,
from the beauty of its plumage, the Nonpareil, is an
inhabitant of the southern states of the North Ameri-
can Union, where its gay dress, and the docility of its
manners, render it a great favourite. It is from five
inches and a half to three quarters in length; the
male has the head and neck rich purple; the back
yellow, tinged with green ; the wings dusky -red ; the
rump and tail-coverts red ; the tail purplish-brown or
green; and the whole lower surface vermilion-red. The
female is smaller than her partner, greenish-olive
above and yellow below. The food of the Painted
Bunting consists of seeds and insects, in search of
which it frequents gardens, orchards, and rice-fields ;
its nest is generally built in a garden, often close to
the house, composed of grass and lined with hair and
fine roots. The male has an agreeable song.
THE COMMON BUNTING (Emberiza miliarid).—
The name of Buntings is given to a considerable group
of Finches, which indicate an approach to the Larks
in some of their characters ; they are distinguished by
the presence of a peculiar knob in the palate, which is
of service to the birds in breaking up the hard seeds
constituting the greater portion of their nourishment.
The Common Bunting of this country is abundant
in most of our cultivated districts, where it frequents
corn-fields, and may often be seen perched on the
sprays of the hedges, and uttering its somewhat harsh
notes. Its nest is built at the bottom of the hedge
under the protection of the brambles which usually
flourish in such situations ; it is composed of straw,
grass, and roots, and lined with hah-. The eggs are
VOL. I.
four or five in number, and of a pale reddish or purplish
colour, with purplish-brown streaks and spots. During
the breeding season, the Buntings live in pairs, but in
the autumn they become gregarious, and during the
winter associate in considerable flocks, with which
chaffinches and several other kinds of small birds are
often mixed. They frequently roost on the ground
like the skylarks, and are caught with them in nets
and brought to market for the table. The Bunting is
a well-known bird in all parts of Europe. Its length
is rather more than seven inches. It is of a pale-
brown colour above, with longitudinal dark brown
streaks ; the quill feathers of the wings and tail are
dark-brown with pale edges ; and the lower surface is
brownish-white, with numerous spots and lines of dark
brown on the breast and flanks.
THE EEED BUNTING (Emberiza Schceniclus), an-
other British species, is easily distinguished by the
deep-black colour of its head, chin, and throat ; the
feathers of the back are black, with reddish margins,
and those of the lower surface white ; a white collar
passes round the back of the neck, and unites on each
side with a white streak descending from the angle of
the gape. Its length is about six inches. This bird,
which is generally distributed in Europe, is a summer
visitor to the more northern countries; it frequents
marshy places, where it dwells and builds its nest
amongst the reeds, rushes, and osiers.
THE YELLOW BUNTING (Emberiza Citrinelld),
commonly known as the YELLOW HAMMER, is also a
common British bird, and occurs, like the preceding,
in all parts of Europe. It measures seven inches in
length, and has the head and neck, and the whole
lower surface of the body bright lemon-yellow ; the
back, wings, and tail exhibit various shades of brown
and black, with the feathers sometimes edged with
yellow. This bird builds its nest upon or near the
ground, usually under the shelter of some thick bush,
composing it of moss, roots, and hair, very firmly
interwoven. In the winter it is gregarious, and associ-
ates with other small birds, and hi Italy it is caught in
great numbers, like the following species, and fattened
for the table.
THE OE1QLAX (Emberiza ffortulana)— Plate 13, fig.
45 — a rare and occasional' visitor to this country, is
very abundant in the south of Europe, where, as just
stated, it is in great esteem as a delicacy for the table.
The Ortolans are taken in great numbers in nets, kept
in a dark room, and fed with an abundance of oats and
millet, upon which diet they soon become excessively
fat. This bird is about six inches in length, and of
a deep reddish-brown colour above, with the head
greenish-gray ; the lower surface is reddish-buff, with
the throat and breast yellowish-green.
THE CtBL BUNTING (Emberiza Cirlm}, another
rare visitor to Britain, is usually seen only on the south
coast, where, however, it not unfrequently breeds. It
is a common species in the south of Europe. The
plumage is of an ashy oh've colour, with longitudinal
black streaks; there is a yellow streak above, and
another below each eye, separated by a black line
passing through the eye; the back is reddish, the
throat black, and the lower part of the neck and belly
2 Z
362
PASSEKE>.— BIRDS. FRIXG!LLID,E.
yellow. The length of this bird is about six inches
and a half.
THE BLACK-THEOATED BUNTING (Euspiza ameri-
cana), a migratory species in the United States, has
a considerable resemblance to the European yellow
hammer, both in form and habits. It is six inches
and a half in length, and has the head greenish-yellow,
the back, rump, and tail rusty-red, partly streaked
with black, and the lower surface dull-white, with a
large, somewhat cordate, black patch on the throat.
This bird frequents grass and clover fields, always
building its nest on the ground, which is composed of
dried grasses.
THE RICE-BUNTING (Dolichonyx oryzivorus) is also
a summer visitor to North America, where it is very
abundant. During the breeding season these birds
are dispersed all over the country, feeding to a great
extent upon insects and the seeds of various wild
plants, but also occasionally attacking the young ears
of wheat, barley, and Indian corn. When the young
are able to fly, however, they descend in vast flocks
upon the corn-fields, apparently giving the preference
to oats, of which they consume great quantities, but in
return, according to Wilson, often supply the farmer's
table with a very delicious dish.
The Rice-bunting is seven inches and a half in
length, and the male is of a black colour, with the back
of the head cream-colour, and the lower part of the
back, the rump, and scapulars white. The female is
brownish-yellow, streaked with brownish-black on the
back ; and the male assumes a similar dress when the
breeding season is over. The nest is built on the
ground, of dry leaves and grass, and the female usually
lays five eggs. While she is sitting, the male is very
gay and active, and emits a singular biit not disagree-
THE SNOW-BUNTING (Plectropkanes nivalis). — The
two species of Buntings to which we have now to refer
— namely, the Snow-bunting and the Lapland Bunting
— resemble the larks in the great length of the hinder
claw, but have stout conical bills, like the preceding
species. The Snow-bunting is a winter visitor to
Britain, its summer place of abode being the extreme
northern parts of both hemispheres, where it breeds
and rears its young. It measures about seven inches
in length, and has the top of the head reddish-brown ;
the back variegated with black and brown; the primary
and secondary quill-feathers black, with narrow white
edges ; the wing-coverts and tertials white, the middle
tail-feathers black edged with white, the three outer
ones on each side white, bordered at the apex with
black; and the lower surface white with a reddish-
brown tinge on the breast and flanks. In summer the
head becomes white, the back black, and the breast
loses its reddish tint. This is the state properly called
the Snow-bunting or Snow-flake ; in other conditions
of plumage, the birds are known as Tawny Buntings
and Mountain Buntings.
In this country the young birds are the first to make
their appearance, accompanied by females ; the adult
males come rather later. The birds are more abundant
in the northern and mountainous parts of the country
than in the south ; they frequent elevated pastures
throughout the winter, but descend in very severe
weather to the oat-stubbles ; or, if the snow lies deep,
even to the sea-coast. They run readily upon the
ground like the larks, and seldom perch. They breed
among the rocks of the most northern islands, making
a nest of dry grass lined with deer's hair and feathers ;
the young are fed upon insects and grubs. The food
of the parent birds consists principally of seeds of
various kinds and buds.
THE LAPLAND BUNTING (Plectrophanes lapponica)
is a smaller bird than the preceding, measuring only
six inches and a quarter in length. The male has the
head, face, throat, and breast deep black ; the nape of
the neck bright chestnut; the feathers of the back,
wings, and tail dark brown, with reddish-brown edges ;
and the lower surface white, extending up the sides of
the neck to the back of the head, whence a narrow
white streak is continued over each eye. The white
sides of the breast and" abdomen are spotted with black.
The female has the black plumage of the head and
breast edged with pale brown and gray, and the chest-
nut feathers of the neck with white.
This bird agrees with the Snow-bunting in its wide
distribution over the arctic regions, but is a far rarer
visitor to this country, only a few specimens having
been taken at various times in the lark nets. It breeds
amongst moss and stones in the moist meadows bor-
dering the arctic shores, composing its nest of dry grass
and lining it with deer's hair.
THE SKYLAEK (Alauda arvensis)— Plate 13, fig.
46. — This well-known and favourite British bird is an
inhabitant not only of all parts of Europe, but also of
Northern Asia, descending as far to the southward as
the borders of India. It dwells commonly in cultivated
districts, where it roosts and builds its nest on the
ground, usually in corn-fields. Few, if any, of our
British birds possess a more cheerful and animated
song than the Skylark, whose joyous notes, heard as
the bird soars perpendicularly in the air, have frequently
afforded a theme for the poet; indeed the power of
his song is most extraordinary, as it may be distin-
guished long after the little body from which it issues
is lost to sight, and when we may, with little help from
imagination, believe him, as Shakspeare has it, to be
singing at " heaven's gate." In a wild state the lark
seldom sings but when on the wing, and even in con-
finement he flutters his wrings and presses against the
wires of his cage, as if he would fain be soaring in the
air. His song lasts for about eight months in the
year ; and during the summer he will sing the whole
day through, from the very first appearance of dawn
until after sunset ; he also appears to be a long-lived
bird, for Mr. Yarrell mentions an instance of one that
lived nineteen years and a half in a cage.
The Skylark feeds upon seeds of various kinds,
insects, and worms. Its nest is built upon the ground,
under a clod of earth or tuft of herbage, in a corn-field
or meadow. The materials of the nest are grasses of
various thickness, and other vegetable fibres. The
eggs are four or five in number, of a grayish-white
colour with a greenish tint, mottled with dark-gray
and brown ; the bird generally rears two broods in a
During winter the Skylarks assemble in
THE SKYLARK. BIRDS. THE WOODLARK.
363
great flocks, which may be seen sweeping over the
fields, descending into the stubbles in search of food,
and sometimes attacking the fields which have been
sown with wheat. It would appear that at this season
our British larks are reinforced by a considerable
migration from the northern parts of Europe, and when
the season is severe, many of those inhabiting Scotland
pay a visit to the more southern parts of the kingdom.
As they become fat during winter, unless the ground
is thickly covered with snow so as to prevent their
getting a sufficient supply of food, they are at this time
regarded as a delicacy for the table, and are taken in
great quantities at night, by dragging a net over the
stubble-fields in which they generally roost.
In common with the other larks the Skylark has the
hinder claw very long— fig. 117 — the bill rather slender,
Fig. 117.
Foot of Skylark (Alauda arvensis).
and the tertial quills greatly developed, reaching, in
fact, nearly to the apex of the wing when closed. In
this last character they closely resemble the wagtails
and pipits, the latter of which further agree with them
in the elongation of the hinder claw, and in general
appearance, as indicated in the names of titlark, pipit-
lark, and tree-lark sometimes applied to some of them.
Thus, we may regard the larks as constituting a point
of junction between the great families of the finches and
warblers, and of course, also between the Dentirostral
and Conirostral groups of Passerine birds. The feathers
of the back of the skylark are dark-brown, with pale-
brown edges ; those of the top of the head are slightly
elongated, forming an erectile crest; the throat and
breast are pale-brown with dark-brown spots, and
the remainder of the lower surface is yellowish-white.
The male measures seven inches and a quarter in
length ; the female is a little smaller, and rather darker
in colour.
THE CRESTED LARK (.4 lauda cristata) has a stronger
and more curved bill than the Skylark, and is of a
brown colour above, and pale yellowish-brown beneath,
with the chin white, and the breast streaked with dark
brown. The crown of the head is reddish-brown, and
a few of the feathers are considerably elongated, form-
ing a pointed crest. The length of this bird is six
inches and three quarters. It is an inhabitant of most
parts of the continent of Europe, but is rarely met with
in Britain ; its range also extends over the greater part
of Northern Asia. In its general habits it resem-
bles the Skylark, and it has a sweet and agreeable
song.
THE WOODLARK (Alauda arborea) is distinguished
from the Skylark by its smaller size, its length being
only six inches, by its shorter tail, and by a streak of
light brown, which passes over each eye. It is met
with in cultivated districts, where there are numerous
tall hedges, woods, and plantations, as, unlike the Sky-
lark, it perches freely on the branches of trees. Its
song is inferior to that of the Skylark in variety and
power, but superior to it in sweotness; and it is emitted
by the bird both when on the wing and when perching.
Its nest is built on the ground. The Woodlark is not
a very abundant bird in Britain, and is rather local
in its distribution, and more plentiful in the southern
counties. It is a permanent resident in Southern
and Central Europe, and a summer visitor to Sweden,
Denmark, and Russia.
THE SHORT-TOED LARK (Alauda Calandrella) is a
rather smaller bird than the Woodlark, and is readily
distinguished from any of the preceding species by
the shortness of its toes, and especially of the hinder
claw, which scarcely exhibits any of the disproportion
characteristic of the larks in general. It is yellowish-
brown above, with the centre of each feather darker ;
and white beneath. A single specimen has been taken
in this country ; but the true home of the species is in
the southern and eastern parts of Europe and throughout
Central Asia; it visits India during the cold season.
When in good condition, it is caught in great numbers
for the table hi India, where it is known to the Euro-
pean residents as the Ortolan.
THE SHORELARK (Otocoris alpestris) is a northern
species inhabiting the borders of the arctic seas hi
both hemispheres, and only descending into the more
temperate regions in the winter. It is a rare occa-
sional visitor to Britain. The Shorelark is about
seven inches in length, and has the back brown, and
the lower surface white; the forehead, chin, and
throat are yellow ; above the forehead is a black band,
terminating on each side in a few elongated feathers
which the bird has the power of raising in the form
of a pair of pointed ears ; the cheeks and a broad
crescent-shaped band on the breast are black. This
bird is most abundant in the fur-countries of North
America, where it is seen in considerable flocks. Its
nest is made amongst the moss and lichens growing
on the rocks ; and the bird sits so closely, and is so
completely concealed by the similarity of its colouring
to that of the surrounding objects, that a heedless
passenger might almost tread upon it; but when any
danger becomes imminent, it will flutter away as if
lamed, so as to entice the intruder from the nest.
THE GINGI LARK (Pyrrlmlauda grisea), a common
species in all parts of India, resembles the Skylark
in many of its habits, especially in frequenting and
breeding in open cultivated grounds, and rarely, if
ever, perching on trees. It .is remarkable for the
sudden ascents and descents which it performs in the
air— rising to some height by a few flappings of its
wings, then descending again almost perpendicularly,
till it nearly touches the ground, and repeating this
movement several times in succession. Its nest is
built on the ground, usually in a small hollow. It
is a small species, measuring only four and a half
364
PASSERES. BIRDS. fxotatLUDM.
inclies in length ; it is of a grayish-brown colour above,
and black beneath. It has a rather short, stout, and
conical bill, and the hind claw is shorter than iu the
typical Larks.
SMITH'S FINCH-LARK (Pyrrhulauda austrcdis) is
an abundant species in the plains of Southern Africa,
especially about the Orange River, where it flies in
large bands. It has the head and all the lower surface
black ; the back reddish-brown, streaked with dark-
brown ; the wing-feathers bordered with red ; the tail
black, except the two middle feathers, which are brown ;
and the bill white. It is six inches in length.
THE CAPE SAND-LARK (Certhilauda africana] is
an abundant bird upon the sandy districts bordering
some of the bays of the Cape of Good Hope, where it
perches upon the summit of a sand-hill, and emits a cry
resembling the syllables sirli — the first much prolonged,
which may be heard at a great distance. In its general
habits this bird resembles our common lark, passing
most of its time upon the ground, running about and
picking up small seeds and insects. The female de-
posits her eggs upon the ground in a small hollow
which she scratches at the foot of a shrub, and lines
with a little dried herbage and a few feathers. This
species is about eight inches in length, and is of a
brown colour above, variegated with rusty-red and
white ; the lower surface is white, spotted with brown.
THE BULLFINCH (Pyrrhula vulgaris). — Our Com-
mon Bullfinch is the type of a group of Finches charac-
terized by the short, stout, and somewhat compressed
form of their bills, of which the ridge of the upper
mandible is convex. It is an abundant species in
most parts of this country, frequenting wooded and culti-
vated districts, and often exhibiting a great partiality
for gardens and orchards. The Bullfinch is also a
well-known bird all over Europe, and is included
in the list of the birds of Japan. The male has the
bill, the head and chin, and the quill-feathers black ;
the greater wing-coverts black, with their tips white,
forming a band across the wing ; the whole of the
back bluish-gray, and the rump white. The lower part
of the body is of a fine rich red colour. In the female
the gray of the back is tinged with brown, and the red
of the lower surface has a brownish-purple tint. The
length of the bird is about six inches.
The food of the Bullfinch consists principally of
vegetable substances, and during the early spring it
is especially destructive to the buds of fruit-trees,
exhibiting a decided and very provoking preference for
the flower-buds. Hence, whenever it occurs in any
abundance, it is regarded as an enemy by the gardener,
and if left unmolested would often destroy all chance
of fruit for the year. In the winter it feeds on the
fruits ot the wild rose and hawthorn, and on other
fruits and seeds. The nest is not built until the begin-
ning of May ; it is usually placed in a thick bush or on
the branch of a fir-tree in a secluded situation, and is
composed of small twigs, lined with fine root-fibres.
The female lays four or five eggs of a pale-blue colour,
spotted and streaked with gray and purple. The
ordinary notes of the Bullfinch are not musical, but the
birds possess a remarkable talent for imitation, and
when taken young may be taught to whistle many
tunes with considerable accuracy. Their musical
instruction is generally communicated by means of a
bird-organ, and requires considerable time and care, as
the birds must be in the habit of hearing the tunes
that they are to learn constantly repeated for many
months, in order that they may acquire them perfectly ;
and at the same time, when they begin to exert
their own musical powers, they must be kept from
hearing other birds, and assisted in their recollection,
lest they should mix two airs together, or transpose the
passages in any way. Hence a good piping Bullfinch
necessarily fetches a high price. Great numbers of them
are trained in Germany and imported into London
every year.
THE PURPLE BULLFINCH ( Carpodacus purpureus)
is of a deep-crimson colour, with the wings and tail
black, and the belly white. The female is of a brown-
ish-olive, streaked with black above, and with white on
the head, and whitish below. The length of the bird
is about six inches. This Finch is a native of the
most northern parts of America, whence it migrates
southwards into the more genial climate of the United
States in the autumn. It feeds upon the buds of trees
and berries.
THE FINE GROSBEAK (Pinicola enucleator) — Plate
14, fig. 47 — another northern species, is found in both
hemispheres dwelling amongst the pine forests, and
feeding, like the preceding species, upon fruits, seeds,
and the buds of trees. It is a very rare occasional
visitor to Britain. The length of this bird is about
eight inches, and the plumage of its upper surface
exhibits a mixture of grayish- black and red — the dark
colour occupying the middle of each feather, and the red
the border. The wing- coverts are edged and tipped
with white ; the throat and breast are bright-red, and
the abdomen gray. The Pine Grosbeak builds its nest
on a low branch of a tree, composing it of small sticks
and twigs, and lining it with feathers. The male has
a pleasant song, and, when kept in confinement, has
been known to recommence singing in the evening on
the room being lighted up.
THE GREENISH GROSBEAK (Spermophila falci-
rostra} is an example of a genus, including a great
number of South American species nearly allied to the
bullfinch, and characterized by the great height of the
bill, which has its upper ridge much curved. The
present species has the plumage greenish, darkest on
the back ; the wings are brown, and the lower tail-
coverts yellow. It is an inhabitant of Brazil, and
dwells usually in the vicinity of human habitations,
building a somewhat rude nest in the thickets, and
feeding principally upon fruits.
THE CROSSBILL (Loxia curvirostra) — Plate 14, fig.
48. — This curious bird, which is an inhabitant of the
pine forests of the northern parts of both hemispheres,
and visits this country at irregular intervals in the
autumn and winter, is remarkable for the structure of
its bill, which, instead of being a simple cone like that
of the finches in general, has both its mandibles curved
in such a manner that they actually cross each other
near the apex, and the whole bill has a peculiarly
twisted appearance. This somewhat anomalous form
of the bill, so different from anything we ordinarily
THE CROSSBILI
-BIRDS. THE SCARLET TANAGER.
365
meet with in birds, led some of the older naturalists
into curious errors, Buffon, especially, venturing so far
as to see in it a defect or mistake on the part of nature,
which in reality existed only in his own imagination.
He inferred, from the position of the mandibles, that
the bird could never bring their points into contact so
Fig. 118.
Head of Crossbill (Loxia curvirostra).
as to pick up seeds, and therefore, that it was compelled
to take up all its food at the side of the bill. In this,
as in so many other cases, the researches of subsequent
naturalists have shown that the great French writer
was rather too hasty in accusing nature of error, and that
the beak of the Crossbill is really as perfectly adapted
to its wants as that of any other bird— fig. 118 — a
great portion of its food consists of the seeds of the
pines and firs, amongst which it dwells, and, in order
to get at these, it has to wrench asunder the hard scales
of the cones in which the seeds are concealed. For
this purpose it insinuates the point of its bill between
the scales, and then, by a powerful twisting motion,
tears them asunder ; the seed is then exposed, and the
bird, in spite of Buffon, brings the tips of its mandibles
together, picks out the seed, and eats it in the ordinary
way. It is, of course, by the movement of the lower
jaw that this effect is produced ; and Mr. Yarrell, who
has given a long description of its mechanism, states
that the lower mandible of a specimen examined by
him was capable of moving to a distance of three-
eighths of an inch from the upper mandible, on the side
upon which it lay in repose, although it could not be
carried further in the opposite direction than so as to
bring the two points into contact. The muscles of the
lower jaw, on the side towards which it moves, are far
stronger than those of the other side ; and so great is
force exerted by the bird, that Townson, who was one
of the first to contravene Buffon's assertions, states that,
on giving almonds in the shell to some specimens in
his possession, they readily got at the kernels by first
picking a small hole in the shell, and then wrenching
off pieces with the lower mandible. The seeds of fir-
cones are not, however, the only food of this bird, for
it appears to have a liking for seeds of all kinds, and
in this country, where it has made its appearance in
autumn in considerable numbers, it has occasioned
great destruction among the apples, which it splits
with a single stroke of its bill, merely for the purpose
of getting at the seeds.
Sometimes, although rarely, the Crossbill has been
known to breed in this country, its true European home,
as already stated, being in the vast pine forests of
Germany and the northern parts of the continent. The
nest is built among the branches of the pine trees, and
composed of grasses, with a few twigs on the outside,
and a lining of fine grass and hair within. The young
birds in the nest do not present the peculiar crossing
of the mandibles characteristic of the adult, this being
unnecessary to them as long as they are supplied with
food by their parents.
The general appearance of the Common Crossbill is
shown in our figure above cited. Its length is about
seven inches. In confinement it is very parrot-like in
many of its actions, frequently climbing about the
wires of its cage with the assistance of its hooked beak.
In Germany, where they are abundant, these birds
constitute a favourite article of food, and are regularly
exposed for sale in the markets, as larks are with us.
THE PARROT CROSSBILL (Loxia, PUyopsittacus) is
a rather larger species than the preceding, measuring
upwards of seven inches and a half in length, but in
most respects closely resembles the Common Crossbill.
It is an inhabitant of the European pine forests, and
has only occasionally been seen in this country. It
does not appear to occur in America.
THE WHITE-WINGED CROSSBILL (Loxia leucop-
tera), which is easily distinguished by the two white
bands crossing its blackish wings, is, like the Common
Crossbill, an inhabitant of the northern parts of both
hemispheres, but does not appear to be abundant any-
where. It has occasionally been killed in England.
The whole length of this bird is about six inches.
THE RAKA (Phytotoma Kara), a native of Chili, is
another of the large-billed Finches, but differs from all
the preceding species in having the margins of the
upper mandible finely toothed. It is a rather large
species in this family, being about the size of a quail ;
its plumage is dingy-gray on the back, and lighter -gray
on the lower surface. Its cry is rough, and resembles
the name Mara given to it by the inhabitants of Chili.
The food of this species consists of plants, and it has
the " bad habit," as Molina calls it, of cutting these off
close to the earth before eating them, so that, as it
frequently cuts down far more than it requires for
its consumption, it is regarded as an enemy by the
peasants, whose fields it invades. This habit is alluded
to in its scientific name, which signifies plant-cutter.
Two other species are known, both inhabitants of
South America.
THE SCARLET TANAGER (Pyranga rubra).— The
Tanagers form a very numerous group of the great
family of the Finches, considerably more than two
hundred species of them being already described. They
are all inhabitants of the warmer parts of America,
where many of them are amongst the most brilliant
ornaments of the forests. They are distinguished from
the other Finches by the presence of a notch or undu-
lation on each side of the upper mandible near the tip,
on which account several authors have placed them
amongst the Dentirostral birds in the vicinity of the
Ampelidae and Orioles ; but their true affinities seem to
be with the Grosbeaks, to which we shall next have
to allude.
366
-BIRDS. FRIXGILLIDJS.
The Scarlet Tanager is one of the few species which
visit the United States during the summer, when it
even advances as far to the north as Canada. The
male, which is about six inches and a half in length, is
of a most brilliant scarlet colour, with the wings and
tail black ; the female is green above and yellow be-
neath, with brownish -black wings and tail ; and the
male, when the breeding season is over, moults and
becomes partially of a greenish-yellow colour, so that
his plumage exhibits a mixture of greenish and scarlet
spots. This bird dwells in the depths of the woods
and forests, and rarely approaches the habitations of
man, except to visit the orchards in search of fruit,
which constitutes a considerable portion of its food;
the remainder consisting of insects of various kinds,
including wasps, hornets, and bees. Its nest is built
upon the horizontal branch of a tree, sometimes in an
orchard ; it is a slight structure, composed of dry grass
and flax stems. The ordinary note of the male is a
mere monotonous chirping, but occasionally he emits a
more musical chant.
THE SUMMER RED-BIRD (Pyranga cestiva\ another
visitor to the United States, is entirely of a brilliant
vermilion colour, with only the tips of the wings
brown; the female being of a brownish-olive colour
above and dull orange-yellow beneath. This bird is
rather more than seven inches in length. In its habits
it resembles the preceding species, dwelling principally
in the woods, and feeding during the early part of the
season upon insects, and subsequently upon berries and
fruits of various kinds. It prefers those woods which
contain pine trees, and is therefore more abundant
along the coast of the Atlantic than in the interior.
THE BLACK TANAGER (TachypJionus leucopterus),
an inhabitant of Guiana, is entirely of a deep black
colour, with the lesser wing-coverts white ; the female
is of a chestnut-red colour.
THE CRESTED TANAGER (TachypJionus cristatus)
is also black, with the lesser wing -coverts white ; but
it has the rump bright orange, and the flanks maroon,
whilst the head is adorned with a crest which exhibits
blue, red, and yellow colours. This species is likewise
an inhabitant of Guiana.
VIGORS' TANAGER (TachypJionus coryphceus), a
native of the southern provinces of Brazil, is of a fine
violet-black colour, with the scapulars white, and the
crest red.
THE JACAPA TANAGER (Tanagra jacapa), an in-
habitant of Brazil and Guiana, has the base of the
lower mandible during life of a beautiful silvery
whiteness;, the male is purplish-black, with the head,
throat, and breast brilliant purple ; the female is pur-
plish-brown above, and reddish beneath. The length
of this bird is six inches.
THE RED-CAPPED TANAGER (Tanagra gularis), an
inhabitant of Guiana, is black above, and white be-
neath ; the head is of a brilliant red colour, and the
throat blackish-purple.
THE SEVEN-COLOURED TANAGER (Tanagra Tatao],
a native of Guiana and Brazil, where it is found in
considerable troops in the vicinity of the great rivers,
has the plumage of the upper parts deep velvety-black,
with the head green, the rump orange-yellow, and the
lower part of the back fiery red ; the breast and greater
wing-coverts are violet-blue, and the belly is sea-green.
THE BANDED TANAGER (Calospiza vitta to) —Plate
13, fig. 43 — a native of Brazil, is of a deep violet-blue
colour above, with the rump, wings, and tail azure ; a
black band crosses the forehead and passes through
each eye ] the throat is yellowish-white, and the rest
of the lower part of the body bright red.
THE TRI-COLOURED TANAGER (Calospiza tricolor)
is of a blackish-brown colour above, with the margins
of the quill feathers bright green ; the nape and sides
of the neck are greenish golden-yellow, the smaller
wing-coverts violet-blue, and the breast and belly
bluish-green. This species inhabits Brazil.
THE ORANGE-BREASTED TANAGER ( Calosj)iza tho-
racica), which is also a native of Brazil, is remarkable
for the beauty of colouring of the male. The plumage
surrounding the base of the bill is velvet-black, the
forehead displays a band of azure blue, the throat and
breast are orange, with a velvet-black spot in the
centre ; the head and back are green, with spots and
streaks of black; the shoulders are orange, spotted
with black; and the belly is yellow, with the flanks
grass-green.
THE GREEN-MIRROR TANAGER (Nemosia flavicollis).
— In this beautiful bird, which is an inhabitant of
Guiana and Brazil, the upper surface is blackish-
brown, with the lower part of the back and the rump
yellow ; at the middle of each wing is a green mirror-
like spot ; the throat is golden-yellow ; and the belly
bright green.
THE ORGANIST TANAGER (Euphonia musica), a
native of several of the "West Indian Islands, and
especially of Porto Rico and St. Domingo, is a small
species, measuring only about four inches in length.
It has the upper surface brilliant violet-black, with the
top of the head and nape of the neck blue, and the
cheeks blue-black ; the forehead, rump, and lower part
of the body are orange-yellow. The female is olive-
green above, and greenish-yellow beneath. This bird,
with some of its nearest allies, is remarkable amongst
the Tanagers for its musical powers, for, although
its note cannot be regarded as fine when compared
with some of our best songsters, it has an agreeable
and varied song. It is also a familiar species, often
approaching the houses.
THE VIOLET TANAGER (Euphonia violacea), a
species nearly related to the preceding, is found com-
monly in Brazil and Paraguay, and also in most parts
of South America. It is of the same size as the
organist tanager, and, like it, has the upper surface
violet-black ; the forehead and breast are orange-yel-
low, and the belly yellow. There are numerous other
species of this and other genera of Tanagers, to which
our space will not permit us to allude.
THE HAWFINCH (Coccothraustes vulgaris) is the
only British species of another group of Finches, to
which the name of Grosbeaks is ordinarily applied, from
the great thickness of then: rather short conical bills.
The Hawfinch or Common Grosbeak is about seven
inches in length, has the top of the head, the nape of
the neck, the rump, and upper tail-coverts fawn
colour ; the back of the neck gray, the back chestnut-
THE HAWFISCH. BIUDS. THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK.
brown, and the lower surface pale nutmeg-brown ;
round the base of the bill there is a black line, from
which a patch extends on each side to the eye ; the
throat also presents a black patch; the wings are
black, with the larger wing-coverts white, and the
fifth and four following primaries exhibit a very pecu-
liar form, being notched at the tip on the inside, and
terminated on the outside with elongated and curved
barbs, which form a sort of hook. The tail feathers
are black at the base and white at the tip, except the
two middle ones, which are grayish-brown with white
apices.
The Hawfinch is found all over Europe, abundantly
in the southern and central parts of that continent, but
more rarely towards the north. In this country it is
pretty generally distributed, and remains with us
throughout the year; but, from its extreme shyness,
it is but seldom seen, and hence was long regarded
only as an occasional visitor to Britain. Its favourite
places of abode are the secluded parts of our woods
and forests, where it feeds on seeds and berries, occa-
sionally during the summer making a descent upon
the gardens in the vicinity, to devour green peas, of
which it appears to be very fond. In Epping Forest,
according to Mr. H. Doubleday, the principal food of
the Hawfinch is the seeds of the hornbeam. The nest
of this bird is built sometimes in a bush, and some-
times amongst the branches of a tree ; it is composed
of twigs, intermixed with a larger or smaller quantity of
fragments of gray lichen ; the latter is never wanting,
and sometimes constitutes the greater part of the nest.
The materials are loosely put together, and the cavity
is lined with fine roots and hair. The eggs are from
four to six in number, of a pale olive colour, spotted
with black, and streaked with gray. The only other
known species of the genus Coccothraustes is the
JAPANESE GROSBEAK (C.japonicus).
THE BLUE GROSBEAK (Guiraca cteruleci), a native
of the southern United States of North America, resem-
bles our British species in its shy and retiring habits.
It is of a rich purplish-blue colour above, with the
wings and tail black. Its length is about six inches.
THE AZURE GROSBEAK ( Guiraca cyanea), an inhab-
itant of Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, is of a sky-blue
colour, with the cheeks black, and the wings blackish ;
the tail feathers are black, with the margins blue. The
length of this bird is also about six iuches.
THE ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK (Guiraca ludo-
viciana), a native of the United States, measures
upwards of eight inches in length, and is of a black
colour, with white spots on the wings, and white tips
to several of the tail feathers ; the lower part of the
breast and the middle of the belly are rose' colour.
This handsome bird appears to be rather rare in the
United States. Wilson states that it is observed in New
York and New England, especially in the autumn,
when it feeds on the seeds of the ripe berries of the
sour gum. Its song is said to be mellow and clear.
THE CARDINAL GROSBEAK (Cardinalis virginiana),
another North American species, receives his name
from the general red colour of his plumage. He is
dusky red above and bright vermilion beneath ; a
black baud surrounds the base of his bill, his head is
adorned with a large pointed crest, which he can ele-
vate at pleasure, and his very strong bill is of a bright
coral-red colour. The whole length of the male bird
is eight inches. The female is a little smaller than
her partner, and has the upper part brownish-olive,
with the tail, wings, and tip of the crest red ; the lower
surface in this sex is reddish-drab.
The male Cardinal Grosbeak is a beautiful songster,
and is often kept in cages in the United States, where
his notes are so much admired that he is often called
the Virginia Nightingale. The female is also said to
possess a song but little inferior to that of her mate.
The males, when confined together, fight violently, and
Wilson says that the male will often destroy the female
when both are kept in the same cage. This bird feeds
on grain and seeds of various kinds, and exhibits a
great partiality for maize. Its nest is usually placed
in a bush, and composed of small twigs, dried herbage,
and strips of bark, lined with fine grass.
THE THICK-BILLED GROUND-FINCH (Geospiza
magnirostris). — Several peculiar species of birds, most
nearly allied to the preceding, are found in the Gala-
pagos islands, forming four genera, which have no
representatives in other parts of the world. Of these
the most remarkable are the Ground-finches, stoutly
built birds with very powerful bills, of which the base
of the upper mandible advances considerably upon the
forehead. These birds feed in flocks upon the ground,
usually in the dry and rocky districts near the coast,
where, by scratching in the cindery soil with their
powerful bills and claws, they obtain the seeds of grasses
and other plants, which form an evanescent vegetation
upon those desert shores during the rainy season.
There are eight known species of this genus.
THE CLIMBING CACTUS BIRD (Cactornis scandens).
— This bird resembles the preceding in its general
structure, but possesses a much longer bill, very like
that of the North American crow blackbirds in its
form. It measures about five inches in length, and
the male is of a sooty black colour, whilst the female
is brown and spotted with white, especially on the
lower surface. This bird is found principally about
a peculiar species of cactus (Opuntia Galapageia),
which grows abundantly upon the islands of the Gala-
pagos group. Upon these plants the birds climb in
every possible position, feeding both upon the fruit and
flowers. They also not unfrequently descend to the
ground in search of seeds, which they obtain in the
same way as the ground-finches. Two other species
of this genus have been described.
The habits of the two nearly allied genera (Cama-
rhynchus and Certhidea) are not known ; the former
has a short and thick bill, like Geospiza ; the latter
has a slender bill, and presents a considerable resem-
blance to a Creeper (Cert/tia).
THE PHILIPPINE WEAVER-BIRD (Ploceus philip-
pinus). — Several species of the Grosbeaks build a
curious pensile nest, composed of the stalks of grasses
very neatly and closely interwoven; but the most
elegant structures of this kind are the nests made by
some nearly allied Finches, to which, on this account,
the name of Weaver-bird has been applied. They
inhabit the warmer pails of the Eastern hemisphere,
368
PASSEBES. BIRDS. FRIXGILLID.E.
and one of the oldest known species is the Philippine
Weaver-bird, a native of the Philippine Islands, as
implied in its name, and also apparently identical with
the species known as the Baya in India.
The Philippine Weaver-bird is a small species, less
than six inches in length, of a brown colour above, and
yellowish-white beneath, with the crown of the head,
the neck, and the breast yellow. It is described as
suspending its nest by a cord of considerable length
from the branch of a tree, so as to be inaccessible to
snakes and monkeys; the nest is said to contain a
chamber for the male and another for the female, the
former being situated close to the opening at the bottom
of the nest, through which the birds obtain access to
their snug apartments ; here the male stations himself
to watch over the safety of his family, and the natives
believe that he attaches to the wall of his chamber a
patch of soft clay, to which he fastens a fibre-fly to serve
as a night-light
The Baya of India, which, if not identical with, is
very nearly allied to the Philippine species, is better
known, and, from the observations of the European
residents in India, we can obtain more accurate infor-
mation as to its proceedings. The nest of this species
is usually suspended from the tips of the leaves of
the fan-palm, where they are perfectly secure from all
plunderers, but sometimes from the babul, a species of
Mimosa, whose formidable thorns suffice to keep all
intruders at a distance. It is composed of a mass of
dried grass, closely interwoven, and looking externally
like a gradually enlarging purse, of thirteen or fourteen
inches in length, and about seven inches in diameter
at the lowest part, where the true nest is situated.
This consists only of a single chamber, the opening of
which is at one side, access to it being obtained by
means of a cylindrical passage hanging down from the
bottom of the nest. The male has a separate, but less
perfect nest of his own, and in this Mr. Layard always
found two small masses of clay, attached one on each
side of the perch occupied by the bird ; the Cingalese
asserted that these were for the reception of the fire-
flies which they believe the male bird takes into his
abode at the approach of night, but Mr. Layard was
unable to ascertain anything about their use.
THE MADAGASCAR WEAVER-BIRD (Pfcc<^^7m7is),
called the Neli-courvi by Sonnerat, is of the size of
our common sparrow, and of a green colour, with the
head and throat yellow, the belly gray, the vent red,
and the quill-feathers black. This bird builds its nest
usually at the extremity of the leaves of a tree on the
bank of a rivulet, composing it of straws and rushes,
neatly interwoven into the form of a pouch, from one
side of which there hangs a long cylindrical tube, serv-
ing as a passage to the nest, the opening being, as
usual, at the bottom. This bird has the curious habit
of returning year after year to the same spot and build-
ing a new nest attached to the bottom of the old one,
so that as many as five nests may be seen thus placed
one below the other. They are very sociable in their
habits, as many as five or six hundred nests being
sometimes suspended from a single tree.
THE ABYSSINIAN WEAVER-BIRD (Ploceus larvatus),
a rather larger species, is of a yellowish colour, with
the crown of the head, the throat and the breast black.
It builds a pyramidal nest suspended over the water
at the extremity of a small branch, and having the
opening on one side of the pyramid, usually turned
towards the east, the quarter from which the rain does
not come. The interior is divided into two chambers
by a partition; the innermost apartment is the true
nest.
THE REPUBLICAN GROSBEAK (Philceterus socius),
which is also a species of Weaver, is an inhabitant of
Southern Africa, where it lives in vast societies. It is
nearly six inches in length, and of a grayish-brown
colour, paler or yellowish beneath ; the face and throat
are black, and there are numerous black spots on the
flanks. These birds construct an enormous assemblage
of nests under a common roof, placed amongst the
branches of a tree ; the roof is formed of a vast mass
of herbage closely interwoven, so as to throw off the
heaviest rain, and the separate nests or chambers
occupied by the birds are appended to the lower sur-
face and sides of the general mass, which are perforated
all over with the small apertures through which the
birds obtain access to their dwellings. It is said that
the birds construct new chambers every year, so that
the mass of materials is constantly increasing, and
sometimes becomes so great as to cause the destruction
of the tree. A large nest examined by Le Vaillant
contained three hundred and twenty inhabited cham-
bers. The same writer states that these birds do not
pair, but that each male has several wives, each of
which, in accordance with the ordinary custom of
societies where polygamy is practised, has a separate
residence of her own.
THE RED-BILLED TEXTOR (Textor erythrorhynchus),
another South African species, nearly allied to the pre-
ceding, is nearly twelve inches in length, and is entirely
of a black colour, with the bill coral- red, and the
margins of the wing feathers white. It is remarkable,
from its being found always about the buffaloes, feed-
ing upon the numerous parasitic insects with which
those unwieldy beasts are constantly infested. It also
acts the part of a sentinel to the buffaloes ; for, on the
approach of any suspicious object, the Textor will
suddenly fly up, and thus give timely notice to their
quadruped friends of the vicinity of danger.
THE DIOCH (Quelea sanyuinirostris), which appeal's
to inhabit most parts of Africa, is a small bird, less
than five inches in length ; its plumage on the upper
surface is variegated with black and brown, the former
occupying the middle, and the latter the margins of the
feathers ; the breast and flanks are grayish-brown, with
darker brown spots ; the belly and lower tail-coverts
are nearly white; the face and throat are blackish,
the throat reddish, and the bill blood-red. This bird
constructs a most ingenious nest, forming it of dried
herbage neatly interwoven into a nearly spherical form,
with one flat side, in which the opening is situated ;
the birds are said to soften and twist about the mate-
rials of their nest until they are fit to be woven into the
fabric, and the male and female work in concert in its
construction, one going inside the nest while the other
remains outside, so as to pass the fibres through from
one to the other without loss of time.
MfSOPHAGID^E.-
-THE GREEN TOURACO.
369
THE ANGOLA WHYDAH-BIED (Vidua paradisea). —
Several species of Finches, inhabitants of Africa, and
nearly allied to the Weaver-birds, are remarkable for the
great development of some feathers of the tail-coverts in
the males during the breeding season. In the male of
the Angola Whydah-bird, which is about the size of the
Canary, the tail exhibits two feathers nearly a foot in
length, drooping at the extremity like those of the
domestic cock, and two others, which are considerably
shorter, but furnished with very broad webs; these
form a singularly elegant appendage. After the breed-
ing season is over, these ornamental plumes are shed,
and the two sexes are then very similar in appearance.
The Angola Whydah-bird is black, with the breast
and belly orange-red. It is an inhabitant of Western
Africa, and was originally brought to Europe from the
kingdom of Whydah, whence the name Whydah-bird
is commonly applied to it and its alh'es. This name
has been corrupted into Widow-bird, and the French
also call the birds of this genus Veuves, or Widows.
The Latin generic name Vidua has the same significa-
tion. Other species inhabit different parts of Africa,
living in considerable troops, usually in marshy places,
where they build their nests close together in tufts of
reeds and rushes.
FAMILY V.— MUSOPHAGID^.
We have now only two other families of Passerine
birds to illustrate, and these include comparatively few
species. In both the characters seem to lead us to-
wards the more typical forms of the following order,
namely, the Parrots and Toucans.
The birds of the present family are all natives of
Africa. They have a bill of moderate length, but of
considerable thickness, broad at the base, compressed
at the sides, and strongly arched along the ridge of the
upper mandible, which has its edges notched near the'
tip ; their tarsi are stout, scaled in front, and terminated
by long and powerful toes, of which the outer one is
versatile, a character which has induced many writers
to place these birds amongst the Scansores.
THE VIOLET PLANTAIN-EATER (Musophaga vio-
lacea), the type of this family, is a large and hand-
some bird, about twenty inches in length, which in-
habits the Guinea coast. It has a large bill, of which
the base extends far up on the forehead ; the nostrils
are simple oval apertures placed on the sides of the
upper mandible, considerably nearer to its apex than to
its base ; the tip of the upper mandible is much curved
downwards, or somewhat hooked, and its margins are
not only strongly toothed near the apex, but denticu-
lated for a considerable distance from the point. The
general colour of the plumage is a deep violet, tinged
with blue on the upper parts, and dark-green on the
breast and belly. From beneath each eye a curved
white streak runs towards the back of the head, and
the feathers of the latter part are short and of a deep
crimson colour. The primaries are of a violet-crimson
colour, and the large bill is orange-yellow at the base,
gradually deepening in tint until it becomes red. This
beautiful bird frequents the banks of the rivers of
Western Africa, and feeds upon the fruits of the plan-
VOL. I.
tain and banana, whence the names of Plantain-eater
and Musophaga applied to it.
THE GEEEN TOUEACO (Corythaix per so). — The
Touracos are readily distinguished from the preceding
form, to which, however, they are closely allied, by the
smaller size of the bill, which does not advance upon
the forehead; by the position of the nostrils at the
base of the bill ; and by the presence of a large and
handsome crest upon the top of the head. The present
species is of a grass-green colour, with the tips of the
crest-feathers red ; beneath each eye is a white streak ;
the wing-coverts are steel-blue, the quill-feathers
bright red, margined with black, and the tail-feathers
steel-blue. This, according to Messieurs Verreaux,
is the bird described by Linnaeus under the name
of Cuculus persa. Our figure represents the follow-
ing species, which is found, with the present one, in
Southern Africa.
THE LOUEI TOUEACO (Corythaix albocristatus)—
Plate 12, fig. 41 (C. persa)— exhibits the same general
arrangement of colours as the preceding species, but
has the tips of the crest-feathers white instead of red,
and the eye surrounded with white. This bird, which
inhabits the Cape of Good Hope, has little fear of man,
and indeed allows itself to be impelled, by its curiosity,
to approach any human intruders on its domain, and
follow them from tree to tree, uttering what Le Vaillant
regards as a cry of pleasure, resembling the syllable
cor, with the r greatly prolonged. Its call-note is like
the word corow, uttered eight or ten times in succession ;
and it has also a cry of fear, compared by Le Vaillant
to the rapid sounds of a trumpet. The food of this
bird, and of the allied species, consists exclusively of
fruits, which it swallows whole when small enough.
Its nesting-place is the hole of some large tree, in
which the female deposits four bluish eggs. The male
and female sit alternately, and both sexes bestow much
care upon the young, which accompany their parents
for some time after leaving the nest.
THE GIANT TOUEACO (Schizorhis giganteu).— In this
bird the bill is large, and much hooked at the tip, the
margins of the upper mandible are undulated towards
the apex, and the nostrils are placed at a short distance
from the base of the bill, near the ridge of the upper
mandible. The head is furnished with a crest of long
feathers, which hang down at the back of the neck in
repose. The plumage of the upper parts is brilliant
blue ; the crest is black, with a blue lustre ; the breast
is bright green, and the rest of the lower surface cin-
namon-brown. The bill is orange colour. This bird,
which measures about two feet in total length, is a
native of the tropical parts of Western Africa, where
it feeds, like the Musophaga, upon plantains and
bananas. Several other species are met with in the
same regions.
THE CAPE COLY (Coitus capensis). — Several species
of small crested birds, forming the genus Colius, are
placed in this family by Mr. G. R. Gray ; by others
they have been arranged with the Fringillidae. They
have the hinder toe somewhat versatile, so that ail
four toes may be directed forwards, and the margins of
the upper mandible are smooth. They are found at
the Cape of Good Hope, and throughout Eastern Africa
3 A
370
PASSERES. BIRDS. BUCEROTID.IL.
to Abyssinia, where they are abundant ; at the Cape
they are called Muys-voogel, or Mouse-birds, by the
Dutch colonists, partly on account of their soft plum-
age, and partly from then- mouse-like movements in
the bushes. Their food consists principally of fruits.
The Cape or White-backed Coly measures rather
more than six inches in length; it has the head, crest,
and throat ashy-gray, the forehead black, and the
upper surface pearly-gray, with a white band running
from the middle of the back to the rump, where it
terminates in a small tuft of purple feathers ; the lower
surface is reddish-white. The cry of this bird is
described as resembling the syllables qui-wi, qui-wi,
quiwiwi, strongly articulated. With its congeners
it plunders the gardens at the Cape of Good Hope ;
descending upon these in great flocks, it attacks the
fruits, the buds of the trees, and even the young shoots
of the herbaceous plants, often destroying almost every-
thing in the garden in a few minutes.
THE HOATZQf (Opisthocomus cristatus). — The true
position of this curious bird must still be regarded
as doubtful. Originally described as a pheasant by
Linnaeus, it has been shifted about by different authors
between the Gallinaceous and Passerine orders — its
singular structure presenting as it were a combination of
the characters of both. It has a large convex bill, with
the nostrils pierced in the middle of the upper man-
dible. The mandibles are denticulated within the
margins, and the head is furnished with a large erectile
crest. In these and some other particulars the bird
would seem to approach the Husophagidae, with which
Mr. Gray and some other ornithologists place it ; but,
on the other hand, the feet are very gallinaceous in
their character, the tarsi being reticulated, and the toes
alone scutellated above. The hinder toe, also, is not
versatile as in the other members of the present family,
but the anterior toes are entirely divided, and not fur-
nished at the base with those small membranes which
are generally found in gallinaceous birds.
Whatever may be its true systematic position, the
Hoatzin is undoubtedly a very remarkable bird. It is
nearly as large as a peacock, which it resembles in
many of its movements. Its plumage is tawny-brown,
with numerous white spots and streaks upon the wings
and tail ; its breast is yellowish-white ; the naked skin
about its face and throat is bluish ; and the elongated
elender feathers which form the crest are white on one
side, and black on the other. It is an inhabitant of
Brazil and Guiana, where it lives in small flocks on the
borders of the creeks and rivers. Its food is said to
consist exclusively of the leaves of a particular species
of tree, the Arum arborescens of Linnaeus. The birds
exhibit little fear of man ; and, as their flesh possesses
such a disagreeable odour, compounded of musk and
castoreum, as to be quite useless for food, they are
probably very seldom disturbed. The flesh is used in
Guiana as a bait in fishing.
FAMILY VI.— BUCEROTEDJE.
The birds of this family, to which the name of
Hortibills is commonly applied, are at once distinguish-
able by the great size of their bills, which are often so
enormous as to appear almost a deformity, whilst in
many species the disproportion of this part to the rest
of the body is increased by the presence of a singular
helmet-like swelling at its base. The bill, with this
appendage, looks a most ponderous and unwieldy
burden for the slender neck of the bird, but the whole
structure is usually composed of very slight materials —
a thin outer case, supported by a multitude of inter-
lacing walls, inclosing cavities filled with air ; and so
tender is the helmet-like protuberance in some species,
that, after the death of the bird, a pressure with the
thumb and finger is often sufficient to crush it in.
The bill is long, curved, and pointed, and the
margins of the upper mandible are often irregularly
toothed, as if small fragments had been broken out of
them ; the nostrils are placed at the base of the upper
mandible ; the anterior toes of the stout powerful feet
are more or less united together, the outer one espe-
cially being attached to its neighbour to such an extent
as to lead Cuvier to place the Hornbills with the
Kingfishers and Bee-eaters in his group of syndactyle
birds ; and the front of the tarsi and upper surface of
the toes are scutellated. These birds have tolerably
large wings, and appear to possess considerable power
of flight. They are also furnished with a long and
broad tail, which is sometimes rounded at the extre-
mity, sometimes very long and graduated.
The Hornbills are inhabitants of the warmer parts
of the Old World, most of the species being found in
the Eastern islands and in Africa. They are generally
of large size. In a state of nature their food consists
principally of fruits, but they are said by some writers
to feast upon carrion when they meet with it, and
specimens in confinement have been seen to capture
rats and mice, which they swallowed whole, after
crushing them a little between their enormous man-
dibles. They will probably feed upon almost anything
that comes in their way. Lesson says that the Eastern
species are very fond of nutmegs, from which their
:h acquires a delicious flavour. They usually live
in flocks in the forests, where they are fond of perching
upon the highest branches of the trees, and, like the
birds of the following order, they nidificate in the holes
of trees, which they enlarge to suit their convenience
by the agency of their bills. During flight the head is
drawn back, and the movement of the wings is very
rapid, producing a considerable rushing sound as the
birds pass through the air. This is heightened by a
constant clattering of the large mandibles, and the
occasional utterance of a loud croak. In fact, according
to Lesson, the noise produced by a flock of Hornbills
when passing along in the air is very alarming to those
who are unaware of its origin ; for it has no distant
resemblance to the sound of one of those sudden and
violent winds which often come on so unexpectedly in
tropical countries.
THE RHINOCEROS HORNBHL (Buceros Rhinoceros)
— Plate 12, fig. 42 — is one of the largest species of this
famDy, measuring about three feet in length, with a bill
of about ten inches long. Its plumage is black, with
the lower part of the belly, the legs, and the rump
white ; the tail, which is long, and broad at the extremity,
is also white, with a broad black band crossing it beyond
HORNBILLS. BIRDS. SCANSORES.
the middle ; the enormous bill is red at the base, yel-
lowish at the apex, and the upper mandible bears a very
large appendage at its base, extending nearly half the
length of the bill, and turning up at the extremity to
form a sort of horn. This bird is found principally in
the islands of the Eastern Archipelago.
THE MALABAE HORNBILL (Buceros pica) is about
two feet six inches in length, and is likewise black, but
has the whole of the belly, and the tips of the wing-
feathers and of those of the tail, except the two middle
ones, white ; the appendage of the upper mandible
extends more than half the length of the bill, of which
its upper margin follows the curve ; it is rounded above
at the base, but becomes sharp-edged towards the apical
portion, where it is crossed by a black band descending
obliquely to the upper mandible itself, and running along
the line of junction of the bill and its appendage. This
species is common in India, and especially in Ceylon.
THE PHILIPPINE HOENBILL (Buceros bicornis) is
of the size of a fowl, black above and white beneath,
with the two outer feathers of the tail black. The bill
is very large and stout, and nine inches in length ; the
appendage of the upper mandible is six inches long,
reaches back beyond the eyes, and terminates in front
in two projecting angles. This bird occurs in the
Philippine Islands, and also in China and Sumatra.
THE FLAT-HELMETED HOENBILL (Buceros liydro-
corax), which is likewise an inhabitant of the Philippines,
measures about two feet and a half in length. It has
a flat appendage to the upper mandible, which, with the
bill, is bright red in the adult bird, with a broad black
band surrounding the base ; the back of the head, the
neck, and a part of the breast, are reddish-chestnut ;
the remainder of the breast and the belly are black ;
the legs reddish ; the back grayish-brown, and the tail-
feathers tawny-white.
THE BOUND-HELMETED HOENBILL (Buceros galea-
tus) is remarkable for the great strength and solidity of
the basal appendage of the upper mandible, which is of
great size, but forms a simple protuberance at the base
of the bill, rounded above, and cut off nearly straight
in front ; this helmet, with the corresponding part of
the bill is deep red, the rest of the bill is yellowish.
This is a large species with a greatly developed tail, of
which the two middle feathers are much longer than
the rest It is an inhabitant of New Guinea.
THE ABYSSINIAN HOENBILL (Bucorvus abyssini-
cus) is a very large species, measuring about forty-five
inches in length. It is of a black colour, with the wing-
primaries white, and a red naked skin on the throat,
which is also furnished with two wattles. The bill is
about nine inches in length, and curved throughout as
in the preceding species ; it is furnished at the base of
the upper mandible with a comparatively small semi-
circular casque of great delicacy. This bird is very
common throughout Abyssinia, where it is known in
different districts under the names of ERKOOM and
ABBA-GUMBAH. It is said to feed entirely upon insects, "
especially locusts and beetles. The excrements of
this bird, when applied to the crown of the head in
bald people, are believed by the natives of Abyssinia
to produce a fresh covering of hair.
THE BED-BILLED TOCKO (Tockus erythrorhynchus).
The birds forming the genus Tockus, although very
closely allied to the most typical Hornbills, are never-
theless distinguished from them by the total absence of
any casque or excrescence at the base of the upper
mandible. The present species, which is very abun-
dant on the west coast of Africa, is about twenty inches
in length, with a bright red bill of three inches and a
half long. Its head is adorned with a tuft of slender
plumes, which, with the whole of the back of the neck,
are variegated with black and white ; the back is black,
variegated with white, the whole lower surface is pure
white, and the tail is blackish-gray with the extremity
white.
THE BLACK-BILLED TOCKO (Tockus nasutus), which
is likewise a native of tropical Africa, is about the same
size as the preceding species, from which it is distin-
guished by its black bill, with a spot of yellow on each
side of the upper mandible beneath the nostrils. Its
general colour is gray above and white beneath.
ORDER III.— SCANSORES.
THE order of Scansorial, or climbing birds, is distin-
guished from the other orders of the class by a peculiar
structure of the feet, as already indicated in our table
of orders (p. 235), and under the order Passeres (p.
272). This peculiarity consists in the reversed posi-
tion of the outer toe, which is turned backwards, so
that the foot of a Scansorial bird exhibits two toes
in front and two behind— fig. 119. This is really the
only character common to all the birds placed in the
order Scansores — the structure of the other parts, from
which distinctive characters are usually derived, varying
greatly in different members of the group — so that it
includes birds of very different aspects and modes of life.
It must be admitted also, that in several forms referred
to the preceding order, the outer toe, although not per-
manently reversed, is reversible; so that the foot is
capable of assuming the Scansorial character— adding
not a little to the difficulty of drawing a clear line of
demarcation between the two groups.
Thus, although we have here retained the order
Scansores, as generally admitted by ornithologists, it is
not without a feeling that a considerable proportion of
its members might with propriety be arranged amongst
the Passerine birds, either forming a distinct group of
Zygodaclyli, or Yoke-toed birds, or intermixed with
the other families in accordance with their apparent
relationships ; and it may be as well to indicate the
differences leading us to this view before proceeding
further.
The Parrots?, which may be regarded as the typical
372
SCAXSORES. BIRDS.-
-RlIAMPHASTIDJE.
Scansorial birds, exhibit characters which would seem
lo justify their being placed as an order by themselves.
Their feet — fig. 1 19 — are powerful, furnished with long
grasping toes, and covered with a granular skin,
rarely exhibiting scales or plates except towards the
extremities of the toes. The latter are provided with
Fig. 119.
Foot of Common Parrot
soft pads beneath, and the whole foot is adapted for
firmly clasping any object in the manner of a hand.
In accordance with this structure, the great majority of
the Parrots dwell in trees, upon the branches of which
they cling and climb about in every possible position,
the conformation of their feet rendering them almost as
active in climbing as the monkeys, to which they must
be regarded as analogous amongst birds.
In the "Woodpeckers, forming another principal
group of these birds, the feet are differently constructed,
and adapted for a very different kind of climbing. The
tarsi and toes in the Woodpeckers are shielded in front
—fig. 120. The toes are not fitted for grasping in the
Fig. 120.
Foot of Woodpecker.
manner of those of the Parrots, but are long, and fur-
nished with acute curved claws, by the agency of which
the birds are enabled to cling firmly to the rough bark
of trees, and thus to run rather than climb upon their
trunks. By the reversal of the outer toes, two claws
are brought behind in each foot, an arrangement which
is of much use to the bird in running down the trunk
of a tree with its head downwards, and the tarsus is
depressed between the two hind toes, so as to form a
sort of sole upon which the bird rests in ascending.
The affinities of the Woodpeckers would seem to be
with the Tenuirostral birds, if they are to be transferred
to the Passerine order.
The Cuckoos and Toucans, which form the rest of
this order, although furnished with Zygodactyle feet,
do not appear to be truly Scansorial in their habits,
but rather perching birds with Scansorial feet. The
former might be placed with the Fissirostral birds, and
the latter seem to approach the Hornbills. The four
types just mentioned form the four families of this
order. We commence with the Toucans.
FAMILY I.— RHAMPHASTHXffl.
The birds of this family are distinguished, like those
of the concluding group of the preceding order, by the
great development of the bill, which is sometimes so
large as to throw the bird himself completely into the
shade; so that we cannot wonder at the name of
Tout-bee, or All-bill, being applied to some of the
Toucans by the French colonists of Guiana. The
general form of the bill is very similar to that prevail-
ing in the Hornbills, but usually rather less tapering
towards the extremity. It is also destitute of those
remarkable protuberances which give some of the
Hornbills such a singular aspect. As in the Hornbills, '
however, the substance of the bill is cellular or spongy,
so that, notwithstanding its apparently unwieldy bulk,
it is too light to present any obstacle to the tolerably
active movements of the birds. The margins of both
mandibles are denticulated throughout their length, ;
and the curved tip of the bill is ordinarily sharp. The i
tongue in these birds is perhaps more remarkable than :
the bill, being exactly like a feather. A strong carti- i
laginous stalk runs up the centre, bordered on each '•
side with long and slender barbs, which are placed i
close together as in an ordinary feather, and increase |
in length as they approach the extremity of this singu- ]
lar tongue. The Indians of South America attribute !
extraordinary virtues to this feather-like organ, and
employ it as a remedy in various diseases. The tarsi
are short, but terminated by long and powerful toes,
and the proportions of the legs and feet adapt the
Toucans but badly for moving on the ground, where
they cannot walk, but hop along with a very bad grace.
Both the tarsi and the toes are covered with shield-like
plates on the upper or anterior surface.
The Toucans are exclusively inhabitants of the
warmer regions of America, where they abound in
many parts of the forests. They are usually seen in
small flocks, hopping from branch to branch of the
highest trees. They are shy and cautious in their
habits, and feed principally upon fruits, especially
bananas, which they swallow whole. By some writers
they have been said to throw the fruit upon which
they feed up into the air, and then catching it with
widely open bill, allow it to plunge down into the
throat. It would appear, however, that their usual
mode of proceeding is to take the fruit up between the
mandibles, and then throwing the head back, leave it
to roll down to its destination. They do not migrate, but
wander about the country, making their appearance in
greater numbers in certain districts, when some favourite
fruit happens to be ripe there. Fruits, however, are
not then- only diet, but, on the contrary, they feed freely
on animal substances, killing and devouring small birds
and reptiles, plundering the nests of other birds of their
eggs, and even occasionally making a meal upon fish,
worms, and the larvae of insects.
Even when in motion amongst the branches of the
trees, the large beaks of the Toucans give them a
TOi/CANS. BIRDS.
373
certain air of gravity, but this is vastly increased by
the attitude assumed by them in repose. When they
perch quietly, they puff out their plumage until they
look almost like a round ball of feathers ; at the same
time, the tail is thrown up over the back, the head is
drawn back, and the enormous bill laid sometimes to
one side, sometimes to the other, or moved from side
to side, and raised and depressed iu a mariner resem-
bling so much the gesticulations of an orator addressing
a numerous assembly, says Lome'nie, that, coupled with
the serious aspect of the birds, it has obtained for them,
trom the French Creoles in Guiana, the name of Oiseaux
pre'cheurs, or "preaching birds." They breed in the
holes of trees, usually taking possession of such as have
been occupied and enlarged by the woodpeckers. Here
they lay two eggs of a white colour and roundish form.
THE BED-BREASTED TOUCAN (Rhamphastos dico-
lorus) — Plate 16, fig. 55— which measures about eighteen
inches in length, has the bill dark olive- green, with a
yellowish-white band at the base ; the plumage or the
back, tail, and wings, black ; the throat, and upper part
of the breast, orange-yellow, bordered beneath with
yellow ; the lower part of the breast and the rump red ;
and the belly and legs black. This is a common
species in Brazil and Guiana.
THE COLLAEED TOUCAN (Rhamphastos torquatus}
is of the same size as the preceding species, and like
it has the plumage of the upper surface black ; but the
neck is surrounded by a red collar. The front of the
neck is nearly white, spotted and streaked with red
and black, the belly is green, and the vent and lower
tail-coverts red. The bill in this species has the upper
mandible yellowish-white, and the lower one black.
This bird is an inhabitant of Mexico, where it is said
to frequent the vicinity of the coast, and to feed to a
great extent upon fish.
THE BED-BILLED TOUCAN (Rhamphastos erythro-
rhynchus}, a large species, measuring upwards of
twenty inches in length, is distinguished from the pre-
ceding by having the lower mandible and the lower
part of the upper one red, the base of both and the
top of the upper mandible being yellow, with a black
band separating the yellow parts from the red. The
general colour of the plumage is black ; the throat is
white, bordered with red at the bottom ; the upper
tail-coverts are yellow, and the lower ones red.
This species is a common bird in Guiana and Brazil.
Along the course of the Amazon, according to Mr.
Edwards, it and the ARIEL TOUCAN (R. Ariel), a
species nearly allied to the one figured in our plate,
are the most abundant forms of this family, occurring
in vast numbers throughout the forests in the autumn.
When they alight, and begin climbing about the trees
in search of fruits, one of them acts the part of a sen-
tinel, continually uttering a loud cry of tucdno, from
which their name is derived. When the whole flock
raise their loud and not over-melodious voices in con-
cert, they produce a harsh scream, which may be
heard at the distance of a mfle. Mr. Edwards tells us
that these birds, when tamed, may be taught as many
tricks as a parrot, but they are destitute of the faculty
of speech.
THE TOCO TOUCAN (Rhamphastos Toco}, which is
spread over Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, is a smaller
species than any of the preceding, measuring only nine
or ten inches in length. The bill of this bird, which
is quite as large in proportion as that of any of its
allies, is black at the base, and reddish-yellow for the
rest of its surface, except the apex of the upper mandi-
ble, which is black; the plumage is as usual black,
with the throat white, margined with red ; the upper
tail-coverts white, and the lower ones red.
THE ABACABI (Pteroglossus aracari) — Plate 16,
fig. 56. — The Aracaris, forming the genus Pteroglossus,
closely resemble the Toucans in their characters, but
have a rather more solid bill, of which the upper
mandible forms a rounded arch, without the distinct
ridge, marked by a channel on each side, which is
characteristic of the true Toucans. They also have
a longer tail, of which the feathers are graduated.
The present species is nearly seventeen inches in
length. Its colour above is dull green, with the head
and throat black, and the rump scarlet ; the breast is
scarlet, with a broad black band ; the flanks yellow,
the belly and legs green, and the lower tail-coverts
pale yellow. It is a native of Brazil and Guiana.
THE KOULTK ABACABI (Pteroglossus piperivorus),
a well-known species in Cayenne, where it has received
the name of Koulik from its peculiar cry, is about the
same size as the preceding species. It has the head,
neck, breast, and middle of the belly black, with a
steel-blue gloss ; the head has a yellow spot on each
side, and the back of the neck an orange crescent ; the
back is olive green, the tail green above and brown
beneath, and the lower tail-coverts crimson.
THE GBEEN ABAC ART (Pteroglossus lirulis}. — This
is a small species, only measuring fourteen inches in
length, including the bill. It is of an olive-green
colour above, and sulphur-yellow beneath, with the
head and throat black, and the rump bright red ; the
bill, which is upwards of three inches long, has the
top of the upper mandible yellow, and the sides red,
the two colours being separated by a black line ; the
lower mandible is black, and the serrated edges of
both mandibles are white. It inhabits Guiana.
FAMILY II.— PSITTACID^E.
This family includes the numerous species of Par-
rots, which, as already stated, may be regarded not only
as the most typical members of the order Scansores,
but perhaps as entitled to rank as its sole representa-
tives. These birds are, in fact, the only ones furnished
with truly prehensile feet, which stand them instead
of hands ; with these the Parrots are not only able to
grasp any object with great firmness, but actually in
feeding often make use of them in place of hands to
convey their food to the mouth. From this hand-like
use of the feet, the arboreal and scansorial habits of
the birds, and their general intelligence, which is
perhaps greater than that of any members of their
class, we may with some justice regard the Parrots as
the analogues of the Quadrumanous mammals, and as
occupying a correspondingly high position in the
classification of birds.
374
SCANSORES. BIRDS. PSITTACID.E.
The other distinctive characters presented by the
Psittacidse, besides their prehensile feet and reticulated
tarsi, are to be found in the form and structure of the
bill and tongue. The former is large and strong, with
the upper mandible much longer than the lower one,
strongly hooked, and terminating in an acute point
The base of the upper mandible is clothed with a cere,
or naked skin, in which the nostrils are situated. The
tongue is soft and fleshy, and generally terminates in
a rounded knob, a structure very different from that
prevailing in birds generally, and indicating, in all
probability, a much greater acuteness of the sense of
taste than usually prevails in this class.
These birds are found principally in the tropical
regions of the globe, in some parts of which they
swarm in prodigious numbers. Their great home is
the continent of Australia, where they occur in vast
quantities, and present a great variety of forms ; but
they are also numerous, both in species and individuals,
throughout the Eastern islands and India, and many
species are met with in the warmer parts of Africa and
America. Their notes, especially those of the larger
species, are generally harsh and discordant, but they
make up for this defect in the beauty of their forms,
and the brilliancy of their plumage, yielding, in the
latter particular, to few members of their class ; hence
many of them are frequently imprisoned in cages, and
some of these are able to add a further accomplish-
ment to those conferred upon them by nature, by the
facility with which they learn to speak, and to perform
various curious and grotesque antics. In a state of
nature most of the Parrots feed upon fruits, to which
some add seeds and even nuts, the latter being easily
broken up by their powerful bills ; a few small species
live upon the ground, and derive nearly their whole
subsistence from the seeds of grasses and other plants.
They nidificate in holes of trees, which they enlarge to
suit their purpose by means of their strong gouge-like
bills.
THE SCAELET MACCAW (Macrocercus Macao} —
Plate 14, fig. 49. — The Maccaws, which are peculiar to
the hot regions of South America and the West Indian
Islands, are at once distinguishable by the enormous
size of their bills, of which the upper mandible is so
much curved as to describe nearly a semicircle, and
also by the naked skin, furnished with only a few scat-
tered and minute feathers, which covers their cheeks.
Some of these birds are amongst the most splendid
of their tribe, and the Scarlet or Red and Blue Maccaw
yields to none of them in magnificence of plumage. It
is also one of the largest species of its family, some-
times measuring as much as three feet from the bill to
the tip of the long tail. The principal portion of the
plumage of this fine bird is of a bright scarlet colour ;
the quill-feathers of the wings are of a fine blue ; the
greater wing-coverts are yellow, tinged with green; the
upper and under tail-coverts are blue, the two middle
feathers of the tail crimson, and the remainder of the
tail-feathers, which gradually decrease in length towards
the sides, are partly red and partly blue. The feet are
dusky black, the naked skin of the cheeks wrinkled and
white, the upper mandible whitish, and the lower one
black or dusky.
This splendid species is an inhabitant of the tropical
parts of South America ; it was formerly abundant in
the "West Indies, but has now become comparatively
rare in most of the islands. It dwells in pairs or in
small family parties in the depths of the forests, gener-
ally taking up its abode about the palm-trees, upon the
fruits of which it to a great extent subsists. The nest
of this species is made in a hollow tree, and the bottom
is lined with feathers. It has two broods in a year,
and lays two eggs at each time ; these are about the
size of pigeon's eggs. The young birds are pretty
easily tamed, although they do not exhibit the docility
of many other parrots, and rarely learn to speak even
indistinctly. The great beauty of their plumage, how-
ever, causes them to be higlily valued, notwithstanding
the excessive harshness of their cry ; and in former
times a specimen of this bird was not an unacceptable
present even to royalty itself. The natives of South
America give the general name of 'Ara or Araraca to
the Maccaws, a denomination which is evidently in
imitation of their note.
THE BLUE AND YELLOW MACCAW (Macrocercus
Ararauna) is another large and beautiful species, mea-
suring about two feet and a hah0 in length. It has a
large black bill; the cheeks are covered with a wrinkled
white skin, which bears a few minute black feathers ;
the whole upper surface is of a rich and beautiful blue
colour, and the lower surface of a fine yellow. The
throat bears a large black patch. The long and gra-
duated tail is blue above, and yellow beneath. This
bird, like the preceding, is an inhabitant of the rich
forest regions of tropical South America, where it is
especially abundant in marshy places, haunting the
palm-trees and feeding upon their fruit. It is very
frequently imported into Europe, and appears to be
rather more docile than the Scarlet Maccaw.
THE GREAT GREEN MACCAW (Macrocercus militaris]
has a large and powerful blackish bill, and flesh-coloured
cheeks, marked as in the preceding species, with curved
lines of minute black or brown feathers. The general
colour of the plumage is a fine green, changing to
blue on the upper surface ; the forehead bears a
crimson band ; the wings, rump, and upper tail-coverts
are bright blue ; and the tail-feathers are scarlet. This
species is a native of Mexico and the adjoining western
parts of South America, where it is exceedingly abun-
dant. In its general habits it resembles the preceding
species, but not unfrequently descends upon the planta-
tions, and does much damage, especially to the Indian
corn-fields, whenever its supply of food in the forest
falls short.
THE SMALL GREEN MACCAW (Macrocercus secerns),
an inhabitant of Guiana and Brazil, is only about the
size of a pigeon, measuring seventeen inches in length
inclusive of the rather elongated tail. In its characters
it seems to present a transition towards the following
species, to which the name of Maccaw -parr oquets has
been given. The general colour of this species is green ;
its bill is black, the naked skin of its cheeks flesh colour ;
its wings blue, and its tail-feathers tipped and margined
with blue ; the lower surface of both wings and tail is
red. In Brazil and Guiana this little maccaw occurs in
great abundance, and descends in numerous flocks upon
THE HYACIXTHINE M.\rr.\\
-BIRDS. THE ALEXANDRIXE PARROQUET.
375
the coffee plantations, where it does an immense amount
of damage by devouring the berries. In captivity it is
said to be tolerably docile, but to exhibit the most vio-
lent jealousy if its owner should bestow any kindriess
upon another pet, especially if the latter be a member
of the parrot tribe.
THE HYACLNTHINE MACCAW (Macrocercus hyacin-
thinus) differs considerably in its appearance from the
preceding species, its plumage being of a rich hyacin-
thine blue, with the quill-feathers of the wings and tail
violet-blue, glossed with green. The naked cheeks and
the chin are yellow, and the bill and feet are black.
This beautiful bird, which is a native of Brazil, does
not appear to be so abundant there as some of the other
maccaws ; at least it is far less frequently imported into
Europe. Its length is about twenty-eight inches.
THE YELLOW PARROQUET (Conurus solstilialis) —
Plate 15, fig. 50 — is one of the maccaw parroquets just
alluded to, which differ from the true maccaws in the
smaller size of the bill, and of the naked space on the
cheeks. Like the maccaws, these birds have a long,
graduated tail. The Yellow Parroquet is remarkable
in this group, as being the only known species of this
group of naked-cheeked parrots which is found out of
America, it being a native of Western Africa, whence,
however, it has been introduced into Brazil, where it is
now met with in a wild state. It measures about eleven
inches in length, and is of a yellow colour above, and
orange beneath ; the top of the head is also orange ; the
wing-quills are margined with green and tipped with
blue ; the two middle feathers of the tail are green with
blue tips, and the rest of the tail-feathers are blue.
THE GUIANA PARROQUET (Conurus guia.ne.nsis) is
a native of Guiana, and of other parts of tropical
America, including the West Indian islands. It is about
twelve inches long, and of a green colour, spotted with
red on the cheeks ; the lesser under wing-coverts are
scarlet, and the greater ones yellow. This bird flies in
large flocks, and is described as very injurious to the
coffee plantations. In captivity it is said to exhibit a
greater aptitude for learning to speak than any other
parroquet ; and Le Vaillant mentions his having seen
a specimen so accomplished as to be able to say the
Lord's prayer in Dutch, at the same time folding its
feet together in the attitude of devotion.
THE PATAGONIAN PARROT (Conurus patayonicus),
although not by any means remarkable for the beauty
of its plumage, is worthy of notice on account of its
advancing so far from the tropics as the southern extre-
mity of the American continent. It is commonly met
with in Paraguay, Buenos Ayres, and Chili, inhabiting
the mountains at considerable elevations, especially in
the summer, but descending towards the autumn nearer
to the plains, where it collects in great flocks, and often
does much injury to the cultivated grounds. Its general
colour is a grayish-green, but the sides of the abdomen
are yellow, and its centre bright scarlet. The total
length of this bird is about seventeen inches.
THE CAROLINA PARROQUET (Conurus carolinensis).
—Of the numerous other species of this genus we need
only notice the Carolina Parroquet, which is indigenous
to the United States of North America, and advances
as far as the shores of Lake Michigan. It is fourteen
inches in length, and its general colour is a bright silky
green ; the forehead and cheeks are reddish-orange, and
the neck rich yellow. The Carolina Parroquets are
found in Mexico, and extend thence through the central
valley of North America to the temperate regions ; they
appear to be permanently resident even in the latter,
as Wilson states that he had seen them on the banks
of the Ohio in February, flying about in a snow storm.
They are sociable birds, flying in large flocks, and
exhibiting a great deal of fondness for each other; they
may be seen sitting close together, and scratching each
other's heads most affectionately. Their favourite food
consists of the seeds of various plants, especially those of
the cockle-burr (Xanihium strumarium), cypress, hack-
berry, and birch; and it is partly to the abundance of
these in the valley of the Mississippi, that Wilson attri-
butes the restriction of the parroquets to that tract of
country. They are also exceedingly fond of resorting
to the salt springs or salt licks which abound in the
same region ; these they visit, for the purpose of drink-
ing the water, early in the morning, usually about an
hour after sunrise. They come in great flocks ; and,
on alighting on the ground, they give it the appearance
of being covered with a carpet of the most vivid green,
orange, and yellow tints.
THE ALEXANDRINE PARROQUET (Palceornis Alcx-
andri). — Amongst the parroquets of the Old World,
which, unlike the preceding, have no naked skin upon
the sides of the face, several species inhabiting India
and its islands have been formed into a genus called
Palceornis by Vigors, from some of its members having
been evidently the parrots best known to the ancients.
The present species is indeed supposed to be the only
one known to the Greeks, having been brought from
India by the followers of Alexander the Great, from
which circumstance it has received its specific name.
The Alexandrine Parroquet, an elegant and favourite
species, is fifteen inches in length, including its long,
graduated tail ; its body is about the size of that of a
pigeon. Its general colour is a beautiful bright green,
paler beneath ; the lesser wing-coverts are purplish-red,
and across the back of the neck is a beautiful collar of
the same colour, bounded above by a black line, which
is continued up on each side to the base of the lower
mandible. The bill is bright orange-red. This beau- |
tiful bird is abundant in all parts of India, especially in
the hilly districts, and also occurs in great numbers in
Ceylon. The young are easily tamed, when they become
very docile, and may be easily taught to speak a few
words.
THE ROSE-RINGED PARROQUET (Palosornis torqua-
tus) is still more abundant in India than the preceding
species, and is fond of dwelling in the vicinity of human
habitations, frequently even breeding in the cavities of
buildings. It is about the same size as the Alexandrine
Parrroquet, and like it of a fine green colour; it has the
throat and a collar black, and the band on the back of
the neck is rose colour. It is said to be very destruc-
tive to the grain crops in India.
THE MALACCA RING PARROQUET (Palceornis longi-
ccatda) is another green species, but in this bird the
whole of the cheeks and back part of the neck are of a
deep rose colour, bounded beneath by a pair of broad
37G
BIRDS. PSITTACIDJE.
moustache-like black streaks, running obliquely back-
wards from the base of the lower mandible, but not
encircling the neck. The primary quills of the wings
are bordered with blue ; and the two centre feathers of
the tail, which in this, as in the other species of the
genus are a good deal longer than the rest, are of an
azure colour. This handsome bird is a native of
Malacca, where it is said by Sir Stamford Eaffles to
figure in the fables and poems of the natives as a being
endowed with a supernatural degree of intelligence.
It is also met with in the eastern islands, and is not
uncommon in some parts of Borneo.
BAEBABAND'S PABBOQUET (Palceornis Barrabandi)
is an Australian species, very nearly allied to the pre-
ceding, with which it agrees in size, and in the general
green colour of its plumage. It has the forehead, the
lower part of the cheeks, and the front of the neck of a
rich yellow, bordered beneath by a broad band of red ;
the primaries are blue.
PENNANT'S PABEOQUET (Platycercus Pennantii).—
ThePlatycerci, which are peculiar to Australia and New
Guinea, resemble the preceding species in their elon-
gated tails, but have this part broader and rounded at
the tip. The present species is an inhabitant of New
South Wales, where it is generally dispersed on the
grassy hills and brushes. The general colour of its
plumage is a rich deep crimson ; but the centre of each
feather* of the back and scapulars is black, leaving only
a rather broad red border ; the cheeks are blue ; the
quill-feathers of the wings are black, bordered with
blue externally ; the two centre tail-feathers are green
with blue margins, and the remainder have their inner
webs black, and their outer webs deep blue, for the
greater part of their length, the tips of the feathers being
a paler blue. Its length is rather more than fifteen
inches. It is an abundant and beautiful species, but,
from its congregating in large flocks and exhibiting a
predilection for the grain crops of the colonists, it under-
goes a considerable amount of persecution. Its flesh
is said to be very good eating. In its movements this
species is active and lively, and it walks upon the
ground with great ease ; this, indeed, is the case with
most of the Australian parroquets.
THE NEW HOLLAND CEESTED PAEEOQUET (Calo-
psitta Novce Hollandice'), a small and elegant species,
measuring about twelve inches in total length, is not
distinguished by any brilliancy of plumage, its general
colour being a pale olive-brown ; but it has the whole
of the head bright yellow, with a large crimson spot on
each cheek, and the crown is adorned with a most
graceful crest of long yellow feathers. It is an exceed-
ingly abundant species in some parts of New South
Wales, and seeks its food upon the ground, walking
with great facility.
THE HOENED PAEEOQUET (Xymphicus cornutus),
an inhabitant of New Caledonia, is remarkable for
having, springing from the crown of the head, a pair
of slender dusky feathers, about an inch and a half
long, with crimson tips ; its general colour is green,
with the head orange-red, and the wings and tail blue-
black. The length of this species is about eleven
inches.
THE KING PAEEOQUET (Aprosmictus scapulatus),
an inhabitant of New South Wales, dwells principally
in the brushes, where it generally finds sufficient nour-
ishment in the shape of fruits and seeds, but on the
ripening of the Indian corn crops, descends upon these
in great flocks, and often occasions a great deal of
damage. It has the head, neck, and lower surface
scarlet, the back and wings green, the rump and upper
tail-coverts deep blue, the tail black, and the bill
scarlet,
THE GEOUND PAEEOQUET (Pezoporus formosus).
— Although the Australian parroquets in general are
adapted, by the length of their tarsi and the general
structure of their feet, for walking and running with
facility upon the ground, where indeed they generally
seek the seeds which constitute their principal food,
there are some, forming the genera Pezoporus, Nanodes,
and Melo2)siltacus, which appear to be especially
organized for a terrestrial existence. Hence they are
commonly known as Ground and Grass Parroquets.
The present species, which is a native of the southern
parts of Australia and of Van Diemen's Land, measures
rather more than twelve inches in length, including its
long pointed tail ; its plumage is of a lively green
colour above, elegantly spotted with black, whilst the
lower surface is variegated with delicate, undulated,
transverse bars of green, black, and yellow. At the
base of the upper mandible there is an orange-red
band. This charming little bird is met with some-
times in sandy barren districts covered with tufts of
grass and herbage, sometimes about swampy flats ; it
passes nearly the whole of its time upon the ground, is
never seen to perch, and when flushed takes a short
flight, and then alighting again, runs on until it finds
a place of safety. It even deposits its eggs on the
ground. Mr. Gould says that its flesh is excellent,
and much more delicate than that of the snipe.
THE WABBLING GEASS PAEEOQUET (Melopsittacus
undulatus), a lovely little species, nearly allied to the
preceding, is found exclusively in the vast plains of
central Australia, where it occurs in great abundance,
flying in flocks of many hundreds, and feeding on the
seeds of the grasses with which those deserts are
clothed. The length of this species is about seven
inches ; the colour of its plumage above is olive-green,
delicately marked -with undulated black or dusky lines ;
the head and back of the neck are yellowish-green,
with a small azure patch upon each cheek ; the lower
surface is of a delicate yellowish-green colour ; the two
middle tail-feathers are green at the base, and blue at
the extremity, and the remainder are green, tinged
with yellow in the middle.
Although there is nothing brilliant in the colouring
of this little parroquet, the general effect of its plumage
is highly pleasing, and, taken in conjunction with the
elegance of its form, renders it one of the most charm-
ing members of its tribe. It is also distinguished by
the possession of a soft warbling note, a sort of inward
song, and for this and its other good qualities, it has of
late years received much notice as a cage bird, its
manners in confinement being at once lively and affec-
tionate. When two or more are kept together, they
are continually engaged in mutual acts expressive of
fondness, sometimes billing like pigeons, sometimes
THE WARBLING GRASS PARROQUET. BIRDS. THE PAPUAN LORY.
377
scratching gently amongst the plumage of each other's
heads, and not unfrequently feeding each other. Hence
they have disputed the title of Love-birds with a
diminutive short-tailed species of parrot, to which that
name has long been applied.
During the heat of the day the Grass ParroquetS
perch in flocks upon the branches of the gum trees, and
there shelter themselves from the scorching rays of the
sun ; they sit so motionless, and their colour assimi-
lates so well with that of the leaves, that, according to
The Warbling Grass Parroquet (Melopsittacus nndulatus).
Mr. Gould, they can hardly be distinguished. They
breed in the holes and hollow spouts of the gum trees
in the month of December.
THE COLLABED LOEY (Lorius domicella}. — Several
small species of this family, which inhabit the Eastern
islands and Polynesia, are commonly called Lories.
The characters upon which they are separated from
the rest of the family consist principally in the com-
parative weakness of the bill, and the peculiar structure
of the tongue, which, instead of terminating in a soft
fleshy cushion, is slender, and furnished with elongated
papillae, the latter sometimes even forming a sort of
brush at the extremity of the organ. These birds live
partly upon pulpy fruits and partly upon the sweet
juices of flowers ; in collecting the latter the papillae
of the tongue come into use. The largest of these is
the Collared Lory, a native of many of the Eastern
islands, and also of continental India, which measures
eleven inches in length, and is of a bright scarlet, with
the wings green, the shoulders and legs blue, and the
crown of the head blue-black. A broad yellow band,
more or less tinged with red, crosses the upper part of
the breast, and the feathers of the short rounded tail
are tipped with yellow, within which there is a blackish
band. This bird is highly esteemed as a cage bird,
not only on account of the beauty of its plumage, but also
for its docility and liveliness, and the distinctness with
which it learns to utter words and even sentences.
THE PAPUAN LOEY (Ckarmosynapapua), one of the
most beautiful of these birds, and indeed of the whole
family of Parrots, is also of a scarlet colour, but richly
variegated with azure-blue, yellow, and green. The
crown of the head bears two blue spots, and the whole
lower part of the back and the legs are also blue.
Each side exhibits two spots of rich yellow, and the
wings are green. The tail is long and graduated, and
the two centre feathers are much longer than any of
the rest ; hi fact, these feathers alone measure eleven
or twelve inches in length, whilst the actual body of
the bird is only six inches long. The tail-feathers are
all green at the base, and yellow at the extremity.
This most beautiful species is a native of New Guinea.
THE BLUE -BELLIED LOEIKEET (Trichoglossu*
Ticematodes} is a native of Australia, where it abounds
amongst the Eucalypti, and feeds daintily upon the
nectar of their flowers. It is about thirteen inches in
total length, the tail measuring six inches ; the head
and throat are bluish-purple ; the neck bears a collar
of yellowish-green, and the rest of the upper plumage
is bright grass-green ; the front of the neck and breast
are bright scarlet, becoming yellow on the sides of the
latter ; the abdomen is deep purple, and the legs scar-
Sa
378
SCAXSORES. BIRDS. PSITTACID.E.
let ; the four middle feathers of the tail are entirely
green, the rest, from the inner web, yellow, except at
the extremity.
THE OEANGE-WINGED LOEIKEET (Trichoglossus
pyrrhopterus) is a smaller species than any of the pre-
ceding Lories, measuring only seven inches and a half
in length. It has the head of a delicate greenish-blue
colour, the neck grayish-white, and the rest of the
plumage green, with the exception of the under wing-
I coverts, which are of a rich orange colour. It is an
inhabitant of the Sandwich Islands.
THE GEAY PAEEOT (Psittacus erythacus)—P\zie 15,
fig. 51. — The common Gray Parrot, being one of the
species most frequently kept in this country, must be
familiar to all our readers. It is an inhabitant of tro-
pical Africa, where it dwells in the woods, feeds upon
seeds and the kernels of fruits, and breeds in the holes
of decayed trees, laving about four white eggs. In
confinement, and probably also in a state of nature, it
generally holds its food in one of its feet, and then bites
pieces from it. The strength of its bill enables it readily
to break the shells of nuts and almonds, so as to get at
their sweet kernels.
As a pet this parrot is a great favourite, and de-
servedly so, as its docility and intelligence render it
very amusing. It learns to speak with greater facility
and distinctness than perhaps any other bird, and it is
no uncommon thing to hear of parrots which will repeat
sentences as long as the Lord's prayer. It also readily
picks up any words which are of frequent occurrence in
the household, and sometimes brings out its acquisitions
in the most amusing manner, frequently repeating cer-
tain phrases in the presence of those for whose ears they
were not intended. Town parrots also commonly imitate
street-noises, and an instance of this related by Mr.
Selby may be mentioned, as showing the mischief to
which such a habit may unintentionally give rise. A
parrot kept upon a qxiay in a sea-port town had learnt
to give in perfection the ejaculatory words commonly
used by carters to make their horses back into any
required position ; one day the bird was amusing himself
by repeating this among other things, and did it so
naturally that a horse standing close by unattended in
a cart, immediately obeyed the command, and probably
incited by the reiterated shouts of the parrot, continued
his retrograde movement so long that he fell over the
quay and was drowned.
We shall not dwell upon any of the numerous anec-
dotes commonly related of this bird, but will conclude
our short description with Le Vaillant's account of one
which lived to the patriarchal age of ninety-three. In
his best days this parrot had been distinguished for his
powers of conversation, and he was so remarkably
docile that he would perform many little acts when
ordered to do so, such as fetching his master's slippers,
calling the servants, and the like. When he reached
the ripe age of sixty, he began to lose his memory, and
would confuse and jumble together different fragments
of his former learning ; from this time his infirmities
went on increasing, until in his last days he became
perfectly decrepid, and was only kept alive by being
fed at intervals with biscuit soaked in Madeira.
LE VAILLANT'S PAEEOT (Psittacus Le Vaillantii),
another African species, is migratory in its habits,
passing to the region of the tropics during the rainy
season, and advancing in the summer as far south as
the region of the Cape of Good Hope. It is about the
same size as the Gray Parrot, and the general colour of
its plumage is olive-green in various shades ; the rump,
belly, and tail-coverts are bright green ; the bend of
the wing is marked with bright orange-red ; the wings
themselves are brownish-black, with a greenish gloss,
and with green borders to the coverts and scapulars ;
the tail-feathers are of the same colour as those of the.
wings.
THE GEEEN PAEEOT (Chrysotis amazonicus), which
is even a more common bird in this country than the
Gray Parrot, is an inhabitant of the forests of tropical
America, where it occurs, with other allied species, in
immense numbers. It is a little larger than the Gray
Parrot, and its plumage is of a fine grass-green colour,
with the edges of each feather dusky ; the forehead is
bluish, and the head and throat yello wish; the spurious
wing is red, and the wings and tail more or less varie-
gated with green, black, red, and yellow. This species
appears to be liable to considerable variation. It is
tolerably docile, and learns to speak pretty readily, but
is generally inferior in both these respects to the African
Gray Parrot. This species and its allies are especially
abundant in the rich forests along the course of the
great rivers of South America. They not unfrequently
descend upon plantations situated in the vicinity of
their haunts, and do great mischief.
THE FESTIVE PAEEOT ( Chrysotis festivus} is another
of these Soutk American species. It is still larger than
the common Green Parrot, measuring fifteen or sixteen
inches in length ; its colour is green, with the hinder
part of the crown of the head blue, a streak of red
running from each nostril to the eye, the lower part of
the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts scarlet, and the
quill-feathers of the wings deep blue.
TEE LOVE-BIED (Agapornis Swinderiana). — Several
charming diminutive species of this family nearly allied
to the preceding, are commonly known as Love-birds,
from their being usually seen sitting as closely as
possible to each other, and occasionally billing in the
most affectionate manner. In captivity they are
generally kept in pairs, when they exhibit the greatest
apparent fondness for each other, and it is a common
belief, probably well founded, that if one should die,
the other will pine away with grief at the loss of its
companion.
The present species, which is a native of Southern
Africa, is one of the smallest of its tribe, measuring
only five inches in length. Its colour is a delicate but
lively green; round the back of the neck there is a
black collar, and beneath this a yellow band, which
encircles the neck, and expands considerably on the
breast; the short tail has the two middle feathers green,
and the remainder scarlet at the base and green at the
tip, the two colours being separated by a black band.
THE BONNETED PSITTACTJLE (Pstitacula pileata) —
Plate 15, fig. 52— another of the small species of
short- tailed parrots, is an inhabitant of South America,
where it appears to be a bird of passage. It is rather
more than eight inches in length, and of a green colour,
THE GREAT SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO. BIRDS. THE GOLIAH COCKATOO.
with the head black and the back of the neck orange-
coloured; the orbit is white and is continued into a
point before and behind; the wings are edged with
blue, and the tips of all the tail-feathers, except the
two middle ones, are blue.
THE GEEAT SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO— ( Ca-
catua galerita). — The Cockatoos, like the preceding
Parrots, have a broad and even tail, but they are
readily distinguished from those birds by the presence
of a large crest, which the birds are able to elevate
or depress at pleasure. Their name is an imitation of
the peculiar cry of some of the species, which closely
resembles the syllables Kalcatoe. They are ah1 inhab-
itants of the islands of the Eastern archipelago and
Australia ; the latter is the native place of the present
species, one of the finest of the whole.
The Great Sulphur- crested Cockatoo measures two
feet in length, and is of a pure white colour, with only
a slight yellowish tinge about the sides of the tail and
the wing coverts ; the head bears a long pointed crest
of a fine sulphur-yellow colour, the tip of which is a
little curved upwards. This bird is not unfrequently
brought to this country, and will learn to perform
various tricks and to speak with some distinctness.
THE SMALL SULPHUR-CRESTED COCKATOO (Cacatua
sulphurea) resembles the preceding species in almost
every particular except its size, its length being only
about fifteen inches. It has a sulphur-yellow spot
below each eye. The Moluccas and other islands
of the Indian archipelago are the habitation of this
bird, which is perhaps more frequently brought to
Europe than the preceding species. In captivity it
displays to the fullest extent a habit common to all the
Cockatoos, namely, that of uttering a most discordant
screaming noise ; it is, however, tolerably docile, and
will learn to speak a few words.
THE BROAD-CRESTED COCKATOO (Cacatua cristat a),
another white species, is about seventeen inches in
length, and has the head and breast slightly tinged with
rose colour ; its crest, which is very large, is composed
of feathers which are white above, and rich scarlet
beneath, producing together a delicate rose-tint. This
species inhabits Australia.
LEADBEATER'S COCKATOO (Cacatua Leadbeateri), a
very handsome species, also a native of Australia, is
a little larger than the Small Sulphur-crested Cockatoo,
and of a white colour, tinged with crimson, and with
the lower surface of the wings deep crimson. The
head is adorned with a crest of long, pointed feathers,
capable of being erected so as to form a perfect fan ;
they are deep crimson at the base, then yellow, then
crimson again, and their apical half is white.
THE LONG-NOSED COCKATOO (Licmetis tenuiros-
tris)— Plate 13, fig. 53.— This bird is distinguished
from the ordinary Cockatoos by the small size of its
crest, and the great length of the upper mandible, which
is produced far beyond the lower one. It is an inhab-
itant of South Australia, where it is seen in great flocks,
and spends much of its time upon the ground, searching
for bulbous roots which its curiously-formed bill enables
it to dig up with facility. It also attacks the corn fields
occasionally and does much damage. The larvae of
bisects are also a favourite food with it, and in searching
for these under the bark of trees, it is said to make use
I of its projecting upper mandible as a sort of lever to
prize off the bark.
THE GOLIAH COCKATOO (Microglossum aterrimum)
— Plate 15, fig. 54— an inhabitant of New Guinea and
the neighbouring islands, one of the largest of known
parrots, is distinguished by several remarkable char-
acters. Its cheeks are covered with a naked skin, as
is the case in the maccaws, which this bird further
resembles in the immense size and strength of its bill ;
but within these powerful jaws there is a small and
slender tongue very different from that of any other
parrot, or indeed of any other bird. Le Vaillant
compares it to the trunk of an elephant, and gives the
bird the name of Ara a trompe or " Trunked maccaw."
This organ is of a cylindrical form, capable of being
considerably protruded from the mouth, and terminated
by a cleft horny extremity. According to Le Vaillant
the bird breaks up his food by means of his beak, and
then, putting out his tongue, takes up a portion of the
food in the cleft at the extremity of that organ ; the
tongue is then drawn back within the bill and passed
along the palate where there is a small projection,
which, coming in contact with the morsel of food
carried by the tongue, detaches it and causes it to fall
into the throat.
The Goliah Cockatoo is entirely black, but the living
bird has a greenish-gray tint from the quantity of whitish
powdery matter which is scattered over the feathers,
and which occurs in more or less abundance in most of
the cockatoos. The tail is very short. The enormous
bill is black ; the naked wrinkled skin of the cheeks is
red ; and the crown of the head is furnished with an
erectile crest of long, slender, gray feathers.
THE BANKSIAN COCKATOO (Calyptorhynchus
Banksii). — Besides the white cockatoos, several other
species of this group are found in various parts of
Australia, in which the general colour of the plumage
is black in the males, and blackish-brown spotted with
white in the females. The crest in these birds is
smaller than in the white cockatoos, but they are
generally provided with long and ample tails. In the
Banksian Cockatoo, which is a very large and magnifi-
cent species, the whole of the plumage is deep black in
the male, with a very broad red baud crossing all the
tail-feathers except the two middle ones ; in the female
this red band is broken up by numerous irregular black
marks. These birds are generally seen in small parties
of about six or eight in number, except during the
breeding season, when they live in pairs. They de-
posit their eggs in the hollow dead branches of the
gum-trees. Their food consists partly of fruits and
seeds, and partly of insects, which they seek with great
avidity under the bark of trees.
THE FUNEREAL COCKATOO (Calypt&rJiynchus fune-
reus) is another species, about the same size as the
preceding, from which it is distinguished by the orange-
yellow colour of the band across the tail. This bird
is called the Wy-la by the natives, in imitation of its
mournful cry.
THE PHILLIP ISLAND PARROT (Nestor productus) .
— Besides the preceding and many other fine birds of
this family, the Australasian region nourishes several
380
SCANSOKES. BIRDS.
curious species to which we must briefly allude. One
of these is the Phillip Island Parrot, which is believed
to be now peculiar to the small island whose name it
bears, and even there it is getting very scarce. Its plum-
age is brown above; the head and back of the neck
are gray ; the cheeks, throat, and chest, are yellow, the
former tinged with red; the rump, belly, and under
tail-coverts are deep red, and the tail-feathers are
banded with orange and brown. The structure of the
tongue is peculiar ; it is furnished with a small horny
scoop on the under side of the tip, which is supposed
to be of service to the bird in feeding upon the nectar
of certain flowers of which it is very fond. The upper
mandible is much prolonged.
THE NEW ZEALAND NESTOE (Nestor hypopoliux)
is very similar to the preceding, but has a somewhat
shorter upper mandible, and differs in some particulars
of its colouring. It feeds upon fruits, berries, and roots,
and is frequently caught and tamed by the natives,
when it learns to speak with great facility.
PECQUET'S DASYPTILE (Dasyptilus Pecquetii) an
inhabitant of New South Wales, is another singular
species, having the basal portion of the bill much
straighter than in the other parrots, and the upper
mandible somewhat suddenly hooked, so that the form
of the bill resembles that prevailing amongst the rapa-
cious birds. The cere, also, is greatly developed, as in
the birds of prey, and the nostrils are placed close to
its margin. The cheeks, the top of the head, and the
upper part of the neck, are wholly or partially naked ;
the cheeks bearing only scattered hairs, and the head
being sparingly clothed with setaceous feathers. The
general colour of the plumage, which is of a rigid tex-
ture, is black, but the greater wing-coverts, the outer
webs of the secondary quills, the upper tail-coverts, and
the whole lower surface below the breast, are of a fine
crimson. It is a large species, measuring rally twenty
inches in length.
THE KAKAPO (Strigops Tiabroptilus) is perhaps the
most singular of all the Psittacidae, from the remark-
able resemblance which it presents to an owl in its
general aspect and in the nature of its plumage. It is
an inhabitant of New Zealand and of the neighbouring
islands, and is strictly nocturnal in its habits, passing the
day concealed in holes under the roots of trees, and
coming forth at night to seek the roots which constitute
its favourite food. The habits of this bird are strictly
terrestrial, its wings being very short, and its power of
flight small ; on the ground, however, it runs with great
facility, and forms tracks, in the places which it fre-
quents, of about a foot broad, and so exactly like
ordinary footpaths, that when first seen they led to the
suspicion that natives were residing in the vicinity.
The cry of this bird is a hoarse croak, and is compared
by the natives to that of a species of owl inhabiting the
same country. They also say that great numbers of
Kakapos assemble together and pass the winter in large
caves, and that, at the time of their assembling and dis-
persion, they exert then- voices to such an extent as to
produce a noise that is perfectly deafening. They breed
in the holes which they ordinarily inhabit, lining the
bottom with a little fern, and lay two or three eggs.
The Kakapo is a solitary and not very abundant bird ;
and since the introduction of cats into New Zealand its
numbers have decreased so greatly, that there is some
reason to fear that it will speedily become almost
extinct.
It is a moderately large species, and is covered with
a thick soft plumage, resembling in its texture that of
the owls and other nocturnal birds; and, like these, it
has a perfectly noiseless flight. The general colour of
the plumage is a grayish-green, darker on the upper
surface, where it is mottled with spots and zigzag lines
of black ; the lower surface is black, marked with deli-
cate, undulated, dusky lines. The eyes are of consider-
able size and surrounded below by a facial disc of slender
feathers, which partially conceal the base of the bill,
exactly as in the owls. With this singular bird we take
leave of the Parrot family.
FAMILY III.— PICID^E.
The birds of this family, which are commonly known
as Woodpeckers, have a rather long straight bill, of
which the tip is commonly obtuse or truncated, and the
sides marked with a longitudinal ridge. Their feet, as
already described (see page 372, and fig. 120), are organ-
ized for running upon the bark of trees, being furnished
with long, spreading toes, armed at the extremity with
strong, sharp, curved claws, which enable them readily
to seize any small inequality of the bark ; whilst the
tarsus is so placed as to form a sort of sole which gives
the bird great firmness in its ordinary position. Both
the tarsi and toes are clothed above with scaly plates.
The tail also is of service to most of the Woodpeckers
in their climbing ; it is rather short, but composed of
stiff feathers, which are pointed at the extremity, and
generally more or less worn away at this part.
These birds, especially the more typical species (for
some, as we shall see, differ from the rest in their habits),
reside in the woods and forests of both hemispheres,
principally in the warmer regions, and run with great
activity and in every direction upon the trunks and
branches of trees, searching for the insects which con-
stitute the greater part of their food. With this object
in view they are constantly tapping the bark with their
bills, in order to discover soft or rotten places which
may be inhabited by bark-feeding insects ; on meeting
with a suspicious spot (and they are probably seldom
mistaken), they immediately dig vigorously into the
bark and seize the insect or larva. The capture of the
smaller insects at any rate is effected by means of the
tongue, which, with its appurtenances, exhibits a beau-
tiful modification to adapt it for this purpose. The
byoid bone, which supports the tongue, has its posterior
branches enormously elongated and continued in the
form of slender springs, which, passing under the skull,
are carried up round the back and over the top of the
ead, until their extremities reach to the right nostril.
Each of these elongated bony springs is accompanied
throughout by a slender muscle, by the contraction of
which its bow is shortened, and the tongue is pushed
out. Its retractation is effected by means of another
^air of muscles. The tip of the tongue itself is horny,
and furnished with several small barbs directed back-
wards ; this arrangement is supposed to facilitate the
THE GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER. BIRDS. THE LESSER SPOTTED WOODPECKER.
381
capture of larvae, which, being pierced by the tip of the
tongue, may be prevented by the barbs from escaping,
notwithstanding their struggles. But for the capture
of the smaller insects, which abound both under the
bark and among the crevices of its surface, the tongue
is endued with a glutinous matter, which is secreted
by a pair of large glands situated in the throat, and
communicating with the mouth by long ducts ; these
open into the mouth at the point where the two branches
of the lower mandible unite together, and consequently
'close to the front of the mouth, so that the glutinous
coating of the tongue will be renewed every time that
organ is drawn back within the bill. Besides insects,
the Woodpeckers feed upon fruits and seeds, and some
of them are accused of devouring, or even carrying off,
fruits from the orchards to a considerable extent.
The Woodpeckers roost and breed in the holes of
trees, which they are able to enlarge to suit their pur-
poses by means of their strong and sharp bills. The
eggs are deposited upon the chips and debris at the
bottom of the hole ; they are variable in number, but,
in almost all known cases, are of a smooth and shining
texture, and of a pure white colour.
THE GEEAT BLACK WOODPECKER (Picus martins)
— Plate 16, fig. 57 — a rare bird in Britain, is not
uncommon in some parts of Europe, especially in the
pine forests of the Alps. It is also found in Germany
and France, and extends thence over the northern parts
of Europe through Russia into Siberia. The length of
this bird is about sixteen inches, and its plumage is of
a deep black colour, with the top of the head slightly
crested and bright blood-red. Its note resembles a
loud, hoarse laugh. Its food consists chiefly of insects,
which it captures upon or under the bark of trees as
already described ; it will also feed on nuts, seeds, and
berries. It lays three eggs of a pure white colour.
THE GEEAT SPOTTED WOODPECKEE (Dryobates
major) is not an uncommon bird in some parts of this
country, especially in the southern and midland coun-
ties ; in the more northern districts a few specimens
appear late in autumn, and are supposed to migrate
from Norway and Sweden. The species is found in
all parts of Europe. It is an inhabitant of woods, parks,
and gardens ; but its shyness prevents it from being
frequently seen, as, on the approach of any intruder on
its haunts, it will creep round the trunk of the tree on
which it is sitting, or conceal itself behind a branch.
It rarely alights on the ground, but occasionally visits
old posts or rails and decayed pollard trees, probably
finding an abundance of insect food in such situations.
The bird is said to adopt a singular and ingenious con-
trivance for obtaining insects, which is described in the
following words in one of the editions of Pennant's
British Zoology : — " By putting the point of its bill into
a crack of the limb of a large tree, and making a quick
tremulous motion with its head, it occasions a sound as
if the tree was splitting, which alarms the insects and
induces them to quit their recesses ; this it repeats every
minute or two for half an hour, and will then fly off to
another tree, generally fixing itself near the top for the
same purpose. The noise may be distinctly heard for
half a mile." The eggs of this bird are deposited in the
hole of a tree, and are as many as five in number.
The Great Spotted Woodpecker is between nine and
ten inches in length, and is of a black colour above,
with the forehead and the sides of the head dirty white,
the back of the head bright scarlet, and a spot on each
side of the neck, the scapulars and numerous spots on
the wings white ; the throat is dirty white, bounded by
a black stripe, and the remainder of the lower surface
is also dingy white, except the vent and lower tail-
coverts, which are red. The two middle tail-feathers
are entirely black ; the two next on each side black,
tipped with white ; and the rest banded with black and
white.
THE LESSEE SPOTTED WOODPECKEE (Dryobates
minor), another British species, is not uncommon in
the southern and midland counties, but becomes rare
towards the north. It is distributed over most parts
of Europe, and extends its range through Siberia. Its
length is a little less than six inches, and its bill is
shorter in proportion than in the preceding species.
It has the crown of the head scarlet, the forehead,
cheeks, and sides of the neck dingy white, and the
upper surface black, barred with white on the back ;
the wings are grayish-black, with white bars ; the four
middle tail-feathers are black, the next on each side
tipped with white, and the remainder barred with white
and black. The lower surface of the body is grayish-
white, with black longitudinal streaks. This bird is
generally seen searching for insects upon the bark of
trees, and often amongst the moss-covered branches of
fruit-trees in orchards. It also occasionally descends
to the ground and seeks its food amongst the grass.
Two other nearly allied species (D. medius and teuco-
notus) are found commonly on the continent of Europe.
THE THEEE-TOED WOODPECKEE (Picoides tridac-
tylus)— Plate 16, fig. 58. — This bird, which is an
inhabitant of the northern parts of both hemispheres,
is distinguished from the preceding species, and indeed
from nearly all the other birds of this family, by its
possessing only three toes, the inner or true hinder
toe being entirely deficient. It measures two inches in
length, and has the forehead, the back of the head, and
a streak behind each eye black; the crown of the head
golden yellow ; the wings black, banded with white ;
the back and lower surface white, with numerous
transverse black spots; and the tail black, with the
two outer feathers on each side banded with white.
THE IVOEY-BILLED WOODPECKEE (Campephilus
principalis), one of the largest species of this family, is
a native of the southern United States. It measures
about twenty inches in length, and is of a black colour,
with a greenish gloss ; the top of the head is adorned
with a crest of a fine red colour; a white stripe starting
from beneath each eye, passes down the side of the
neck, and along the back nearly to the rump ; the five
inner primaries are furnished with a gradually increas-
ing white tip, and the secondaries are wholly white.
The bill, which is perfectly white and like ivory, is
extremely powerful and elegantly fluted ; it measures
nearly an inch in breadth at its base. With this for-
midable organ the Ivory-billed Woodpecker is able to
break off large quantities of the bark of trees in search-
ing for the insects on which he feeds, and even to dig
a hole into the solid wood to furnish himself with a
SCAXSORES. BIRDS. PICIDJE.
lodging. His note is described as loud and trumpet-
like ; but when captured, he emits a reiterated cry
exactly resembling that of a child. The head and bill
of this bird are said by Wilson to have been in his time
in great esteem among the Indians as a charm.
THE GREEN WOODPECKEE (Gednusviridis). — This
species is the most abundant of the British Wood-
peckers, and is found in most of the wooded districts
both of England and Scotland ; it also occurs in almost
all parts of Europe. It is about thirteen inches in
length, and is of a dark yellowish-green colour above,
and ashy-green below ; the crown and back of the head
are scarlet; a black moustache-like streak, with a
scarlet patch along its middle, runs backwards from
the base of the lower mandible on each side ; the rump,
and upper tail-coverts, are sulphur-yellow; and the
quill-feathers, both of the wings and tail, are grayish-
black, more or less distinctly spotted or banded with
white.
In searching the bark of trees for insects, the Green
Woodpecker usually starts from near the bottom of
the trunk, and thence advances upwards, tapping on
the bark to dislodge the insects concealed in its cre-
vices, and digging into any decayed or hollow parts,
to capture the concealed larvae. On reaching the top
of the tree, it does not descend it again, but flies off,
usually to another tree. One portion of the food of
this bird consists of ants, and their larvae and pupae, in
pursuit of which it frequently visits the ground ; and
Mr. Yarrell states, that he had seldom seen a newly
killed specimen, which had not some earth adhering
to the base of the bill, indicating that it had been plun-
dering an ant-hill.
Like the other Woodpeckers, this species breeds in
the holes of trees, and in excavating or enlarging these,
it is said to carry away the chips to a distance in order
to prevent their betraying the position of the nest. The
eggs are from five to seven in number. The note of
this bird is loud, and is compared to a laugh ; it is said
to be most frequently heard before rain, and hence in
some places, the bird has received the name of the
Rain-bird. There is a considerable number of species
nearly allied to this, inhabiting most parts of both
hemispheres.
THE YELIOW-BACKED WOODPECKEE (Brachy-
pternus aurantius), an inhabitant of India and Ceylon,
is about eight inches in length, and of a black colour
above, with the top of the head spotted with white ;
the crest, the middle of the back, and part of the wing-
coverts orange; and the wings brown, mottled with
white. The lower surface is brownish-white, with
brown markings. This bird, with some allied Indian
species, is remarkable for the structure of its feet, the
inner hind toe being of very small size, and provided
only with a weak claw. It is common in the vicinity
of Calcutta, where it breeds in the holes of trees. In
Ceylon it frequents the Palmyra topes, excavating large
holes in the trunks of the male trees, which are softer
than those of the females.
THE TIGA WOODPECKEE (Chrysonotus Tiga). — In
this, and several allied Indian species, the feet have
only three toes, the inner hind toe, which was rudimen-
tary in the last mentioned species, being here entirely
deficient. In other respects, these birds agree closely
with the Yellow -backed Woodpecker.
THE EED- HEADED WOODPECKEE (Melanerpes
erythroceph(dus}.—rS\a?> bird, which may be taken as the
type of a subordinate group of Woodpeckers peculiar
to America, is an inhabitant of the United States and
Canada, performing a southward migration from its
most northern haunts, at the approach of winter. Its
length is between nine and ten inches ; its head and
neck are deep scarlet ; the greater part of the upper
surface is black, with a bluish gloss ; but the rump, and
lower part of the back, and the secondary feathers are
white, as is also the entire lower surface.
This bird, like the rest of his family, frequents woods
and orchards, and feeds principally upon the insects
which he dislodges from their retreats in or under the
bark. As he is an abundant bird, and incessantly
engaged in the destruction of these secret foes to
vegetation, the services which he renders to man in
preserving trees are very great; nevertheless, as he
has a taste for fruit, and a remarkable discrimination
in selecting the best sorts, he has been regarded, in
common with most of his relatives, as a nuisance, and
in former times the legislatures of some of the states
offered a premium of twopence per head for the destruc-
tion of Woodpeckers. Ripe cherries are great favourites
with him, as are also pears and apples ; if disturbed
when regaling himself upon the latter, " he seizes a
capital one by striking his open bill deep into it, and bears
it off to the woods." He also attacks the Indian corn
when in its milky state. Like the other members of
this family, the Red-headed Woodpecker deposits its
eggs in a hole of the trunk, or some large limb of a
tree. The eggs, which are six in number, are white,
with a few reddish spots. The black snake frequently
invades the nest of the woodpecker, and devours its
eggs and young, in spite of the clamour of the parent
birds. After feasting in this way, the reptile will fre-
quently coil himself up in the place of his victims, and
sometimes remain there for several days, causing the
most intense alarm to the unlucky schoolboy, who,
on attempting to plunder the nest, finds that another
robber has been before him.
THE COLLAEED WOODPECKEE (Melanopicus torqua-
tus), another inhabitant of the United States, is nearly
a foot in length ; its plumage is black, with a greenish
gloss above ; the forehead, cheeks, and chin are deep
red; round the neck there is a white collar, which
spreads over the breast ; the abdomen is deep scarlet,
and the vent black. In its general habits it agrees
with the preceding species.
THE EED-BELLIED WOODPECKEE (Centura* caro-
linus) is found in all parts of the United States and
even in Canada ; it is also said to be a native of some
of the West Indian islands. It has the forehead yellow,
the upper part of the head and neck golden red, the
cheeks and throat buff, and the lower surface yellowish-
ash, tinged with blood-red on the belly. The back is
black, with transverse white lines ; the wings and tail
black, beautifully barred with white ; and the rump and
tail coverts are white. The length of this bird is about
ten inches. In its habits it resembles the preceding spe-
cies, running about on the trunks and branches of trees,
THE DOMINICAN WOODPECKER. BIRDS. THE WRYNECK.
383
and making a rattling noise upon the dead limbs so loud
as to be heard at a distance of half a mile. It sometimes
feeds with avidity upon the Indian corn. According to
Wilson, its voice is hoarser than that of the other wood-
peckers ; he says that its usual note is "chow," and
adds that it reminded him of the barking of a little
lapdog. At the breeding season it digs a hole usually
in the lower surface of the oblique decaying limb of
a tree, in which the female deposits five pure white
eggs. The young when nearly full-grown, but not yet
able to fly, creep out of the nest and climb to the higher
branches, where they are fed for some days by their
parents, but often pay the penalty of their impatience
to see the world by being snapped up by hawks.
THE DOMINICAN WOODPECKER (Leuconerpes domi-
mcanus), an inhabitant ot South America, has its
plumage generally white ; the back of the neck, a
streak running backward from each eye, the anterior
half of the back and the wings black ; the tail is also
black, with brown bands ; the back of the head and the
belly are yellow. Its total length is about twelve inches.
This bird is said by Azara to frequent trees and walls,
but rarely to run upon them like the preceding wood-
peckers. It perches frequently in the manner of ordi-
nary birds, and feeds upon wasps, and other insects,
and upon fruits.
THE GOLDEN- WINGED WOODPECKER (Colaptes
auratus) is an example of a peculiar group, in which
the bill is almost destitute of ridges. Members of this
group are found in both hemispheres ; the present
species is a native of North America, in nearly all parts
of which it is to be found. Its colour above is a dark
brown, with transverse black streaks ; the upper part
of the head is gray, the cheeks are cinnamon-brown,
and on the back of the head is a bright red crescent-
shaped spot; the throat and chin are fawn colour,
bounded on each side by a black streak, running from
the base of the bill ; on the breast there is a broad,
deep black crescent, and the belly is yellowish-white,
with round black spots. The lower surface of the wings
and tail, and the shafts of all the quills are of a beauti-
ful golden-yellow colour, whence the name of the species;
the rump and tail-coverts are white, and the tail black.
The length of this bird is about twelve inches.
The food of the Golden-winged Woodpecker seems
to consist principally of ants and their larvae, in pursuit
of which he visits the broken and decayed stumps of
trees and even the ground. But, although thus par-
tially terrestrial in its habits, this bird frequents trees
like the other members of its family, and climbs over
their trunks and branches with great ease. It also
feeds freely upon fruits, and is very partial to Indian
corn, especially in the state known to the American
farmers as roasting ears. Its nest is made as usual in
a hole in the trunk or branch of a tree, and this is
sometimes dug by the birds themselves out of the solid
wood. The eggs are white, and six hi number.
THE MINUTE PICULET (Picumnus minutus}. —
Under the name of Piculets we may distinguish a
small group of very diminutive species, which inhabit
the tropical regions of both hemispheres ; they difler
from the true woodpeckers principally in the structure
of the tail, which is not used in supporting the bird,
and has the tips of its feathers rounded. The pre-
sent, with several nearly allied species, inhabits the
forests of tropical America, where it appears to be
pretty widely dispersed. It measures only three inches
and a quarter in length, and is of a brown colour above,
with numerous white spots, and with the forehead and
part of the crown of the head bright red ; the lower
surface is yellowish-brown, streaked with a darker tint.
In its general habits this little bird resembles ite
larger relatives already described, creeping about in
search of insects upon the trunks and branches of trees,
and breeding in holes.
TEMMINCK'S PICULET (Sasia abnormis}.—la this,
and one or two other species occurring in India, the
feet are furnished with only three toes, two in front
and one behind, as in Picoides and Chrysonotus.
The present species, which is a native of Malacca
and the neighbouring islands, is probably the most
diminutive member of its family, measuring only three
inches in length ; three quarters of an inch less than
the diminutive golden-crested wren, the smallest of
British birds. It is of a green colour above, with the
forehead yellow, and the cheeks reddish-brown; the
eyes are surrounded by a naked skin of a bright rose
colour; the rump is yellowish-orange, the tail black,
and the lower surface light cinnamon colour, with a
yellowish gloss on the abdomen.
THE WRYNECK ( Yunx torquilla)— Plate 17, fig. 59.
— This bird, which is a summer visitor to England, is
widely distributed over the northern parts of the
eastern hemisphere, extending its range at least as
far eastward as India. In this country it arrives in
April, and leaves us again about the end of August ;
and as these are also pretty nearly the times of arrival
and departure of the cuckoo, this bird is known in
some places under the name of the cuckoo's mate. Its
name of Wryneck has been given to it on account
of its habit of twisting its head into various positions,
especially while feeding. Although .the colouring of
this bird cannot boast of any brilliancy, its ground
colour being yellowish-gray above and white beneath,
variously spotted, mottled and banded with brown and
black, yet, from the elegance of its form, and the
beauty of its markings, it cannot but be regarded as a
handsome bird.
The food of the Wryneck consists principally of ants
and their larvae and pupae, in search of which it visits
the ground in the vicinity of the nests of those insects ;
it also captures insects of various kinds whilst running
upon the trunks and branches of trees in the manner
of the true Woodpeckers. In all cases the insects are
captured by means of the extensible, worm-like tongue,
which is endued with a viscid secretion to which the
insects adhere ; this organ is darted out and retracted
with such extraordinary rapidity that the pale-coloured
larva or pupa of an ant adhering to it, being more
conspicuous than the tongue itself, seems almost as if
moving towards the mouth by attraction. The Wry-
neck breeds in the holes of trees, laying its eggs upon
the rotten wood at the bottom of the cavity. The eggs
are sometimes nine or ten in number, and are of a pure
white colour.
THE CAYENNE BARBET (Capita cayanensis). — Mr.
384
SCANSORES. BIRDS.-
Gray and some other ornithologists place in this family
several species of birds which appear to have much in
common with the Puff birds and Barbacous wb ich we have
placed among the Kingfishers. They are distinguished,
however, by having two toes in front and two behind,
although the inner hind toe is short. They inhabit
the depths of the forests, where they reside in solitude
and seek their insect food. They nestle in the holes
of trees. The present species, which inhabits Guiana,
is about seven inches in length, and is black above,
and yellowish-white beneath, with the forehead and
chin red.
THE GREEN INDIAN BARBET (Megalaima viridis),
a species allied to the preceding, is of a green colour,
with the head and neck grayish-brown, the wing pri-
maries brown, and the orbits white. It is six inches
and a half in length. This species dwells in the forests
of India, chiefly on the mountains, where it is seen
perching on the highest branches of trees.
THE CEYLON BARBET (Megalaima zeilanica) is
green, with the head and neck pale-brown, and the
cheeks yellow; its bill is red. This bird, which is
about an inch shorter than the preceding, is an abun-
dant species in Ceylon, where it breeds in the holes of
trees, laying three or four pure white eggs. It feeds
upon fruits and berries of all kinds, and probably also
upon insects and small birds, as Mr. Layard found
that a specimen confined in an aviary destroyed and
swallowed whole the little Amadince which were placed
with it. When confined in a small cage this indivi-
dual set to work to dig his way through the wood, and
hammered upon it vigorously in the manner of a wood-
pecker.
FAMILY IV.— CUCULID.E.
This last family of the Scansorial birds includes the
common Cuckoo of this country, together with a con-
siderable number of other species, which agree with it
more or less in structure and habits. These birds,
with but few exceptions, have a slender compressed
bill, of which the upper mandible is arched along the
ridge, and furnished with a notch on each margin near
the tip. The gape is generally very wide, extending
back nearly to the eyes, almost as in the Fissirostral
division of the Passeres, with which it must be con-
fessed that the Cuckoos have some affinity. The
nostrils are placed at the base of the upper mandible
in a membranous groove ; the tail is long and ample,
with the tips of its feathers rounded ; the tarsi are
rather short, and the toes long, but unequal in length.
The birds of this family occur in both hemispheres,
and, indeed, in most parts of the world. They are
most abundant in warm climates, and those which are
met with in cold or temperate countries are generally
summer birds of passage. They all feed principally
upon insects. In their breeding they exhibit a remark-
able dissimilarity; for, whilst many species build a
nest and bring up their young in the manner of birds
in general, others, amongst which is our own Cuckoo,
make over all the labour of incubation and rearing the
young to other birds, in whose nests they deposit their
THE COMMON CUCKOO (Cuculus canorus) — Plate 17-,
fig. 60. — This bird, whose note, at any rate, is well
known hi this country, although many are unacquainted
with him by sight, is about the size of a small pigeon,
but, from the elongation of his tail, he measures nearly
a foot in length. The whole of the upper parts of the
body are of a bluish-ash colour, and this tint also
extends over the throat and chest; the abdomen is
white,with numerous blackish-brown transverse streaks;
and the tail is black, with white spots at the extremity,
and along the shafts and margins of the feathers. It
is an inhabitant of the greater part of the eastern hemi-
sphere, occurring as a summer visitor in Europe, and
the other northern countries which it frequents, and
retiring for the winter into the warmer regions of Africa
and Southern Asia. In this country it arrives in April,
and takes its departure again in August; during the
intervening period its curious note, closely resembling
the word Cuckoo, may be constantly heard about woods,
orchards, and hedgerows. In the present day most
people hear this note with pleasure, from its association
with the commencement of fine weather, but formerly
it was frequently regarded as a sound of evil omen, and
no doubt some relics of this superstitious feeling may
still linger in agricultural districts.
The food of the Cuckoo consists of insects and their
larvse, and amongst the latter he seems to prefer the
large hairy caterpillars of the tiger moth, commonly
known to country people under the name of woolly
bears. The hairs with which these caterpillars are
clothed, remain, with the legs of beetles and other indi-
gestible portions of the food, in the stomach, whence
they are no doubt ejected in the same way as the
feathers and bones of small birds by the birds of prey.
A considerable portion of the hairs, however, seem to
adhere to the walls of the stomach, which in this way are
frequently covered with a hairy coat. The Cuckoo is
usually seen perched upon the branch of a tree or bush,
the shortness of its tarsi rendering motion on the ground
awkward to it, although it frequently descends amongst
the herbage at the base of the hedges to search for its
favourite caterpillars. Its flight is tolerably swift, and
it glides with easy motion from tree to tree.
We have now to speak of that singular and myste-
rious instinct which 'prompts the Cuckoo and many
other species of its family to deposit their eggs in the
nests of other birds, thus saving themselves all the
trouble of building a nest, hatching then* eggs, and
bringing up their young. Although it is impossible to
say for what purpose this curious instinct has been
implanted in these birds, it is, nevertheless, completely
in accordance with their peculiar structure and mode
of reproduction. They produce their eggs only at
intervals of several days, and as then1 residence in our
temperate climate is but short, the young could hardly
be all brought to maturity by their own parents in time I
to take their departure with them. The egg of the
Cuckoo is of very small size in comparison with the
bird ; its weight does not exceed that of the skylark's
egg, although the comparative size of the two birds is
as four to one. Hence, the egg of the parasite is readily
introduced into the nest of its intended foster parent, and
the latter is not alarmed by the presence in its habitation
THE COMMON CUCKOO. BIRDS. THE BKOXZE CUCKOO.
385
, of an egg so enormous as to be positively inconvenient.
Thjs is of some consequence, as the birds whose nests
are selected by the Cuckoo for the reception of its
eggs are all much less than itself. They are tolerably
numerous, but the favourite species in this country
seem to be the hedge-sparrow, the pied wagtail, and the
meadow pipit.
The Cuckoo's egg is hatched in a shorter period than
. those of its foster parent, and thus the young Cuckoo
commonly makes its appearance before many of the
eggs of the latter are hatched. Its first business, after
coming into the world, is to get rid as speedily as
possible of all its companions, whether hatched or not,
in order to secure to itself the exclusive attention of its
foster parents, for as it has to grow rapidly to maturity,
it requires to be supplied with a much larger quantity
of food than would fall to its share if the insects and
worms collected by the old birds had to be divided
amongst a nestful of hungry claimants. With this
exceedingly selfish object in view, the young Cuckoo
begins operations by gently insinuating his rump under
the body of one of the young birds, which he then, with
the assistance of his wings, contrives to hoist upon his
back, which is provided with a peculiar depression for the
.express purpose of enabling the unfortunate little victim
to ride there in safety. With his load properly poised,
the young Cuckoo goes backwards until he reaches the
edge of the nest, when, with a sudden jerk, he throws
it off to perish. The other young birds soon follow,
and he then betakes himself to the unhatched eggs,
which are disposed of in the same way. The instinct
of getting rid of young birds in this way is found to last
in the young Cuckoo for several days after he is hatched,
but, singularly enough, he will allow an egg to remain
if put into the nest when he is nine or ten days old.
The young Cuckoo, left by this means the sole possessor
of the nest, thrives rapidly upon the abundant nourish-
ment, the enjoyment of which he has secured to him-
self, and in the course of about three weeks he is able
to leave the nest, although he still makes constant
demands upon his foster parents ; and, indeed, there is
reason to believe that the cry of the young Cuckoo will
induce almost any bird in his neighbourhood to bring
him food. This applies also to the other parasitic
species of this family, and to the equally parasitic
cowpen-bird of the United States. Young thrushes,
only just able to take care of themselves, have been
known, in captivity, to bring food to young cuckoos,
and the late Bishop of Norwich mentions an instance
in which a cuckoo administered a most severe punish-
ment to a young thrush who ventured to devour a
worm, instead of dutifully carrying it up to his greedy
companion. The young Cuckoos do not leave this
country till September, although the old birds, as
already stated, depart at the end of July or beginning
of August; young birds have even been known to
remain in Cornwall till October.
THE AUSTRALIAN CUCKOO (Cuculus optatus}.—
This bird is so similar to our European species, that at
first sight it might be regarded as the same bird. It
differs, however, in some minor particulars, such as
the greater breadth and distinctness of the black bands
on the breast, the light fawn-colour of the abdomen,
VOL. L
and the smaller size of the claws. It has only been
met with in the northern parts of Australia, and
nothing is known of its habits.
THE UNADORNED CUCKOO (Cuculus inornatus), the
common species in Southern Australia, is a summer
visitor to Van Diemen's Land, and also appears to be
partially migratory on the continent of Australia. It
is about the same size as the preceding species, and of
a brownish-gray colour, darker, and tinged with olive
on the upper surface ; the feathers of the long tail are
marked with triangular spots of white along their
margins. The call of this species is very different
from that of our common Cuckoo, being a ringing
whistle, forming a succession of running notes, of which
the last and highest are several times repeated. Its
food consists chiefly of caterpillars, beetles, and Phas-
midse, in pursuit of which amongst the branches it
displays great agility. Like the European Cuckoo,
this bird is parasitic in its habits, depositing its eggs in
the nests of numerous species of small birds, and the
young Cuckoo, after leaving the nest, may be seen
sitting on the branch of a tree and receiving supplies of
food from other birds, sometimes belonging to more
than one species.
THE BRONZE CUCKOO (Chrysococcyx lucidus) appears
to be the most widely dispersed of the Australian
Cuckoos, being met with in all parts of the continent
of Australia, and also in Van Diemen's Land. It is a
small species, measuring only five inches and a half in
length, but the tail is much shorter than in the ordinary
Cuckoos. The male has the whole upper surface of a
rich bronze colour, with the wing primaries brown, and
the lower surface white, with numerous transverse
bronzed stripes interrupted in the middle ; in the
female the bronzed tint of the upper surface is a mere
wash upon the brown, and the transverse bars of the
lower surface are faint, and of a brown colour.
This bird is a summer visitor to Van Diemen's Land,
and partially migratory in New South Wales. It feeds
upon insects of various kinds, and its note is described
by Mr. Gould as a mournful whistle. Like the preced-
ing it lays its eggs in the nests of other birds, usually
selecting a domed nest with a very small entrance.
THE INDIAN BLACK CUCKOO (Eudynamys orientalts"),
an inhabitant of India and the eastern parts of Asia,
ncludiug its islands, is about twelve inches in length,
and of a black colour, with a rich blue gloss on the
upper surface. It is found about trees, and is a noisy
bird, constantly uttering a loud note, compared to the
syllables koyo. The food of this species consists cf
fruits, and it deposits its eggs in the nests of the Indian
crows (Corvus splendens and C. culminans).
FLINDERS' CUCKOO (Eudynamys Flindenu), an
inhabitant of the eastern and northern parts of Aus-
ralia, is about fourteen inches in length, of which the
,mple tail makes up nearly half. The male is entirely
of a deep glossy greenish-black, with the irides red,
.nd the bill yellowish-olive ; the female is brown above,
with numerous buff or whitish spots and bars, and buffy-
white below, spotted and barred with blackish-brown.
The top of the head, and a streak running from the
base of the bill along each cheek, are greenish-black.
The habits of this bird are unknown.
3 C
386
SCANSOKES. BIRDS.-
THE GKEAT SPOTTED CUCKOO (Coccystcs glanda-
rius), a native of Northern and Western Africa, measures
about fifteen inches in length, but of this the tail con-
stitutes nearly half. This bird is of a grayish-black
colour above, with the head dark ash-colour, and
adorned with a crest of long feathers, and with nearly all
the feathers of the wings tipped with white ; the tail-
coverts are long and pointed, and tipped with white,
as are also the graduated tail-feathers, of which the
two middle ones are brown, and the rest blackish ; the
whole of the lower surface is white. Individuals of
this species migrate in the summer into the southern
countries of Europe ; they are most abundant in Italy
and Spain. A single specimen has also been taken in
Ireland.
LE VATLLAWT'S CUCKOO (Coccystes serratus), another
African species, is known at the Cape of Good Hope
as the Niewe Jaars Voogel, or New-Year's-bird, from
a supposition that it only makes its appearance at New-
Year's-day.
THE PIED CBESTED-CTTCKOO (Coccystes melanoleucos),
which is generally distributed in India, and especially
abundant in Bengal and Ceylon, is black above, and
white beneath, with a white spot upon each wing, and
the tips of the tail-feathers white. It is about eleven
inches in length. This bird frequents the tops of trees,
and feeds principally upon caterpillars, and other soft
insects. It deposits its eggs in the nests of a species of
Malacocercus. Mr. E. L. Layard observed a pair of
the latter hovering with great solicitude over a bush,
and on his approaching, they flew off, as if wounded,
to lead him from the spot ; on examining the bush, he
found that the object of their anxious cares was a
young Cuckoo of the present species, and on capturing
it, the old birds flew about him uttering cries of distress.
THE ANI (Crotophaga Ani). — Several species of this
family, inhabitants of South America, and known
under the native name of Ani, are distinguished by the
form of the bill, which is much compressed, with the
ridge of the upper mandible greatly curved, and dilated
at the base into a thin sharp plate or crest. The
common Ani is about fourteen inches in length, and
of a black colour, with a violet gloss ; its tail is very
long and graduated. It inhabits the savannahs and
the banks of streams in the West Indian islands, and
in Brazil and Paraguay, living in small societies in the
forests even during the breeding season, when several
males and females work together in the formation of a
common nest; after the completion of which the females
perform the business of incubation and rearing the
yoxing in common. The food of this bird and its
allies consists principally of insects and their larvse ;
it is fond of searching the skins of cattle for the para-
sites adhering to them, and may even be seen sus-
pended from the tail of a cow, carefully examining the
tuft of hairs at its extremity for any insects that may
harbour there. Flies and other winged insects are
captured by it on the wing. It also feeds partially
upon fruits and berries.
THE COUEOLL (Leptosormis of:r) is an inhabitant of
Southern Africa and of Madagascar, in the latter of
which countries it is called the Vourong-drion • its
name of Couroll has been given to it by the French
ornithologists to express its apparent combination of
the characters of the Cuckoos and the Rollers. It is
eighteen or nineteen inches in length, of which about
half is made up by the long tail ; its colour is a bronzed
green above, with the primary quills greenish-black ;
the back of the head bears a tuft of bronzed-brown
feathers; a black streak runs from the angle of the
mouth to the eye ; the neck and the upper part of the
breast are of a delicate slaty-gray, and the rest of the
lower surface nearly white. The female is said to be
reddish-brown, spotted with brown, above, and light
red, variegated with black, beneath. This bird resides
in the forests, and lives principally upon fruits, but
also devours large insects, such as locusts, mantides,
and cicadse. It hatches its own eggs, and brings up
its own young.
THE CHANNEL-BILL (ScythropsNovce Hollandice). —
New South Wales is the native country of this remark-
able bird, which, having been placed amongst the
Hornbills by some naturalists, and with the Toucans
by others, has at last found a permanent resting-place
in the family of the Cuckoos. It is a large species,
measuring about twenty inches in length, and is fur-
nished with a long and powerful bill, of which the
upper mandible is strongly channeled on each side a
little below the ridge, and has its margins pretty
strongly denticulated or festooned for some distance
from the point. The plumage is gray, that of the back,
wings, and tail being darkest, and having each feather,
including the central tail-feathers, tipped with brown-
ish-black ; the rest of the tail-feathers bear a broad
black band near the apex, the tip itself being white ;
the abdomen and lower surface of the wings are buffy-
white, with indistinct grayish-brown transverse bars.
The eyes are surrounded by a scarlet skin, which
descends to the nostrils at the base of the bill, and the
bill itself is of a pale-brown colour.
The Channel -bill is a migratory bird, arriving in
New South Wales in October and departing in January ;
its winter residence is unknown. The food of this
bird consists of insects, especially the large phasmidse
and beetles, which its large and strong bill enables it
to destroy and devour with facility. Its habits in the
breeding season are quite unknown.
THE YELLOW-BILLED AMEEICAN CUCKOO ( Coccyzus
americanus). — This bird is a summer visitor to the
United States of North America, where it is commonly
known as the Cow-bird, from its note resembling the
word cow. It passes the winter in the West Indies,
and migrates in the spring as far north as Canada. A
few specimens have been killed in this country, although
it would appear almost impossible for the birds to cross
the Atlantic. The Yellow-billed Cuckoo is brownish-
gray above, exhibiting greenish, reddish, and bluish
tints, according to the direction of the light ; the lower
surface is of a silver}' whiteness ; the two middle tail-
feathers are light brownish-orange, and the remainder
black, tipped with white. The bill is brownish-black,
with the base of the upper mandible and the whole of
the lower one, except the extreme tip, bright yellow.
The food of this bird consists principally of cater-
pillars, but it also eats fruits of different kinds, and is
accused of sucking the eggs of other Hrds. It builds
THE PHEASANT CUCKOO. BIRDS. THK TACCO.
337
a flat, thin nest, composed of a few twigs and fragments
of herbage, upon the horizontal branch of a tree, and
lays four or five eggs. Upon these the female sits
with an assiduity which forms a remarkable contrast
to the desertion of their offspring by the typical Cuckoos;
she will remain upon her nest until the hand is almost
in contact with her, and when compelled to quit it by
the approach of danger, will flutter along the ground
as if maimed in the wing, in order to entice away the
intruder.
THE PHEASANT CUCKOO (Centropus phasianus), a
large and remarkably fine species inhabiting New
South Wales, is readily distinguished by the great
length of the claw belonging to the true (or inner) hind
toe. From this character the name of Lark-heeled
Cuckoos has been conferred upon the present species
and its allies. It measures about thirty inches in
length, of which fully half is occupied by the broad
and ample tail. Its general colour is a rich brown,
paler beneath, streaked on the body, and barred on the
wings and tail, with buff, each streak or bar being
narrowly edged with black. This bird inhabits swampy
places among the brushes, where it runs through the
herbage with great facility. When disturbed, it flies
up to the low branch of some tree, and thence ascends
by leaping from branch to branch to the top of the tree,
whence it flies off to another. Unlike some of the pre-
ceding species, the Pheasant Cuckoo takes the trouble
of hatching and rearing its own young, building a large
nest of dried grasses, usually in the midst of a tuft of
grass. The nest is domed, and furnished with two
openings, through one of which the head, and through
the other the tail of the female protrudes whilst she is
engaged in the work of incubation.
THE SENEGAL LARK-HEELED CUCKOO (Centropus
sencgalensis), which appears to inhabit nearly the whole
of Africa, is not more than sixteen inches in length,
and has the head, back of the neck, and upper part of
the back, black ; the rest of the back and the wings cinna-
mon-red; the rump and tail feathers blackish, more or
less streaked transversely with fine buff lines ; the lower
part of the body is buffy white. As in the preceding
species, the shafts of nearly all the feathers are thick,
stiff, and brilliant, giving a peculiar character to the
plumage. This bird lives in pairs in the forest, and
feeds upon locusts and other large insects. It breeds
in the holes of trees, and the male and female assist
each other in the task of incubation. The note of
the male is described by Le Vaillant as resembling the
words coura-coura-hovi-coura-how.
THE RED-WINGED CUCKOO (Centropus rufipennis),
a common species in -India and in the eastern islands,
is known to the European residents in India as the
" Crow Pheasant," from its presenting a certain resem-
blance both in appearance and manners to those two
birds. It resides both in wooded and cultivated
grounds, and in the open jungles, and feeds principally
on the ground, walking along somewhat pompously,
with its ample tail widely spread, and picking up not
only large insects, but also centipedes, scorpions, and
even small lizards and snakes. Colonel Sykes found
in one of these birds a snake eight inches, and a lizard
thirteen inches in length. The head of the latter was
in the stomach and partly digested, whilst the body was
still in the oesophagus. The note of this species is
described as a monotonous cry of hoot-hoot-hoot, or
hoop-hoop-hoop. The young bird is said by Mr. Blyth
to be almost constantly repeating a curious hoarse
sound " like a person choking, which," he says, " is not
pleasant to hear." The nest, which is of very large
size, and domed, is placed in a thick bush or tree. It
has a single aperture in the side.
THE TACCO (Saurothera vetula). — Several American
species of this family, called Ground Cuckoos by Mr.
Gray, are distinguished by their long straight bill, which
is curved only at the point, and denticulated along the
margin, their long tarsi and their short toes. They are
thus organized for dwelling more upon the ground than
most of the other Cuculidae. The present species,
which is the best known, is an inhabitant of the West
Indies, and especially of the island of Jamaica, where
it is tolerably abundant in the woods, and is known as
the Rain-bird, from its uttering its peculiar cry before
rain. This bird is about fifteen niches in length,
including its long wedge-shaped tail. It is of a brown
colour above, and pale yellowish-brown beneath, with
the chin and throat nearly white ; all the tail-feathers,
except the two middle ones, are tipped with white. Its
food consists of caterpillars and other large insects, and
of small lizards, snakes, and other animals which it is
able to overcome. In pursuit of its prey, it runs with
facility not only on the ground, but also on the trunks
and branches of trees, the latter being the situation in
which it most commonly meets with the small lizards on
which it preys, and it passes with the most astonishing
facility through the thickest bushes. Its common cry
resembles the word taceo; but when on the wing, or
alarmed at any object, it pronounces the syllables cra-
cra-cra, or qua-qua-qua, in a tone so much resembling
a sudden burst of laughter, that it is known in some
places by the name of the Laugher. This species
builds a nest at the foot of a tree, composing it of dry
roots, moss, and leaves, and lays four or five eggs.
SPARRMANN'S HONEY GUIDE (Indicator Spar-
manni) is of a rusty-gray colour above, having the wings
brown, with a yellow spot at the bend. It is about six
inches in length, and inhabits the southern parts of
Africa, where, with some allied species, it is noted for
its fondness for feeding upon bees, and especially upon
the contents of their combs. In search of these
dainties, the Honey Guides seek out the nests of the'
wild bees, which are generally built in holes of trees,
and endeavour to force their way in ; to protect
them from the stings of the industrious insects whose
premises they thus invade, they are furnished with a
covering of stiff and hard feathers, and with a skin so
dense, that Le Vaillant asserts that it gave him some
trouble to pierce it with a pin. Nevertheless, they are
occasionally destroyed during their burglarious pro-
ceedings by the bees, which then cover up the body
with a waxen vault to prevent its decomposition ren-
dering it a nuisance in the nest. By their cries when
haunting the vicinity of a wild hive, and probably
engaged in capturing the bees as they issue from, or
return to their home, these birds often lead the Hottentots
and others to the place ; indeed, the older naturalists
388
COLUMB.I
-BIRDS. COLUMBID.E.
believed that when the birds found it impossible to get
access to the combs by their own exertions, they would
set off in search of human aid, and guide their allies to
the hive by flying before them from bush to bush. The
Hottentots are said always to leave a portion of comb
for the Honey Guides when they have been led by
them to the discovery of a hive. A peculiar mammal,
the Katel, which is as partial to honey and the other
contents of the hive as the Honey Guides themselves,
also avails himself of the instinct of these birds, and
is often conducted to a rich banquet by their cries.
The Honey Guides fly heavily, and only for short dis-
tances, but they run upon the trunks and branches of
trees with great agility in the manner of the Wood-
peckers, to which Mr. Blyth considers them as more
nearly allied than to the Cuckoos. Their mode of
breeding has long been a matter of dispute — some
ornithologists asserting that they deposit their eggs in
holes of trees, and others that they form a pensile nest ;
but, from the observations of M. Verreaux, it would
appear that they have the parasitic habits of the common
Cuckoo, introducing their eggs sometimes into the nests
of Woodpeckers, and sometimes into those of Orioles,
which would account for the discrepancy in the state-
ments above alluded to. The species are principally
found in Africa, and indeed in the southern parts of
that continent, but one or two occur in the forests of
India, and in the island of Borneo.
OEDER IV.— COLUMB^E.
THE Order of the Columbse or Pigeons stands as it were
in an intermediate position between the Passerine birds
and the Gallinse, between the two sections of Inses-
sores and Autophagsc, into which, as already stated
(p. 235), the class of birds has been divided. With the
former they agree in their niditication and in the help-
lessness of their young, which remain in the nest for a
considerable time, and require to be carefully tended
and fed by the parent birds ; whilst they approach the
latter to a considerable extent in their structure. In-
deed, by some ornithologists the Columbae are amal-
gamated with the gallinaceous birds to form a single
order. There is, however, one important peculiarity
which seems to distinguish the Pigeons from all birds ;
the walls of that dilatation of the oesophagus which
usually goes by the name of the crop, are furnished
with a number of glands, from which during the breeding
season a milky juice exudes ; this mingles with the
food in the crop, soaks into it and softens it, so that, as
the young birds are fed with substances regurgitated
from the crops of their parents, they may be regarded
as partially nourished by a secretion produced by the
latter, just as the young Mammals are supported upon
their mother's milk.
The principal distinctive character of the Columbae
is furnished by the structure of the bill. The upper
mandible consists of a horny apical portion, which is
often of considerable length and strength, but its base
is formed by a convex cartilaginous plate, in the ante-
rior portion of which the nostrils are situated. The
skin covering the cartilaginous portion of the bill is of
a soft texture, very different from that of the rest of the
bill ; it is sometimes smooth and clothed with a sort of
scurf, but in other cases it is warty, or even developed
into a fleshy wattle. This is especially the case in
some domesticated varieties of the pigeon.
The Columbae are provided with short tarsi and
moderately long toes, all scutellated. The toes are four
in number, three in front and one behind ; the anterior
toes are not united by a membrane at their base ; the
hinder toe is placed in the same plane as the anterior
toes, and the whole sole of the foot is formed by soft
papillated pads, which are usually a good deal wider
than the scutellated upper portion of the toes. The
wings, which are generally long and pointed, contain
ten primary quills, and the tail usually consists of
twelve feathers, although in some cases there are six-
teen. An important distinctive character of the birds
of this order as compared with the Gallinse, is to be
found in the fact that their feathers are destitute of the
plumules or accessory plumes (p. 232), which are greatly
developed in the gallinaceous birds.
The form of the wings in the Pigeons is sufficient to
indicate that they are birds of rapid and powerful flight,
and many of them are remarkable for the speed with
which they traverse the air, especially when engaged
in those migrations which some species perform; Most
of them are arboreal in their habits, and nestle in the
holes of trees ; others frequent rocks ; but all perch
with great facility, although they generally seek their
food upon the ground, and walk or run with consider-
able ease. They are also remarkable in their mode of
drinking, in which they differ from all other known
birds. The general practice of birds in drinking is, as
is well-known, to take up a small portion of water in
the bill, and then, by raising the head, to allow it to
flow down into the throat ; the Pigeons, on the con-
trary, dip their bills into the water and hold them there
until they have quenched their thirst.
In Mr. Gray's arrangement the Pigeons form only a
single family, that of the Columbidse ; and as the birds
all exhibit a very close resemblance to each other, we
may follow his example in this respect, merely separat-
ing the species into certain subordinate groups which
appear .to be indicated by peculiar characters. These
birds are inhabitants of the warmer and temperate
regions of the earth, but they are found in most abun-
dance in hot climates, where also their plumage attains
a brilliancy of which that of our native species gives
us no idea.
FAMILY I.— COLUMBID^).
PIGEONS.
The section of the True, Pigeons, to which our British
species of this group belong, may be regarded as the
most typical of the order. The birds of this section
have a rather small and slender bill, the base of which
THE STOCK-DOVE. BIRDS. TIIE ROCK-DOVE.
380
distinctly exhibits the soft and somewhat inflated skin
described as characteristic of the Pigeons in general ;
the nostrils are in the form of longitudinal slits near
the front of this basal inflation ; and the tarsi and toes
are of moderate length. The first species to which we
shall refer is—
THE STOCK-DOVE (Columba (Enas)— Plate 17, fig.
61. This is rather a rare and local British species,
found only iu the southern and midland counties of
England. In the south of Europe it is abundant, but
visits the central and northern parts of the continent
only in the summer, and many individuals appear to
migrate in the autumn into Africa even from Italy and
the islands of the Mediterranean. It inhabits woods
and breeds in the holes of trees, especially in those
which occur so commonly in the heads of pollard-oaks
and willows. In those districts, however, in which
trees are scarce, such as some parts of Norfolk and
Suffolk, the Stock-dove makes its nest in the rabbit
burrows, or in the midst of a thick furze bush. The
eggs are two in number and pure white. The voice of
the Stock-dove is a grunting or rumbling note, very
different from the musical and plaintive coo which we
are accustomed to associate with the idea of a dove, and
far from agreeable. Its food consists of young leaves,
berries, and seeds of various kinds, according to the
season ; and during the winter it associates in flocks
with the Ring-doves, which it resembles in its mode
of lite. The length of the Stock-dove is between thir-
teen and fourteen inches.
THE RING-DOVE (Columba Palumbus), also called
the CUSHAT aud the WOOD-PIGEON, is a larger species
than the preceding, some specimens measuring seven-
teen inches in length. It is of a bluish-gray colour,
with the wing-primaries lead-gray, narrowly margined
externally with white, and with a portion of the wing-
coverts white ; the neck and breast are purple-red, and
the feathers of the sides of the neck are largely tipped
with white, in such a manner as to represent portions
of several white rings encircling the neck ; the tail-
feathers exhibit three shades of gray, the palest in
the middle, with the exception of the two central
ones, which are bluish-gray, with the tips lead colour.
The irides are yellow, the bill reddish-orange, and
the feet red.
Like the preceding species, this, which is the largest
European pigeon, inhabits the woods both of this coun-
try and of the continent of Europe ; it is most abundant
in the south, and is only a summer visitor to the most
northern countries, such as Norway and Sweden. It
is particularly fond of thick plantations of firs, in which
it delights to build, and here its tender cooing notes
may be heard throughout the spring and summer.
The nest is built upon the branches of trees, and is
composed of a few sticks laid across one another.
The eggs are two in number aud white.
THE ROCK-DOVE (Columba livid), the parent stock
of our domestic pigeons, is a very widely distributed
species, occurring, apparently in a wild state, in all
parts of the Old World. The wild birds are rather
less than twelve inches in length, and are of a bluish-
gray colour, with the lower parts of the back pure
white, two black bands across the wings, and the throat
exhibiting beautiful glossy purple arid green tints ; the
lower surface is pearl-gray, as are also the tail-feathers,
except at the tips, where they are lead colour. Our
dove-cote pigeons approach very closely in all these
characters to the original wild stock ; but the varieties
which have been produced in what are called the fancy
breeds of pigeons are almost innumerable, and many of
them differ so much from each other, and from the
common parents of the whole, that it would seem at
first sight almost impossible that they should ajl spring
from the same species. Almost every part of the birds
takes part in these remarkable changes ; the bill and
feet, the character of the plumage, are changed to a
very considerable extent ; the colour varies from pure
white to deep black, and exhibits almost every possi-
ble mixture of the intervening tints, and in one variety
even the number of feathers in the tail is greatly
increased. The Tumblers, so called from their curi-
ous habit of turning over backwards in the air, present
the closest resemblance in form to the common pigeon,
but in them the head, bill, and feet are small ; these
characters occur also in several other breeds, of which
we may mention the Jacobins, which have the feathers
of the sides of the head and neck curled, so as to form
a sort of ruff; and the Fantails, in which we find the
tail-feathers increased to thirty-six, or three times their
natural number, forming a broad arched tail The
Carriers, which are large birds, with the bill elongated
and the feet large, are distinguished by the great
development of the naked skin at the base of the bill,
which forms a large warty wattle. This character is
also presented, although to a less extent, by the nearly-
allied breeds called Horsemen and Dragoons. These
latter birds, but especially the Carriers, are remarkable
for the degree in which they possess the power, com-
mon indeed to all the pigeons, but in a less degree, of
finding their way home from long distances — a faculty
which has caused them to be employed from time
immemorial in the rapid and secret conveyance of
intelligence.
THE PASSENGER PIGEON (Ectopistes mujratorins},
which is an inhabitant of the United States, is
remarkable on account of the prodigious numbers in
which it associates together, and the extraordinary
migrations performed by these vast flocks. These
migrations appear to be undertaken in search of food,
especially beech mast, of which these pigeons are very
fond ; aud when they have consumed the whole supply
of this in any given spot in the forest, they betake
themselves to some other district, perhaps at a distance
of many miles, but still residing in the place where
they first took up their abode, to which they regularly
return every evening after their foraging expeditious.
Wilson mentions one of these roosting-places in Ken-
tucky, which was said to extend through the woods for a
distance of forty miles, with a breadth of several miles.
In these spots the pigeons also breed ; they produce
only one young one at a time, but breed several times
in the year, and as the nests are very numerous and
close together, they are plundered to a vast extent of
their nearly full-grown inmates by the inhabitai ts of
the country for many miles round the breeding-place.
The pigeons are also shot and knocked dosvn in vast
390
COT.UMB;
-BIRDS. PIGEONS.
numbers as they return to their roosting-place in the
evening, and they afford an abundant supply of food to
both beasts and birds of prey. Audubon's account of
a nocturnal battue of these birds, at which he assisted,
Fig. 1'22.
The Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius).
is most animated and interesting, but too long for
insertion here.
The Passenger Pigeon— fig. 122 — has long, pointed
wings, and a large, wedge-shaped tail. Its colour
above is bluish-gray ; the sides of the neck are reddish
chestnut, with brilliant golden-green, and purple tints ;
the wings are lead-gray, and the coverts exhibit a few
black spots ; the chin is bluish-gray, and the remainder
of the lower surface chestnut, becoming paler on the
belly, and leaving the vent and lower tail-coverts white ;
the two middle tail-feathers are blackish brown, and
the remainder white, more or less tinged with gray and
lead colour, especially towards the base. In its general
characters it much resembles our common Turtle
Dove. Its length is from sixteen to seventeen inches.
THE TURTLE DOVE (Turtur auritus), an abundant
species in Europe, Asia, and Africa, is a summer visitor
to this country, in the southern parts of which it is not
uncommon. It is of a light brown colour above, and
still paler beneath, with the belly and vent white ; the
top of the head is of a bluish-ash colour ; on each side
of the neck there are four rows of black feathers, tipped
with white, which form four oblique bars ; the wing-
coverts are dark brown, with broad reddish-brown
margins ; the two central tail-feathers are dark brown,
tipped with white ; the remainder are paler, and the
outermost on each side has its external web white.
The Turtle Dove builds a slight nest in a bush or tree,
usually about eight or ten feet from the ground. In
this the female lays two eggs; and in this country
the birds produce only one brood in the season, but
in warmer climates they are described as laying
twice. The voice of this species is a tender and
mournful cooing.
THE COLLAEED TURTLE DOVE (Turtur risorius),
a native of the warm regions of Africa and Asia, is a
smaller species than the preceding, measuring only
about ten inches in length. It is of a very pale and
delicate grayish-brown colour, with a sort of black
collar surrounding the back of the neck. This bird
has been domesticated, or at least bred in captivity,
from time immemorial, especially in the East.
THE GRACEFUL GROUND-DOVE (Geopelia cuneatci),
the Turtle Dove of the colonists of Swan Kiver, is
an inhabitant of most parts of Australia, where it is
a general favourite. It is a very elegant little bird,
measuring only eight inches in length, including a long
tail ; its general colour is a cinnamon-brown above,
and a delicate gray beneath ; the latter is also the colour
of the head and neck. The wing-coverts and scapulars
are marked with numerous white spots -encircled with
black lines, and the outer graduated tail-feathers are
white except at the base. The eye is red, and sur-
rounded by a rather broad circle of naked red skin.
This elegant little pigeon lives principally on the ground,
searching for the seeds which constitute its food. Its
note is said by Mr. Gilbert to resemble the distant
crowing of a cock.
THE MAGNIFICENT FRUIT-PIGEON (Carpophaya
magnified) — Plate 17, fig. 63 — one of the most splendid
of its tribe, is found abundantly in the south-eastern
parts of Australia, especially in the brushes about the
Macquarrie and Clarence rivers. It measures about
sixteen inches in length, and has the head and neck
of a delicate pale gray colour, and the whole of tho
upper surface and wings rich golden-green, with bright
yellow patches upon the greater wing-coverts and ter-
tiaries, forming an irregular band across the wing ; the
tail is bronzed green ; from the chin a deep purple line
passes down the centre of the throat, and joins a large
patch of the same rich colour, which occupies the breast
and belly, and is followed behind by a band of orange-
yellow covering the lower part of the flanks, the
vent and the thighs, whilst the under tail-coverts are
greenish-yellow. It is a shy bird, but has a hoarse,
loud, and monotonous note, by which its presence is
often betrayed. Its food consists chiefly of wild figs
and the fruits of palms, in search of which it passes
nearly the whole of its time on trees.
JWAIXSON'S FRUIT-PIGEON. BIRDS. THE CROWNED PIGEOX.
TREE PIGEONS.
The birds to which the name of Tree Pigeons has
been given, are distinguished from the preceding by
their generally short stout bill, in which the ridge of
both mandibles is nearly equally arched, and by their
very short tarsi, which are usually clothed with feathers
for a greater or less distance below the heel. The
inner front toe is also shorter than the outer one. The
shortness of the tarsi in these birds indicates that they
are less adapted than the preceding pigeons for walking
upon the ground, and in their habits they are pre-
eminently arboreal, passing nearly their whole time
amongst the branches of trees, and feeding principally
upon the fruits which they find in such situations.
They are confined to the warmer parts of the eastern
hemisphere, and the majority of the species are inhab-
itants of Southern Asia, with its islands, and Australia.
A few species are also met with in Africa.
SWAINSON'S FRUIT-PIGEON (Ptilinopus Swain-
sonii), a native of the Clarence river district of Australia,
is a beautiful little bird, measuring about seven inches
and a half in length. It is of a shining green colour
ibove, with the whole top of the head crimson, sur-
.-ounded by a yellow ring ; the feathers of the wings
are more or less distinctly margined with yellow, and
the tertiaries are deep blue towards the extremity ; the
tail-feathers are broadly tipped with yellow ; the neck
is grayish, and the breast green, each feather of the
latter part being forked at the extremity, and marked
with a silvery spot, giving a singular aspect to this
portion of the plumage ; the flanks are green, but the
centre of the abdomen is orange-red, with a reddish-
lilac crescent-shaped band separating it from the green
of the breast, and the under tail-coverts are orange-
yellow.
THE AROMATIC PIGEON (Treron aromatica) is a
native of India, Java, and some other neighbouring
islands, where it resides principally upon the banyan
trees. It is a shy bird, to which the concealment
afforded by the dense foliage of the banyans is most
welcome ; and as the fruit of these trees affords it a
constant and abundant supply of food, it is rarely under
the necessity of quitting its shelter. During the greater
part of the year considerable flocks of these birds live
together ; but during the breeding season they pair, and
build a slight nest of twigs, upon which the female
deposits two white eggs.
The Aromatic Pigeon measures between ten and
eleven inches in length, and has the whole lower sur-
face, except the chin and throat, which are yellow, of
a yellowish-green colour ; the crown of the head is
grayish ; the neck is green ; the back and lesser wing-
coverts are purplish-red ; the greater wing-coverts and
secondaries black, with bright yellow margins, and the
primaries are black. The lower part of the back, the
rump, and the two middle tail-feathers are green ; the
rest of the tail-feathers are bluish-gray, with a dark
central band. Many other species of Tree Pigeons
are met with in the Eastern Islands. The WHITE-
BOOTED PIGEON (Treron Sieboldii), represented on
Plate 18, fig. 65, is a native of Japan.
THE WAALIA PIGEON (Treron abyssinicd) — Plate 18,
fig. 69 — a native of Abyssinia, and of several other
parts of Africa, flies in large flocks, and reposes during
the heat of the day amongst the foliage of trees. It is
said by Bruce to be particularly fond of a species of
ash, upon the seeds of which it feeds. At the com-
mencement of the rainy season it migrates from
Abyssinia towards the south and south-west. The
Waalia Pigeons are very fat, and good eating ; but they
are regarded as unclean by the Abyssinians, who will
not even touch their bodies.
GROUND PIGEONS.
In this group the bill is of the same form as in the
true Pigeons, which these birds resemble in their
general characters ; but they have the tarsi much elon-
gated, and considerably stouter than in the preceding
groups, and their toes greatly resemble those of the
gallinaceous birds. The wings of the Ground Pigeons
are also short and rounded, indicating far less power of
flight than is possessed by the Pigeons generally ; and,
in fact, both in their structure and mode of life they
may be regarded as forming a transition from the true
Pigeons to the true Gallinse. These birds are found
almost exclusively in the warmer parts of the world.
Most of them are inhabitants of the eastern hemi-
sphere, especially the Indian islands and Australia.
THE CROWNED PIGEON (Goura coronata) — Plate
18, fig. 66. This bird, which is the largest living
species of its order, is an inhabitant of many of the
islands of the Eastern archipelago, in some of which it
is tolerably abundant. It feeds upon seeds, which it
picks up from the ground, and also upon berries ; it
builds its nest upon the branch of a tree, and lays only
two eggs. The .young are fed by their parents with
food regurgitated from the crop.
The length of this fine Pigeon is from twenty-eight
to thirty inches. The general colour of its plumage is
a pale bluish-gray, but the feathers of the back, the
scapulars, and lesser wing-coverts, are black at the
base, and purplish-brown at the apex, and the greater
wing-coverts are also purplish-brown, with a broad
white band across their middle. The quill feathers of
the wings and tail are gray. The most striking
character presented by the bird consists in an elegant
and ample crest of delicate decomposed plumes with
which the head is adorned. This is of the same pale
bluish-gray colour as the plumage of the head and
lower parts.
THE NICOBAR PIGEON ( Catenas nicobarica) is found
not only in the island of Nicobar, but also on the
continent of Asia, and in several other islands, including
the Moluccas and New Ireland. It measures about
fifteen inches in length, and is remarkable for the
splendour of its plumage, which is of a rich metallic
green colour, and exhibits the most brilliant golden,
coppery, and purplish tints, according to the direction
in which the light strikes it. The feathers of the back
of the neck are much elongated, and form a brilliant
mantle, which falls over the back and wings.
THE TAMBOURINE GROUND-DOVE (Perisfera tym-
panistria), a native of Southern Africa, has received
its name from the resemblance of the cooing of the
male, when heard at some distance, to the sound of a
39?.
-BIRDS.
tambourine. It is of a brown colour above, and nearly
white beneath ; its forehead is also white, and the
greater wing- coverts exhibit three or four spots of
greenish-black. Its length is about nine inches.
THE JAMAICA GROUND-DOVE (Peristera jamaicen-
gis'), which, with several other nearly allied species, is
generally distributed in South America and the West
Indian islands, is about twelve inches in length, and is
of a pale brown colour, with an orange tinge above,
and white, with a reddish tint beneath. The sides and
back of the neck are wine red, with lilac and golden-
green reflections. This bird inhabits the woods, where
it runs upon the ground with great swiftness, and roosts
in thick bushes.
THE PASSERINE GROUND-DOVE (Chamcepelia pas-
serina), a member of a genus which is peculiar to
America, in almost all parts of which the species are
distributed, is found not only in the West Indies, but
also in the southern states of North America, where,
however, it is a bird of passage. It is a very small
species, measuring little more than six inches in length ;
its colour is a pale ashy-brown above, and pale reddish-
brown beneath. These birds frequent the open fields
and plantations, where they fly in small flocks, and feed
upon rice and other seeds.
THE BRONZE- WINGED PIGEON (Phaps chalcoptera),
an inhabitant of almost all parts of Australia, is about
the size of a small pigeon, and is of a grayish-brown
colour, with a large spot of brilliant coppery bronze on
each feather of the wing-coverts ; the forehead is buff, or
buffy white, and there is a large white streak under each
eye. Unlike the preceding species, this bird possesses
great powers of flight, an endowment which is necessary
to it in the drier parts of Australia, to enable it to visit
the scattered supplies of water. It, nevertheless, feeds
entirely on the ground, and often frequents the stubble-
fields in great abundance, when it may be easily shot.
The flesh is said to be excellent.
THE PARTRIDGE BRONZE- WING ( Geophaps scripta),
a native of Southern Australia, is likewise celebrated
by Mr. Gould for its gastronomic qualities. It is about
the size, and has very much of the appearance and
gait of a partridge ; its general colour is light brown,
but the chin and sides of the head are adorned with
snow-white patches, separated by spaces of deep black ;
the flanks are white, and several of the greater wing-
coverts exhibit spots of metallic greenish-purple. This
bird is commonly seen in small parties or coveys, and
is so tame that the bullock-drivers not unfrequently
kill it with their whips. It feeds on the ground upon
the seeds of grasses and other plants, and also lays its
two white eggs upon the bare ground. When disturbed
it flies off exactly in the same manner as a partridge,
but generally directs its course to the nearest tree,
when, alighting upon a horizontal limb, and placing
itself in the direction of the axis of the branch, it will
sit so closely that it is with difficulty distinguished or
driven off. Several nearly allied species are met with
in different parts of Australia.
THE CRESTED PIGEON ( Ocyph aps lophotes), which
is also related to the preceding species, is a most elegant
little dove which inhabits the interior of the Australian
continent. It is about ten inches long ; the head, neck,
and lower surface are of a delicate gray colour ; the
back is light olive-brown ; the lesser wing- coverts
are light-brown, with a transverse black bar on each
feather, and the greater wing-coverts, shining bronzed
green, margined with white; the quills are dark-brown,
with white edges. But the distinguishing characteristic
of this pigeon consists in an elegant black crest, much
resembling that of our native lapwing, which springs
from the back of the head, measures about two inches
and a half in length, and gradually tapers to a point.
The Crested Pigeon is generally met with in swampy
districts ; it possesses great powers of flight, and usually
congregates in considerable flocks, especially when
visiting the water to drink.
DIDUNCULINE PIGEONS.
This group includes only a single species —
THE DIDTJNCTTLUS (Didunculusstrigirostrvi), which,
however, presents the most singular combination of
characters, and is further remarkable as being the
nearest living ally of the extinct Dodo. In this curious
bird the bill is large and strong ; the upper mandible
is convex, and strongly hooked at the tip, whilst the
lower mandible is abruptly truncated at the apex, and
armed on each side with three strong teeth. The
basal portion of the sides of the upper mandible is
covered with a membrane, in which the elongated and
oblique nostrils are pierced; the wings are tolerably
long ; the tarsi are stout, and the toes long, and furnished
with strong claws. The bird is rather larger than our
common partridge ; it has the head, neck, and breast of
a glossy greenish-black, and the remainder of its plu-
mage deep chestnut; the bill and the naked skin
surrounding the eyes are bright orange, and the feet
are flesh colour.
This singular bird inhabits the Navigator's Islands ;
it is described as dwelling principally upon the branches
of trees, and feeding upon berries and fruits. It flies
well, and is said to breed among the rocks in the inte-
rior of the islands. The chief interest attaching to the
Dinunculus is, however, to be found in its near approach,
especially in the form of the bill, to that most remark-
able extinct bird, the Dodo of the Mauritius, a resem-
blance which, indeed, probably furnished the first
inducement to Messrs. Strickland and Melville to place
the latter amongst the Columbine birds.
THE DODO (Didus ineptus) — fig. 123. This singular
bird, which was an inhabitant of the island of Mauritius
at the time of its discovery in the year 1598, and was
subsequently brought alive to Europe on several occa-
sions by the Dutch navigators, is now known as to its
external appearance only from a few pictures into
which it was introduced by the Dutch painters of the
beginning of the seventeenth century. The only parts
of its structure still to be found in Europe consist of
two heads, a foot, a few feathers, and some of its bones,
which are scattered about in various museums in Eng-
land and on the continent.
From the pictures above mentioned, and the descrip-
THE DODO. BIRDS. THE DODO.
393
tions of the early voyagers, it appears that the Dodo
was a bulky and heavy bird, larger than a swan, and
weighing sometimes as much as fifty pounds. It had
a long and strong bill, with the basal portion cf the
upper mandible depressed and membranous. The
apical part of this mandible was strong, horny, much
arched, hooked, and acute, giving the organ so much
resemblance to that of a vulture that the Dodo was at
one time regarded as allied to those birds of prey.
The nostrils were placed in the sides of the membranous
base of the upper mandible, and in all respects the
structure of the bill presents so great a similarity to
that occurring in the Didunculus, that, on the discovery
of the latter bird, the resemblance could not be
overlooked. The feet of the Dodo were short and
exceedingly stout, and, although presenting a certain
resemblance to those of a Pigeon, indicated clearly
enough that their possessor was a strictly terrestrial
bird; indeed, its wings being very short, and furnished
only with soft decomposed feathers, like the well-known
Ostrich plumes, were quite incapable of raising it from
the ground. From this rudimentary condition of its
wings, the Dodo was long regarded as allied to tlv;
Struthious birds, and it is still placed in the same order
The Dodo (Didus ineptus
with these by some ornithologists, although it must
be confessed to be a very anomalous occupant of
such a position. The body of the Dodo seems to
have terminated in a rounded extremity, and to have
been destitute of trne tail-feathers, but a tuft of plumes
similar to those of the wings occurred low down on its
back, and probably represented the tail-coverts. The
plumage of the Dodo was blackish, with the light
feathers of the wings and so-called tail pale fawn
colour.
That the occurrence of a large and sluggish bird
like the Dodo upon the distant island of Mauritius
must have been a welcome phenomenon to the Dutch
sailors who discovered it, cannot admit of much doubt ;
and we can easily understand that in their subsequent
voyages to the East Indies, they were only too glad
to avail themselves of the abundant supply of fresh
meat afforded by the Dodos, after being restricted
for months to the salt provisions of their ships' stores.
It is, however, remarkable that the only relics of so
singular a bird, which was certainly living two cen-
turies ago, and of which specimens were undoubtedly
imported into Europe, should be of so fragmentary
a description. This is still more strikingly the case
VOL. I.
with two other species nearly allied to the Dodo, of
which only a few bones are known to exist : —
THE SOLITAIRE (Z)u/ws sofrfarzws) is one of those
which existed, together with two other species, one of
which appears to have been the Dodo, on the little
island of Rodriguez. It is described by a French
sailor, named Leguat, as attaining a weight of forty-five
pounds, having feet and beak like a turkey's, and in
other respects closely resembling the Dodo. The
plumage was of a brownish-gray colour, and, according
to Leguat, the birds produced a noise like a rattle by
fluttering with their wings, which, he says, have the
extremity of the bone enlarged into a round knob like
a musket ball.
THE WAZARENE (Z)jVfas ATo?Gr<>r)?/A') is a bird
described by another Frenchman, named Fransoiy
Coache. It is said to have had only three toes. The
bones which are conjectured to have belonged to this
bird, indicate that it must have been nearly twice the
bulk of the Dodo.*
* For further information upon these interesting birds the
reader should consult the important work of Messrs. Strickland
& Melville— " The Dodo and its Kindred" — and a valuable
paper by Mr. Bartlett in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society.
3D
394
BIRDS. CRACID.E.
ORDER V.— GALLING.
THE gallinaceous birds, or those presenting more or
less resemblance both in structure and habits with
our common poultry, which constitute this order, form
the real commencement of the strictly autophagous
birds, or those whose young can generally run and feed
themselves from the moment of their escape from the
egg. These birds are usually of moderate or rather
large size, and of a stout and rather heavy form. They
have a small head, often partially or wholly denuded of
feathers, and a bill of moderate length, of which the
upper mandible is distinctly arched, and overhangs the
lower one both at the tip and along the margins. As
they are all essentially terrestrial in their habits, the
legs are always strong and well developed. The tarsi
are stout, and very commonly armed with a spur, or even
with two or more such weapons, which are especially
developed in the males ; the toes are three in front and
one behind, the latter being usually small and slightly
elevated upon the back of the tarsus, but sometimes
more elongated, and then placed upon the same plane
as the anterior toes, so as to render it more efficient in
grasping. The anterior toes are not very long, but
stout, and often united by webs at the base ; they are
armed with strong and rather blunt nails, which are of
great service to the birds in scratching in the ground
in search of food, a habit common to most of the
species. Hence, many ornithologists give these birds
the name of Rasores or Scrapers. The feathers of the
legs are continued down to the articulation of the
tarsus, and sometimes extend beyond this point even
to the extremities of the toes. The wings are gene-
rally short and weak in comparison with the weight of
the birds, so that they fly heavily, and only to short
distances. Their plumage is firm, and often adorned
with brilliant tints, and some parts of it, especially in
the males, are frequently developed to an extraordinary
extent, giving the birds sometimes a grotesque, and
sometimes an elegant appearance. The feathers are
distinguished by the great development of the acces-
sory plumules which spring from the base of the stem
at its junction with the quill.
The gallinaceous birds are spread over all parts of
the world, but the finest species are inhabitants of the
warmer regions. Their food consists of fruits, seeds,
herbage, insects, and worms. They are generally
polygamous in their habits, each male collecting around
him a seraglio as numerous as he can keep together.
In keeping off the attentions of rivals he is frequently
engaged in almost incessant combats. The females
lay their eggs, which are generally numerous, upon the
ground, in some sheltered situation. The young, as
already stated, are usually able to run as soon as they
leave the egg; but at night, or on the approach of
danger, they shelter themselves under the wings of
their mother.
FAMILY I.-CRACIDJ3.
The first family of the Gallinse includes a small
number of birds peculiar to South America, and known
under the names of Curassows and Guans. They
have a stout, arched bill of moderate length, with the
nostrils pierced near the base of the upper mandible,
usually in a sort of cere somewhat resembling that
occurring in the pigeons. Their wings are short and
rounded, and their tail long and ample ; their tarsi are
long and stout, and their toes are also long, but rather
slender, and the posterior toe is situated on the same
level as the anterior ones, and not elevated on the back
of the tarsus. These birds reside in the luxuriant
forests of tropical America; they live chiefly on the
ground, where they seek the seeds and insects which
constitute a great portion of their food. Their power
of flight is rather limited, as, indeed, is shown by the
form of the wings ; but they rise freely into the trees,
upon the branches of which they often roost and breed.
THE COMMON CUKASSOW " ( Crax alector}— Plate
20, fig. 73 — is nearly as large as a turkey, measuring
about three feet in total length. It is of a shining-black
colour, exhibiting purple and green tints according to
the direction in which the light falls upon its feathers ;
the belly and tail-coverts are white. The bill in this
bird is stout and black, but the basal half of both
mandibles is occupied by a large yellow cere, and the
eyes are surrounded by a naked skin of the same
colour. The feathers of the top and back of the head
are elongated and curled, forming a curious crest, which
the bird can raise at pleasure.
These birds, which are also called Hoccos, are found
in great flocks in the foret-ts oi* tropical America, where
they exhibit very little fear of man ; but when they
reside in the vicinity of human habitations, they become
more cautious, and are seldom seen more than two or
three together. They are easily domesticated, ami
then become very familiar, recognizing those who feed
them, and even pulling at their clothes when they
think themselves neglected. Their flesh, when young,
is very delicate. This bird has bred freely in Holland.
It lays its eggs on the ground, and the young run as
soon as they are hatched.
THE GLOBE CUBASSOW (Crax gldbicerd) is of a
blue-black colour, with the belly and lower tail-coverts
and the tips of the feathers of the crest white ; it is
distinguished by having at the base of the bill a large
hard globose, yellow swelling. This species inhabits
Guiana, and is as large as the Common Curassow.
THE CASHEW CTJEASSOW (Ourax pauxi) has the
upper mandible dilated upwards at the base into a large,
bony, crested tubercle of a bluish colour and pyriform
shape. The plumage of this species is black, with the
MEGAPODIIDJE. BIRDS. THE MOUND-BIRD.
395
belly and the tips of the tail-feathers white ; the head
is not crested, and the true bill is red. This bird is an
inhabitant of Mexico ; in its habits it resembles the
preceding species.
THE CRESTED GUAN (Penelope cristata), an inhabi-
tant of Guiana and Brazil, is about the same size as the
Curassow, and is of a blackish-bronze colour, glossed
with green, with the neck and breast spotted with
white, and the belly and legs, the rump, and lower
tail-coverts reddish. The head is adorned with a thick
crest, which the bird can elevate or depress at pleasure.
The base of the upper mandible is covered with a cere,
and the cheeks and throat are naked ; the latter being
furnished with a large pendant wattle, capable of
dilatation. The cheeks are violet, and the wattle of
the throat scarlet.
This remarkable bird is found in small flocks in the
forests, where it feeds chiefly upon seeds and fruits,
which it seeks upon the ground ; it walks and runs
with great ease and rapidity, but flies low and heavily.
According to Vieillot, this bird and its allies drink in
the same way as the pigeon. Its note resembles the
syllable pi, uttered in a sharp tone.
FAMILY II.— MEGAPODinXE.
In the birds of this family, which are all inhabitants
of the islands of the Eastern archipelago and of Aus-
tralia, we find a considerable analogy with those which
have just been described, especially in the position of the
hind toe, which in these, as in the preceding birds, is
placed on the same level as the anterior toes, so that
its whole lower surface is applied to the ground in
walking. The Megapodiidse also have the legs naked
a little way above the heel or articulation of the tarsus
with the tibia, a character which likewise occurs in
some of the Cracida3. They have a stout arched bill,
with the tip rather obtuse ; their wings are rather
short and rounded, and their feet large and powerful,
indicating strictly terrestrial habits. The tarsi and
toes are covered with scales.
The habits of these birds are most singular. They
deposit their eggs in a heap of sand, or an accumula-
tion of dead leaves, and trust to the heat of the sun,
assisted in the latter case by the warmth produced by
the decay of the vegetable matter, to maintain the
temperature necessary for the evolution of the young.
THE MOUND-BIRD (Megapodius tumulus}, called
the Jungle-fowl by the Australian colonists, is an
inhabitant of the north coast of Australia, where it was
discovered by Mr. Gilbert in the vicinity of Port
Essington. It is of the size of an ordinary fowl, and
has the upper surface dark cinnamon-brown, with the
back of the neck dark gray, which is also the colour of
the lower surface of the body ; the head is furnished
with a rather short, pointed, occipital crest ; the upper
and lower tail-coverts are dark brown, and the tail
itself blackish ; the bill and feet are reddish.
Mr. Gilbert was led to the discovery of this species
by observing at Port Essington numerous great mounds
of earth, which the colonists asserted to be ancient
tumuli of the natives. The latter, on the contrary,
assured him that these elevations were formed by
the Jungle-fowl for the purpose of hatching its eggs;
an assertion which afterwards proved to be correct.
On another part of the shore of Port Essington, in the
midst of a thicket, he met with a mound of sand and
shells, of a conical form, measuring about twenty feet
in circumference at the base, and five feet in height,
and at the top of this he found a young bird in a hole
about two feet deep, lying on a few withered leaves.
The old birds appear to excavate from the top of the hill,
directing the course of their burrow obliquely, so that,
although the eggs may be at a considerable distance
from the summit, they are within two feet of the sur-
face. After the deposition of the egg the hole is lightly
filled up with the excavated materials, and the natives
can detect the existence of a new laid egg, by observing
the marks of the old bird's feet upon the top of the
mound, when they ascertain the direction of the hole
by pushing a stick down through the light earth. They
even state that they can determine the length of time
that has elapsed since the deposition of the egg, by the
greater or less degree of resistance presented to the
passage of the stick. The size of the mound is often
enormous; Mr. Gilbert mentions one fifteen feet in
height and sixty in circumference, which was entirely
composed of the richest light vegetable mould. On
extracting an egg from this mound, at a depth of five
feet, Mr. Gilbert found that the surrounding materials
felt quite warm to the hands, and as this, like all the
other mounds seen by him, was completely protected
from the rays of the sun by the thick trees surrounding
it, it is evident that the warmth required for hatching
the eggs must be produced in the interior of the mass
of materials. The mounds are found in various situa-
tions, and difier greatly in their form and the materials
of which they are composed ; but it is remarkable that
in some rocky situations they are found to consist of
the same vegetable mould as the one above mentioned,
from which Mr, Gilbert concludes that the birds must
collect all the dead leaves they can find, and that the
mounds must be the work of many birds, and accu-
mulated during a considerable period of time, in order
to allow the leaves to become converted into mould.
The natives assert that no more than one pair of birds
are ever seen upon a mound at the same time, and this is
in accordance with Mr. Gilbert's observations; they also
state that the eggs are laid at night, and always placed
perpendicularly, both of which statements Mr. Gilbert
believed to be true.
FREYCINET'S MANKIRIO (Megapodius Freycineti)
— Plate 20, fig. 75. The other species of the genus
Megapodius are inhabitants of the great group of
Asiatic islands, where they follow the same habits of
life as the Australian species just described. The pre-
sent species is met with in Banda, and in the Papuan
islands of Waigiou and Guebe, where it is common.
It is thirteen inches iri length, and of a black colour,
with the neck nearly naked, and the bill and feet ful-
vous, the former having the tip white.
THE OCE1LATED LEIPOA (Leipoa ocellata}, called
the Native Pheasant by the Australian colonists, is a
large bird, measuring nearly two feet in length, and is
of a more graceful form than the Megapodius. It has
the top of the head furnished with a crest of slender
396
GAI.T.IX.E. BIUDS. I
feathers, and of a blackish-brown colour, and the back
of the neck dark gray. The whole of the feathers of
the back and wings are marked towards the tips with
bands of brown, black, and grayish-white, the paler
colour occupying the margin of the feathers, and thus
giving the plumage an ocellated appearance ; the tail-
feathers are blackish-brown, broadly tipped with buff;
the lower surface is pale buff, with some black bands
on the flanks ; the front of the neck bears numerous
elongated black feathers, with a white line down the
centre of each.
This handsome bird is an inhabitant of Western
Australia, where it dwells principally on the barren
sandy plains of the interior. Its food consists chiefly
of seeds and berries. The eggs are deposited in a
mound, usually about three feet in height, composed
of layers of dead leaves and other vegetable matters,
and covered with a coating of sand. Th'e natives.
who are very fond of the eggs, wait until the mound
is completed and covered up, when they easily secure
the whole stock, and the hen birds will then lay a
second, and even a third time. When broken up, the
mounds are always found to be tenanted by vast num-
bers of ants.
THE BRUSH TURKEY (Tallegalla Lathami)— Plate
20, fig. 74 — one of the most remarkable species of this
family, is a native of the brushes of New South Wales.
Its characters are so singular, that by Latham, and
even by Swainson, it was regarded as a vulture. It
has a robust and strongly-arched bill, of a black
colour ; the head and neck are covered with a deep
red skin, over which a few black hairs are thinly
scattered, and at the base of the neck there is a large
somewhat lobulated wattle of a bright yellow colour,
which, at the first glance, has something of the general
effect of the downy frill which frequently adorns the
same part in the vultures. The plumage of the upper
surface, including the ample tail, is blackish-brown, or
nearly black ; that of the lower surface is also blackish-
brown, but each feather has a silvery-gray tip, and the
feet are brown.
In its habits it is terrestrial, generally wandering
about in small flocks, and when disturbed eluding pur-
suit by the facility with which it runs through the
brush. When hard pressed, or suddenly alarmed, the
flock will fly up to the lowest bough of a tree, the top
of which they attain by a succession of leaps, and then
fly off to another part of the brush. The mound pre-
pared by this bird for the incubation of its eggs, consists
of a vast heap of decaying vegetable matters, collected
by several individuals acting in concert. The heap is
formed by the birds grasping successive portions of the
materials in their powerful feet, and then throwing
these behind them towards the centre of the space
occupied by them; and in this way they clear the
surface of the ground of ah1 herbage for a consider-
able distance around the mound. The eggs are large,
and, as in the case of the Megapodius, are deposited
in an upright position. The natives assured Mr.
Gould that the old birds frequented the vicinity of
the nest at the time when the young might be expected
to appear, and frequently uncovered the eggs and
covered them up again. This has been confirmed by
the breeding of a pair in the London Zoological Gar-
dens, the male (not the female as stated by the Austra-
lians to Mr. Gould) being assiduous in his attention to
the eggs, and assisting the }roung birds to make their
escape from the mound.
CUVIER'S TALEGALLA (Talegalla Cuviem), the
only other known species of this genus, is an inhabitant
of the forests of New Guinea. It is a much smaller
bird than the preceding, its size being only that of a
small fowl, and is entirely of a black colour.
THE MALEO (Merjacephalon Maleo), another sin-
gular species of this family, and the last to which we
shall refer, is a native of the island of Celebes. It has
the head naked, and furnished with a casque resembling
that of the cassoway in form, and the neck clothed
with a light down, amongst which are some short
scattered hairs. Like the preceding species, this bird
deposits its eggs in a heap of sand and vegetable
matters, and leaves them to be hatched by the heat
produced in the mass.
FAMILY III.— PHASIANID^E.
The birds of this family, some of whrfch are amongst
the most elegant and splendid of their class, are nearly
all inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere, only two
species being found in America ; and even in the Old
World their distribution is almost exclusively restricted
to the warmer parts of the Asiatic continent and its
dependent islands. They have a bill of moderate size
and strength, of which the upper mandible is pretty
strongly arched at the tip, where it overhangs the
lower one ; their wings are usually short and rounded,
indicating but moderate powers of flight ; but their
tarsi are tolerably elongated and strong, and their toes
rather short and stout, and terminated by pretty strong
scratching claws. The hinder toe is always shorter
than the anterior ones, and slightly elevated above
their plane on the back of the tarsus, which is also
frequently armed with one or more spurs. The form
of the tail varies greatly. It is usually ample, some-
times broad and rounded at the apex, Bometimes
elongated and wedge-shaped, or pointed. A portion
of the head is almost always bare of feathers, usually
round the eyes ; but in many cases a larger space is
covered with naked skin, and this is not unfrequently
dilated into combs and wattles of various and often
curious forms.
The numerous species belonging to this family may
be divided into four subordinate groups — those of the
Pheasants, Cocks, Peacocks, and Turkeys, of each of
which we shah1 now proceed to describe a few illustra-
tions : —
PHEASANTS.
THE COMMON PHEASANT (Phasianus colchicus).
This well-known bird, which is abundant in most parts
of Britain, is not a native of this country, but has been
introduced here, and into the southern parts of Europe
generally, from the south-west of the Asiatic continent.
The particular district from which the progenitors of
the Pheasants now inhabiting Europe were derived, is
supposed to have been the banks of the river Phasis,
THE COMMON PHEASANT. CIEDS. THE GOLDEN PHEASANT.
397
in the ancient kingdom of Colchis, on the eastern shore
of the Black sea, and the bird is still abundant in a
•wild state in the Caucasian provinces. Its scientific
names (Pliasianus colchicus] are derived from those
of the river and kingdom above mentioned.
The general appearance of the Pheasant is too
well known to need any description. The haunts of
the Pheasants are woods and thickets, but they never
thrive except in the vicinity of water, and are even
fond of taking up their abode amongst the rushes and
osiers of marshy places. They are terrestrial in their
habits, walking and running along the ground in the
same way as the common fowl, although with more
grace and swiftness. Their flight is heavy and whir-
ring, and they rarely take wing unless menaced with
immediate danger. During the summer they even
roost on the ground, but pass the long nights of
autumn and winter upon the branches of trees. The
cry of the cock Pheasant is a peculiar short crow.
The food of these birds consists of various kinds of
seeds, varied with wild fruits, green herbage, and
insects. Ants, and their larvae and pupae, are favourite
articles of diet with them. They may be seen eating
blackberries, sloes, and haws, and their crops are
sometimes found to be filled with acorns.
Like our common poultry, and, indeed, like all the
other species of this family, the Pheasant is poly-
gamous, and the males and females associate only
during the breeding season. The females deposit
their eggs, which vary from ten to fourteen in number,
in a small hollow lined with dead leaves, and scratched
iu the ground amongst long grass, or in the midst of
bushes ; but so careless are they in many cases, that
they have been known to drop their eggs in the nest
of the partridge. When engaged in the work of
incubation, however, the hen Pheasant sits very
closely, and, trusting to the concealment afforded by
the similarity of her brown colour to that of the ground,
she will scarcely rise from her nest until nearly under
the feet of an intruder. They lay freely in confine-
ment, and the possessors of preserves usually keep a
good many old birds in pens in order to maintain their
stock. The eggs are hatched by common hens, and
the young brought up with great care. The Pheasant
is also distinguished by the facility with which it may
be got to breed with other gallinaceous birds. In
captivity it has bred with the common fowl and the
guinea fowl, and wild hybrids between this bird and
the black cock have been met with.
The common Pheasant is liable to considerable
variation in its plumage. Some specimens are met
with quite white, others exhibit white patches, but the
most commoH variation consists in the presence of
white feathers scattered amongst the rest of the
plumage. The Ring-necked Pheasant, which has
been supposed to be a hybrid between the common
Pheasant and the Chinese .Ringed Pheasant (P. tor-
quatus), is regarded by Mr. Yarrell as a mere variety,
as is also the kind known as the Bohemian Pheasant.
The curious circumstance of hen Pheasants acquiring
a plumage more or less resembling that of the cock
bird, which was at one time supposed to be an effect of
age, has been shown by Mr. Yarrell to be connected
with the obliteration of the ovaries from some unknown
cause, and to occur both in young and old birds.
LADY AMHERST'S PHEASANT (Phasianus Amher-
sticn) — Plate 19, fig. 70 — one of the most elegant birds
of this family, is an inhabitant of continental India. The
top of the head is of a green colour, but is adorned with
a crest of slender crimson feathers ; and from the sides
and back of the head descends a beautiful white
tippet, each feather of which is terminated by a green
band ; the tail measures upwards of three feet in length,
and is of a grayish- white colour, with numerous broad
green bars on each feather.
THE GOLDEN PHEASANT (Phasianus pictus) — fig.
123 — resembles the preceding species in the possession
of a crest and tippet, but is far more splendid, or rather
F g. 123.
The Golden Pheasant (rhasianus pictus).
gaudy, in its colouring. Its crest feathers are yellow,
and those of the tippet golden-yellow, barred with
black at the apex. The back is metallic green, the
rump and tail-coverts yellow, the wings blackish,
with the secondaries blue, and the whole lower sur-
face bright red ; a portion of the tail-coverts project
in long hackle-like plumes of a red colour, and the
elongated tail-feathers are mottled with brown and
black. This magnificent bird is a native of China,
wLere it is kept in a state of domestication. It has
-BIRDS. PHASIAJUD.E.
also been imported into Europe, in Hie milder parts of
which it breeds freely in the aviaries. The female is
of a dull brownish colour, with black transverse bars.
THE SILVEB PHEASANT (Phasianus nycthemerus]
— Plate 19, fig. 71 — which is also a well-known bird
in our aviaries, is a native of the northern parts of
China. It is an active, powerful, and handsome bird,
having the head adorned with a crest of elongated
purplish-black feathers, and the whole of the upper
surface and tail white, but with each feather of the
back and wings delicately pencilled with black lines.
The two central tail-feathers, which are much elon-
gated, are pure white ; the lateral ones are streaked
with black; and the whole lower surface is of the
same deep purplish-brown colour as the crest. The
naked space surrounding the eye is of very large size,
and of a bright vermillion colour. The female is
grayish-brown above and white below, marked with
irregular black bars.
THE FIRE-BACKED PHEASANT (Euplocomus igni-
tus) — Plate 19, fig. 69 — an inhabitant of Sumatra, is a
large and handsome species. It measures about two
feet in length, and has the principal part of its plumage
of a beautiful slaty-black colour. The crown of the
head is adorned with a crest of slender feathers, with
naked shafts, and its sides are covered with a naked
bluish-purple skin ; the feathers of the lower part of
the back are of a most brilliant, fiery orange colour,
whence the name of the species ; the tail is somewhat
forked, the feathers being turned out on each side
towards the apex, somewhat as in the well-known
black cock ; the central leathers are white, the lateral
ones black, with green reflections. The female is a
smaller bird than the male, and of a general cinnamon-
brown colour.
THE IMPEYAN PHEASANT (Lophoplivrus Impeya-
nus)— fig. 124 — another splendid Indian species, is an
inhabitant of the mountains of Nepaul and the Hirna-
FiK. 124.
The Impeyan Pheasant (Lophophorus Impeyanus).
laya. The plumage of the upper surface of this Phea-
sant exhibits the most brilliant changing tints of green,
blue, violet, and golden bronze, with an intense metallic
lustre. The head bears a crest of elongated feathers,
generally drooping towards the back of the neck. These
plumes have a slender naked shaft, terminated by an
oval lustrous lamina. Low down on the back there
is a broad band of pure white, and the tail is ample,
rounded, and bright chestnut. The lower surface is
nearly black. The length of the male is rather more
than two feet. The female is smaller, and reddish-
brown, varied with spots and bars of black ; the back
of the head bears a few elongated feathers, and the
front of the neck is white.
THE ARGUS PHEASANT (Argtis giganteus), one
of the most remarkable and magnificent species of the
present family, is an inhabitant of several of the larger
inlands of the Eastern archipelago. The most singular
feature in the structure of this bird is the great devel-
opment of the secondary wing-feathers, which are
nearly three times as long as the primaries, and very
broad. The body of the Argus Pheasant is not much
larger than that of an ordinary fowl, "but the total
length of the male is between five and six feet, owing
THE BAXKIVA COCK. BIRDS. THE PEACOCK.
to the great elongation of the central tail-feathers.
The general colour of the plumage is brownish, but it
is elegantly spotted and mottled with yellow and black.
The secondary quills, which are often nearly three
feet in length, are elegantly marked with a series of
large ocellated spots, and the tail-feathers are deep
chestnut, with numerous small white spots, each sur-
rounded by a black ring. The enormously developed
wing-feathers of this bird, instead of enabling it to fly
with great ease and rapidity, are really hindrances to
its activity in the air. It flies heavily, and only for
short distances, but runs with great speed, its large
wings assisting it when progressing with the wind.
When displaying himself before his females, the male
Argus Pheasant spreads his wings downwards, much
in the same manner as the turkey cock. The ocellated
spots on the secondaries then come into view, and
give the bird an elegant appearance.
THE TRAGOPAN (Ceriornis satyrus) — Plate 18, fig.
68 — or NEPAULESE HORNED PHEASANT, a native of
Thibet and Nepaul, is a beautiful but somewhat sin-
gular-looking bird. It is about the size of a large
fowl, and of a deep red colour, covered with numerous
white spots, each surrounded by a ring of black. The
Horned Tragopan is an Alpine species, occurring at
great altitudes on the mountains of Nepaul. Two
or three other species are known, all from the Hima-
layan range.
THE BANKIVA COCK (Gallus Banldvus)— Plate 18,
fig. 67— which is generally believed to be the original
species of most of our domestic varieties of poultry,
will require but little notice. It closely resembles in
its plumage some of the ordinary dunghill cocks of
this country, although it is considerably less in size.
It is an inhabitant of several islands of the Eastern
archipelago. This bird appears to have been domes-
ticated in the east at a very early period, and must
have been introduced into Europe in very ancient
times. It was well known to the Greeks and Romans,
who, like our own people at a very recent period,
and many eastern nations at the present day, delighted
in the cruel spectacle of a cock-fight. Several other
species of the genus Gallus are found in the eastern
islands, especially Java and Sumatra, and some,
amongst which is —
THE JUNGLE FOWL (Gallus Sonneratii), also on
the continent of India. This is a fine bird, equalling
in size one of our common domestic fowls. It has a
large bright red comb and wattles. The general
colour of its plumage is a golden or reddish-orange,
with the breast and wings blackish-gray, and the tail
deep green. But its most singular character consists
in the dilatation of the apices of the shafts of all the
long hackles into flat elliptical plates. On the neck
these are of a golden-orange colour, whilst the barbs
are gray, so that this part appears covered with golden
spangles on a gray ground.
PEACOCKS.
THE COMMON PEACOCK (Pavo cristatus) a native
of the forests of continental India, is, perhaps, endowed
with a more gorgeous plumage than any other bird,
except a few of his immediate allies. Nearly all his
feathers exhibit more or less metallic lustre. The
crown of his head is adorned with an elegant tuft of
slender stems, each supporting a small brilliant palette
at its extremity; his neck and breast are of the deepest
metallic blue, with surface tints of golden-green; and
his tail-coverts, enormously elongated as in the other
species of this group, form a most magnificent train,
adorned with hundreds of splendid eye-like spots.
His general form, also, is exceedingly elegant, and
when he elevates and spreads his gorgeous train in the
sun, displaying it in every way, as if conscious of the
admiration he is exciting, the beholder is constrained
to admit that there is no creature upon which nature
has lavished her powers of adornment with a more
unsparing hand. The female is entirely of a sober
brownish tint.
In its native regions the Peacock frequents the
jungles and forests, and feeds upon fruits, seeds, and
insects. It possesses considerable powers of flight,
and generally roosts in high trees. The females
deposit their eggs on a little grass placed on the ground
among bushes. The voice of the Peacock is exceed-
ingly harsh and discordant, its cry closely resembling
the word paon, which is its French name. The intro-
duction of this bird into Europe is ascribed to Alexander
the Great, but the date at which it was first brought
to this country is unknown. Although their flesh is
dry, and by no means delicate, Peacocks formed a
favourite dish at great entertainments amongst the
Romans, and also found a place in the feasts of the
middle ages, when they were served up in their
feathers with great pomp.
THE JAVANESE PEACOCK (Pavo muticus) is dis-
tinguished from the preceding species by having the
plumes of the crest of nearly equal breadth throughout,
without any naked shaft It is also less brilliant in its
colours. It inhabits Java and Sumatra, and likewise
the continent of India.
THE ARGUS POLYPLECTRON (Polyplectron bical-
caratum). The Polyplechons, so named from their
having two or more spurs on each tarsus, whilst the
true Peacocks, and all the other Phasianidse, have
only one, are further distinguished by the peculiar
construction of the tail, which has its superior coverts
considerably elongated, but still, less so than the true
tail-feathei>s, of which they cover only about two-
thirds. The fore part of the head is adorned in these
birds with a sort of crest formed of elongated feathers.
These, in the present species, are brownish -black ; the
head and neck are blackish, with the throat nearly
white ; the upper surface is yellowish-brown, with
numerous black spots, and with an ocellated spot of a
fine bluish-green colour at the tip of each feather ; the
lower surface is brown ; the tail is composed of twenty-
two feathers, which form, when expanded, a broad
rounded fan. These, and the tail-coverts, which con-
stitute as it were a second tail, extending, as already
stated, about two-thirds of the length of the true tail-
feathers, are of a yellowish-brown colour, mottled with
black, and all of them bear near the extremity a pair
of most beautiful green spots, each surrounded by a
400
GALLIX.E.-
-PHASIANID.K.
black ring. This beautiful bird measures about
eighteen inches in total length. It is an inhabitant of
Malacca and the adjacent islands.
THE TIBETAN POLYPLECTRON (Pohjplectron Tibe-
tanus), a species nearly allied to the preceding, is
about twenty-two inches long, and inhabits the moun-
tains of Tibet, probably extending into China. Its
colour is brown, barred on the lower surface with
blackish-brown, and mottled above with grayish-white.
The feathers of the wings, except the primary quills,
are each adorned near the tip with beautiful eye-spots
of blue, changing in certain lights to purple, and
exhibiting an opaline lustre. Each of these spots is
surrounded by a narrow black circle, and beyond this
with one of yellowish-white. Each feather of the two
ranges forming the tail is adorned with a pair of
similar, but larger spots, which, however, scarcely
equal those of the wings in brilliancy.
TURKEYS.
THE COMMON TURKEY (Mekayris Gallopavo). The
birds which we include under this category are the
True Turkeys and the Guinea Fowl, which are dis-
tinguished from the rest of the Phasianidae by their
short pendant tails, and the naked wattled skin with
which the whole of their heads and the greater part of
their necks are covered.
The Common Turkey is a well known inhabitant
of our poultry-yards, in which his large size and
uncouth gestures when endeavouring to pay court to
the females of his seraglio, render him a conspicuous
object. This bird, unlike all the preceding species of
the present family, is a native of North America, in the
less frequented parts of which it is still to be met with
in a wild state. The wild birds are larger and finer
than the generality of our domesticated individuals;
the adult male measures about three feet and a half in
length, and his black plumage exhibits metallic purple
and bronzed-green tints of far greater brilliancy than
any we are in the habit of seeing upon the finest of
our domestic specimens. The quill-feathers, both of
the wings and tail, are variegated with buffy- white in
the wild as in the tame specimens ; the head and all
the front of the neck are covered with a bare red skin,
adorned in parts with bright blue tints, and swelling
out towards the base of the neck into a sort of lobulated
wattle, which is capable of considerable^ distension
when the bird is excited. Above the base of the
bill there is a subcylindrical fleshy appendage which
is also capable of being distended, and then hangs
down in a curious manner at one side of the bill. The
breast exhibits a tuft of long black hairs.
The wild Turkeys are met with in flocks in the
forests of North America ; the old males keeping by
themselves, and the females, with theiryoiing associates,
in larger parties. These keep as much as possible out
of the way of the adult males, the latter taking every
opportunity of maltreating, and even destroying the
younger individuals of their own sex. They are
polygamous in their habits, and during the breeding
season the males display themselves before the females
in exactly the same way as the domesticated birds,
strutting about with their tails spread nnd erected,
their wings drooping to the ground, their heads drawn
back, and their wattles dilated, uttering at the same
time that peculiar gobbling sound which must be
familiar to all our readers. The whole demeanour oi
the bird under these circumstances betrays an almost
convulsive state of excitement, which, however, he
seems to find so delightful, that in order to prolong it
he will, if possible, destroy the eggs laid by the female
so as to prevent her sitting, and thus removing herself
from his attentions. The female accordingly always
selects some secret place for the reception of her eggs ;
and those who keep Turkeys are well aware that this
tendency to lay in out of the. way places has not been
eradicated in the hen Turkey by domestication. It is
said that sometimes several females deposit their eggs
in the same nest, so that one or more may always bo
on the spot to protect them.
The food of the wild Turkey consists of seeds and
irtiits of all kinds, grass, and insects. It seeks its food
and passes most of its time upon the ground, but roosts
at night upon the branches of trees. Its power of
flight is, however, but limited, and, when, in journeying
from one part of the country to another, a flock of
these birds comes to a river, they mount to the tops of
the highest trees on the bank, and from this position
of vantage, take flight for the opposite shore. Even
with this precaution, however, many of the weaker
individuals often fall into the water.
THE OCELLATED TURKEY (Meleagris ocellota),
the only other known species of this genus, is a native
of Honduras, where it does not seem to be very
abundant. It is about the size of the common Turkey,
but far more splendid in its tints. The general colour
of the plumage of the body is a bronzed-green, with
each feather bordered with two lines, the first of which
is black, and the outer one golden- bronze. The
greater wing-coverts are bright chestnut, and the
quills elegantly variegated with black and white. The
upper tail-coverts and the quill-feathers of the tail are
brownish-gray,, mottled and banded with black, but
towards the extremity each of them exhibits a band of
variable green and blue, bounded above and below
by a strong black line, and beyond this the tip of the
feather is of the most beautiful coppery or bronzed-
golden colour, so that, as these feathers are arranged
in four ranges one above the other, the whole tail
exhibits four transverse rows of brilliant eye-like spots.
The naked skin of the fore part of the head is red, and
exhibits an elongated wattle above the base of the bill
as in the common Turkey; that of the neck is livid, and
its lower part is not lobulated.
THE GUINEA TOWL(Numida Meleagris}— Plate 19,
fig. 72 — another well-known domestic species, has the
head and neck naked, the crown of the head adorned
with a hard black casque, and the base of the bill
furnished with large wattles. The general colour of
the plumage is pearly-gray, mottled all over with
small white spots. The tarsi have no spurs. This
bird is a native of the warmer parts of Africa, where it
is usually met with in small flocks or families, but at
some seasons these unite to form large companies. It
is a restless and quarrelsome bird, and very noisy,
TETRAOXID^E. BIRDSi THE BLACK GROUSE.
401
constantly uttering a loud harsh cry resembling the
syllables ca-mac, ca-mac, frequently repeated. The
Guinea Fowl is partial to marshy places, where it finds
abundance of worms and insects, on which it is fond
of feeding; it also eats grain and fruits of various kinds.
It roosts in trees, and the female deposits her eggs,
sometimes to the number of twenty, on the ground in
the midst of a tuft of grass or a thicket. Both the
flesh and the eggs of this bird are exceedingly good,
and for this reason it is kept in our poultry yards,
although its noisy quarrelsome habits render it rather
a nuisance.
THE CRESTED GUINEA FOWL (Numida cristata) is
a good deal smaller than the common species, and
instead of a casque, the crown of its head is adorned
with a crest of decomposed hairy plumage. Its plum-
age is blue-black, with numerous small gray spots;
the primaries are yellowish-brown, and the edges of
the secondaries white. The head and neck are bare,
and of a livid blue colour, tinged in part with red.
This species is found in Southern Africa ; its habits
resemble those of the preceding species.
FAMILY IV.— TETRAONTD^E.
The birds of this family, which includes the well-
known grouse, partridges, and quails, and their allies,
are generally of smaller size than those of the preceding
group, and far less striking either for elegance of form
or brilliancy of colour. They have a short and rather
broad bill, of which the upper mandible is considerably
arched, compressed towards the tip, and rather obtuse
at the point ; the nostrils, which are placed at the
base of the upper mandible, are frequently covered
with featlrers, or concealed by a hard scale ; and the
feet are rather short and moderately stout, generally
scutellated, but sometimes covered with somewhat
hair-like feathers to the extremity of the tarsi, or even
of the toes. The hind toe is small, and slightly elevated
upon the back of the tarsus, which is most commonly
destitute of spurs.
These birds are very generally distributed over the
face of the globe, but the most typical species of the
family inhabit the forests and heaths of mountainous
countries. Their food consists partly of vegetable and
partly of animal matters, such as seeds, fruits, and the
young shoots of plants and trees under the former
category, and worms and insects under the latter.
Some of them are polygamous, but many pair ; and in
the latter, at least, both the male and the female assist
in rearing the young.
THE CAPERCAILZIE (Tetrao Urogattus}, also called
the WOOD-GROUSE, and the COCK-OF-THE-AYOODS,
one of the largest and finest species of this family is
widely distributed over Europe, but is more abundant
in the north than in the south of that continent. It
was formerly not uncommon in the Highlands of Scot-
land, but the species was extirpated there nearly a
century ago, and it is only of late years that attempts
have been made to introduce it again into the
Scotch forests with some degree of success. The cock
bird, which is considerably larger than the hen,
measures about three feet in length, and is mottled
with gray and brownish-black, but has the neck and
breast black, with a greenish gloss ; the female is of a
pale yellowish-brown colour, with white and blackish-
brown markings. The bill in the male is white, and
in the female brown; and the male has a patch of
bright scarlet naked skin over each eye. The tarsi are
feathered down to the base of the toes. In Scandinavia
the food of the Capercailzie is observed to consist
principally of the young leaves and shoots of the
Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris}, but it likewise feeds
upon seeds and berries of various kinds. The breeding
season commences very early in the spring, when the
male takes up his post on some elevation, displays his
plumage in the manner of a turkey-cock, and utters a
loud cry, compared with the words peller-peller-peller,
frequently repeated with constantly increasing rapidity,
and terminating in a sort of gulp and drawing in of
the breath. This singular call brings the females
together from the neighbouring parts of the forest.
The cock birds are exceedingly jealous, especially of
their younger brethren, whom they endeavour to pre-
vent from displaying themselves or calling. The hens
lay from six to twelve eggs, which they deposit on the
ground. The Capercailzie may be domesticated with
ease, and even breeds readily in confinement.
THE BLACK GROUSE, or BLACK COCK (Tetrao
Tetrix)— fig. 125 — another fine species, is still met with
in the mountainous districts of the North of England,
and pretty abundantly in those of Scotland. It also
commonly occurs in the north of Europe, and on the
mountains in the south. The whole length of the
male bird is about twenty -two inches ; its plumage is
glossy black, with the lower wing and tail coverts and
the bases of the secondary quills white, and a large
naked patch of bright scarlet over each eye. The tail
in the male is also of remarkable construction, the four
outer feathers on each side being elongated and turned
outwards, so as to give it the appearance of a double
hook. This peculiarity is wanting to the female, which
is four or five inches shorter than the male ; her plum-
age is pale chestnut-brown, barred and freckled with
black. The Black Grouse feeds upon the young shoots
of heath and other shrubs and trees, and in its habits
closely resembles the Capercailzie.
THE PINNATED GROUSE (Tetrao cupido}. This
curious species, which was formerly abundant in the
United States of North America, but is now nearly
extirpated, at least in the more populous districts, is
rather smaller than the black cock, and is of a yellowish-
red colour, with black bars and other markings. Its
most remarkable character consists in the presence in
the male of a pair of curious wing-like tufts on the
sides of the neck, each composed of about eighteen
narrow feathers, of which the longest are five inches
in length. Beneath each of these is a pendulous,
wrinkled fold of skin, which is capable of being inflated
with air, and then, as stated by Wilson, resembles in
bulk, colour, and shape, a middle-sized orange. Dur-
ing the breeding season the male produces a curious
call, which, from its resemblance to the distant sound
of a horn, is called tooting ; and is said to be audible
at a distance of three or four, or even five or six miles.
3E
402
GALLIN.E.
-BIRDS. TETRAOXIDJE.
At this period, also, the males are in the habit of
assembling in some open glade about dawn, where
they strut about and display themselves with extra-
ordinary ostentation, occasionally varying these exer-
cises by violent combats.
THE COMMON GROUSE, or RED GROUSE (Lagopus
scoticus). The genus Lagopus, which includes several
species inhabiting the north of Europe and America, is
distinguished by having the feet feathered down to the
extremities of the toes. The Eed Grouse is the best
Fig. 125.
The Black Grouse
known species in the British Islands, to which, singu-
larly enough, it appears to be exclusively confined ; it
is found in the mountainous districts both of England
and Ireland, but is most abundant in the Highlands of
Scotland. It inhabits the wild heaths and moors, and
feeds upon the tender extremities of the branche?
of the heather, with cranberries, whortleberries, and
other fruits and seeds. Unlike the preceding species,
the Red Grouse pair, and the young when hatched are
tended by both their parents. The female lays from
eight to fifteen eggs in a nest formed of a few stems of
heath and grass put together in a hollow of the ground;
she lays very early in the spring, and sits very closely.
The Red Grouse is about sixteen inches in length,
and the general colour of the plumage in the adult
male is a fine rich reddish-brown, more or less marked
with narrow transverse bars of black. The females are
paler. Both sexes vary somewhat in colour at different
seasons, but, unlike the nearly allied ptarmigan, the
Red Grouse does not become white in winter. The
quantity of these birds killed every year by sportsmen
is enormous, and poachers probably destroy an equal
if not greater number ; so that one is astonished that
a bird so mercilessly persecuted should still be able to
maintain its position on our moors.
THE PTARMIGAN (Lagopus Bulgaria) is now met
with in this country only on the mountains of Scot-
laud, where it dwells amongst the gray rocks of the
highest ranges. It is generally distributed on the
mountain chains of Europe, especially towards the
north, and also occurs in the northern parts of Ame-
rica. The Ptarmigan is rather smaller than the red
grouse. The colour of its plumage in summer is
gray, marked with numerous transverse black bars,
especially on the upper surface ; the lower parts are
usually white, and the amount of white in the plumage
varies greatly with the season of the yean In the
(Tetrao Tetrii)
winter the plumage becomes pure white. In summer
the Ptarmigan trust to the similarity of their colora-
tion to that of the lichen-coated rocks upon which
they sit, to escape observation ; and this similarity is
so great that a person might pass through the midst
of a numerous flock of them without seeing a single
bird. Like the red grouse, the Ptarmigan pairs and
breeds very early in the spring.
THE VIRGINIAN QUAIL ( Ortyx virginianus) belongs
to a small group of species peculiar to America, and
distinguished by having two teeth on each side of the
tip of the lower mandible. These birds represent in
the New World the Partridges of the Eastern hemi-
sphere. The Virginian Quail, or Partridge, as it is
sometimes called, is of a reddish-brown colour above,
and on the neck and upper part of the breast ; the
cheeks, throat, and a band on each side of the neck,
are white, as is also the lower surface, which is crossed
by numerous undulated black bars ; the primary quills
and tail are dusky ash colour. The length is about
nine inches. This bird inhabits the greater part of
North America, and frequents woods and plantations.
Its nest is carefully made under the shelter of . a thick
tuft of grass ; it is composed of leaves and grass, and
is covered above, with an opening on each side.
THE CALIFORNIA!! QUAIL (CalUpcpla California}.
•which is nearly allied to the last species, is a native ol
California, where it is met with in the low woods and
plains. It is distinguished by having the crown of the
head adorned with a graceful crest of elongated black
feathers, which generally lie backwards, but are capable
of being erected at the pleasure of the bird.
THE COMMON PARTRIDGE (Perdue cinerea). This
well-known bird, which is generally distributed in
Britain, is found equally abundantly in almost all parts
of Europe, and also inhabits the north of Africa, but it
appears that those individuals which pass farthest to
THE PARTRIDGE. BIRDS. Tar. QT
403
the north and south migrate into the more temperate
regions at the approach of the cold or hot seasons.
Partridges are generally met with about corn-fields,
where they feed upon seeds, tender herbage, and
insects. They pair early in the spring, and the female
deposits from ten to fifteen eggs in a small hollow
scratched in the ground and lined with a little straw.
The business of incubation, which occupies three
weeks, is left entirely to the female, although the male
is assiduous in his attendance upon his mate, and
endeavours to protect her from any danger. The
young when hatched accompany their parents in search
of food, and the small parties thus formed, known as
coveys by sportsmen, keep together throughout the
autumn and winter, if not destroyed by the gun, for
the number of partridges annually killed for the table
is probably equal, if not superior, to that of the grouse
which undergo the same fate, and excites one's aston-
ishment that the whole race has not long since become
extinct. The parent birds exhibit much courage in
defending their young brood from the assaults of their
natural enemies. Mr. Selby mentions an instance in
which a pair of partridges seized a carrion crow which
had probably evinced felonious intentions towards their
newly-hatched family, and held the marauder until it
was taken from them by the spectator of the combat.
THE RED-LEGGED PARTRIDGE (Caccabis rubra}—
Plate 20, fig. 76 — also called the GUERNSEY PAR-
TRIDGE, is a handsome bird, and rather larger than the
Common or Gray Partridge. It is of a brown colour
above, pearl-gray on the breast, and fawn colour on the
belly ; the throat is white, and surrounded^ by a broad
black gorget, below which numerous black streaks and
spots descend towards the breast, and the feathers of
the flanks are beautifully adorned with transverse bars
of pearl gray, white, black, and fawn colour. The bill
and legs are bright red. This bird is a native of
Southern Europe, and has been introduced into Britain.
In its habits it resembles the common species.
THE COMMON FRANCOLLN (Francolinus vulgaris).
In the Francolins, which are closely allied to the true
Partridges, the tarsi of the males are armed with one
or two spurs. They are peculiar to the Eastern hemi-
sphere. The present species, which is widely distri-
buted over the south of Europe, Asia, and the north of
Africa, is about twelve inches in length, and is of a
yellowish-brown colour above, marked and barred with
black, and deep black beneath, with numerous oval
white spots. Round the lower part of the neck there
is a broad collar of chestnut red. This bird lives in
numerous companies in the low and marshy districts
of the forests, and perches freely upon the branches of
trees. Its food consists of seeds and the bulbous roots
of plants, which it is able to dig out of the soil. Its flesh,
like that of the other Francolins, of which there are
many species, is very good.
THE COMMON QUAIL (Coturnix dactylisonans) is
generally distributed in Europe, and, indeed, apparently
over the whole of the Old World. In Europe and
Africa the Quails are migratory, passing northwards in
countless flocks in the spring, and returning to the
warmer regions at the approach of winter. This is
also the case in Arabia and Asia Minor. It was
formerly a matter of dispute whether this was the bird
referred to in the book of Exodus as furnishing the
Israelites with a supply of animal food during their
journeying in the wilderness. Now-a-days there seems
to be little doubt upon the subject, as no other species
of Quail is known to perform a migration, and this
bird, as described by the sacred historian, always
travels at night. Both M. Temminck and Mr. Yarrell
consider the migration of Quails to be rather in search
of food than for the sake of uniformity of climate.
The Quail measures about seven inches in total
length. It has the upper parts brown, with the shafts
of the feathers paler, and numerous longitudinal darker
streaks; the breast is pale chestnut-brown, with the
shafts of the feathers yellow ; the throat and belly are
nearly white, the former bounded by two narrow semi-
circular brown bands, bearing a black patch in the
middle. These latter marks are wanting in the female.
Quails, although so nearly allied to the Partridge, are,
unlike them, polygamous in their habits. The female
lays from seven to twelve eggs in a small cavity in the
ground lined with a little grass and straw, generally in
a corn-field. The cry of the male resembles the
syllables piclcerwick, or peek-wheet-wheet. In China
the males are kept in captivity for the purpose of
fighting, which they do with great courage, and the
people are said to stake large sums upon the issue of
these contests. A similar practice prevailed to a great
extent amongst the ancient Greeks and Eomans, and
is said not to have entirely died out among then-
descendants.
THE CHINESE QUAIL (Coturnix Chinensis), a small
and elegant species, measuring only four inches in
length, which is abundant in many parts of Eastern
Asia, is also said to be kept in cages by the Chinese,
not only on account of the sport to be derived from its
pugnacity, but also for the singular purpose of warm-
ing the hands of its owners in winter, the bodies of these
birds being supposed to contain an unusual amount of
heat.
THE ANDALUSIAN QUAIL (Hemipodius tachy-
dromus), an inhabitant of Southern Europe and
Northern Africa, is distinguished from the preceding
species by the total absence of the hinder toe. It is a
small species, about six inches in length, of a brown
colour above, and yellowish-white beneath, with the
breast and throat pale chestnut ; the upper surface is
variegated with bars and spots of chestnut, black, and
yellowish-white. This bird is found in barren spots,
and runs with great speed amongst the scanty herbage.
It appears to perform at least a partial migration from
Africa into Europe ; a single specimen has been killed
in this country. It is supposed to be polygamous.
Other species nearly allied to this are met with in
Africa and India, and no less than eight occur in
Australia.
THE CROWNED PARTRIDGE (Rollulus cristatus) —
Plate 20, fig. 77— is an example of a singular genus
including only three or four species, which has been
placed by different naturalists amongst the pheasants,
partridges, and pigeons. Its true place appears to be
with the partridges, but it is distinguished from all the
preceding forms by the absence of the claw upon tho
404
BIRDS. CHIOXIDID.B.
hinder toe. The Crowned Partridge is about ten
inches in length, and of a green colour, with steel-
blue and purple tints on the head and lower surface ;
the wings are brown, and the crown of the head is
adorned with an ample crest of orange-red hair-like
feathers, at the base of which there is a white band.
This bird inhabits the forests of Java, Sumatra, and
Malacca, avoiding the plains, and concealing itself in
the deepest thickets.
FAMILY V.— PTEROCLLD^E.
The birds forming the present small family were
long placed with the Tetraonidae, from which, how-
ever, they differ in several important particulars. They
have long pointed wings, indicating a much greater
power of flight than prevails amongst the Tetraonidae,
or, indeed, in any other group of gallinaceous birds ;
their tails are also elongated and pointed, and in some
species the two middle feathers are much prolonged.
The bill is nearly straight, the tarsi are elongated and
clothed in front with short, downy feathers; the hinder
toe is quite rudimentary, and placed high up on the
back of the tarsus, and the three anterior toes are short
and broai The Pteroclidse live in the sandy deserts
of the hot regions of Africa and Asia, over which they
wander to great distances in large flocks. They are
generally seen in the vicinity of springs and streams,
and hence their appearance is welcomed by travellers
in the desert as evidence of the proximity of water.
Like the partridges, they pair, and the female deposits
about four or five eggs.
THE BANDED SAND-GBOUSE (Pterocles arenarius),
which is most abundant in Northern Africa, is also
met with in the vast plains of the south of Russia, and
individuals, probably stragglers from either of these
localities, have been killed in various parts of Southern
Europe. The general colour of this bird is yellowish-
brown mixed with gray, and banded with brownish-
black on the upper surface ; the male has the belly, a
band across the lower part of the breast, and a patch
on the throat, brownish-black; in the female, the
plumage is paler beneath, and the throat bears a gray
patch. The length of the bird is from twelve to four-
teen inches. The nest of this species is made amongst
stunted bushes and herbage, and the number of eggs
is said to be only four or five. Its food consists of
insects and seeds.
THE PIN-TAILED SAND-GBOUSE (Pterocles akhata)
has a much stouter bill than the preceding, and the
central tail-feathers are greatly elongated. Its plumage
is variegated with olive, yellowish, and reddish tints,
and with black; the belly is white, and the breast
bears a fulvous crescent edged with black ; the tail is
banded with brown. The length of the bird is about
fourteen inches. This species is found not only in
Africa and Asia Minor, but also in Southern Europe,
principally in Spain and the Landes of France. In its
habits it resembles the preceding species.
PALLAS' SAND-GBOUSE (Syrrhaptes paradoxus) is
a singular species, inhabiting the central parts of Asia,
where it was discovered by the celebrated traveller,
Pallas. The structure of the feet is very remarkable;
the tarsi are short and thick, and entirely clothed with
minute feathers ; the hinder toe is entirely wanting,
and the anterior ones excessively short. The male has
the two centre feathers of the pointed tail produced and
filiform, as also the first primary feather in each wing ;
these peculiarities are absent in the female, which, in
other respects, closely resembles her partner. The
length varies from about nine to eleven inches. This
bird walks very badly, but flies well. It lives on the
barren steppes of Bucharia and Tartary, where it feeds
on the seeds which it finds amongst the sand. Its nest
is placed among stones, or under the shelter of some
stunted shrub, and composed of a few stalks of grass.
The eggs are said to be four in number.
FAMILY VI.— CHIONlDDXffi.
This is another family containing a few species
whose characters are so curious as to have rendered
their position in the system somewhat doubtful. They
have a short and stout bill, which is compressed at the
tip and considerably arched ; the nostrils are situated
at the base of the upper mandible, and protected by a
more or less inflated cartilaginous plate. Like the
birds of the preceding family, they have long and
pointed wings ; their tarsi are of moderate length and
thickness, naked and reticulated quite up to the articu-
lation, and terminated by four toes, of which the
anterior are tolerably long, and the posterior one small,
and slightly elevated upon the back of the tarsus.
These singular birds are met with upon the sea
shores of the southern parts of America, and upon
those of New Zealand, Australia, and other islands in
the great southern ocean.
THE WHITE SHEATHBILL (Chionis alba)— Plate
20, fig. 78 — has the basal half of the upper mandible
surrounded by a horny sheath of peculiar construction,
beneath which the nostrils open ; its cheeks are naked
and yellowish, and furnished with wattles of the same
colour ; its plumage is white, as is also its bill, and its
feet are reddish-black. Its length is about fifteen
inches. This bird is met with upon the shores of
Patagonia, New Zealand, and Australia, and also upon
many of the -islands of the Antarctic seas. It is a
solitary and shy bird, which dwells amongst the rocks
of the sea-shore, and feeds upon the mollusca and
other small marine animals which it can pick up there.
According to some writers it also devours carrion, but
this does not appear to be a general habit with it, and
several travellers describe its flesh as being very good.
D'OBBIGNY'S THINOCOBE (TMnocorus Orbigny-
anus). This bird, which with two or three other
species, resides in the littoral districts of Chili, differs
from the preceding in the greater comparative length
and slenderness of the tarsi, and in the absence of the
peculiar sheath at the base of the bill, and of the naked
carunculated space on the cheeks. It greatly resem-
bles a small snipe. These birds live in small troops in
the valleys between the mountains of Chili, frequent-
ing the most desert spots, and feeding upon plants,
roots, and insects. They nidificate on the ground.
LATBEILLE'S ATTAGIS (Attagis Latreillei), another
Chilian species, is about the size of a quail, and in its
-BIEDS. CUKSOEES.
405
general appearance resembles the sand-grouse already
described. Its general colour is a light brown, darkest
on the back, which is also barred with black ; the wing
coverts are margined with white, and marked with
black lines. Nothing is known of the habits of this
bird, nor of those of a second species occurring at the
Straits of Magellan and in the Falkland Islands.
FAMILY VII.— TINAMID^.
This, the last family of gallinaceous birds, must be
regarded as making a near approach to the Grallae,
and especially to the Bustards, which, in their turn,
appear to be the most closely allied of all the so-called
Waders with the birds forming the present order;
indeed, by some ornithologists the Bustards are placed
amongst the Gallina3. In the Tinamidfe the bill is
rather elongated, and either nearly straight or slightly
curved throughout, and usually rather suddenly hooked
at the tip ; the wings are short, rounded, and concave,
indicating but small powers of flight; the tarsi are
elongated, scutellated in front, reticulated on the sides,
and naked quite up to the articulation ; the anterior
toes are rather long, and the posterior ones very short,
and incapable of being applied to the ground.
The birds of this family are all inhabitants of South
America, where they are called Ynambus by the In-
dians, and Partridges or Quails by the Spanish colonists,
according to their size. They reside principally in the
open fields, but some frequent the vicinity of woods, to
which they then resort for shelter at night, taking up
their position upon the lower branches of the trees to
avoid the attacks of animals of prey. They all prefer
concealing themselves at the approach of danger to
seeking safety by their somewhat heavy and laborious
flight, and thus are easily knocked down with a stick,
or captured by means of a noose at the end of a rod,
when their hiding-place is discovered. They deposit
their eggs, generally to the number of about seven,
upon the ground in the midst of a tuft of herbage ; the
young do not long accompany their parents. Their
food consists partly of insects and worms, and partly
of grain ; the latter the.y often seek in the newly-sown
corn-fields.
THE GREAT TINAMOU (Tinamus Brasiliensis),
which is about eighteen inches in length, is an inhab-
itant of Cayenne and Brazil, where it resides in the
woods. Its general colour is olive, spotted with black
on the back and tail ; the crown of the head is reddish,
and the primary quills ashy gray.
THE TATAUPA TINAMOU (Tinamus Tataupa) is a
much smaller species than the preceding, measuring
only about nine inches in length; it has the head, neck,
and lower surface as far as the legs, lead-gray, the
throat white, the upper surface brown, and the rump
black, with a white margin to each feather. The bill
is bright red, and the legs purplish. This species
inhabits the same regions, and has much the same
habits as the last ; its shyness is so great that when
kept in captivity it will not come out of its place of
concealment, even to feed, when anybody is in sight.
THE SPOTTED TINAMOU (Nothura maculosa), a
native of Brazil and Paraguay, is captured for the
table in immense quantities by hunters on horseback,
provided with a rod from six to nine feet in length,
with a loop at the end of it composed of the stem of
a feather. When the hunter discovers one of these
birds he rides round it, gradually coming nearer, and
the stupid bird sits still until the noose is placed round
its neck.
THE CRESTED TINAMOU (Tinamotis elegans], the
species which makes the nearest approach to the Bus-
tards in its general aspect and in the structure of its
feet, is a rather large bird, distinguished from all the
preceding species of this family by its possession of
an elongated crest depending from the back of the
head. It inhabits the pampas of Buenos Ayres, and
is described as being scarcely able to fly ; it exhibits
the same desire for concealment that is evinced by the
other specie when threatened with danger, but seeks a
better hiding place, making its way into the burrows
of the viscachas and armadillos, which inhabit these
extensive plains in its company. Its eggs are large,
and of a brilliant green colour.
OEDER VI.— CUESORES.
I ALTHOUGH the birds forming this order (the Ostrich
and its allies) have been regarded by some writers as
belonging to the Grallse, or Wading Birds, and by
others as members of the order Gallinse, it appears to
us that they present so many peculiarities of organiza-
tion as to be certainly entitled to form an independent
group. And this view is further supported by the fact
that the principal organic remains of birds which have
been met with in the tertiary and post-tertiary beds
belong to species of this type of structure, which
appears to have been far more widely diffused in earlier
periods than at the present day, so that we may justly
conclude that in the existing forms we have only an
imperfect representation of an extensive group, of
which the principal portion has long since become extinct.
The principal characteristic of these birds consists in
the rudimentary nature of their wings, which (as shown
in our figure of the skeleton of the Ostrich— Plate 36,
fig. 135), although composed of the same bones as
those of other birds, are quite disproportioned to the
size of the body, and completely incapable of elevating
the bird into the air. In some cases these rudimentary
members are but imperfectly furnished with feathers, in
others they are fully plumed, but even then seem only
to be of use to the bird in the manner of sails, to catch
the wind and assist it in running. This imperfection
of the wings is accompanied by a modification of the
sternum, which, instead of exhibiting the strong keel
which usually occupies its centre in birds endowed
with the power of flight, presents the form of a convex
406
-BIRDS. STRUTHIONID.E.
shield. The bones of which the skeleton is composed
are also almost destitute of those large air cells, which
in other birds reduce their weight so greatly, and thus
facilitate their motion in the air.
As these birds are thus destined to a strictly terres-
trial mode of existence, their whole conformation is
adapted to the augmentation of their power of running,
which they do with extraordinary swiftness, and hence
the name of cursores or runners, is applied to them
with great propriety. The pelvis, which gives attach-
ment to the legs, is very large and firm, and the pubic
arch is complete, a structure which does not occur
in other birds. The anterior part of the pelvis also
encases the lumbar region of the spine, and thus the
whole apparatus becomes very large and strong. The
legs are greatly developed, both in length and strength,
and terminated by two or three toes, which generally
form a sole of great firmness. In only one living genus,
the curious Apteryx, do we find any trace of a hinder
toe, and this is very rudimentary.
The neck is elongated in proportion to the length of
the legs, and in most of -the species the bill is short,
depressed, broad, and triangular when viewed from
above ; in the genus Apteryx, on the contrary, the bill
is long and nearly cylindrical. The character of the
plumage is very peculiar, the feathers of the body
being always furnished with 'long separate barbs, which
in most cases present more resemblance in their general
aspect to hairs than to 'feathers. The head and neck
are frequently naked, or clothed only with down.
In their internal structure these birds also present
some curious peculiarities; their fleshy tongue is free
at the tip, and they have a sort of rudimentary bladder
and traces of a diaphragm separating the thoracic from
the abdominal cavity — characters which, the latter espe-
cially, have been considered to indicate some slight
approach to mammalian structure.
The living species form two families, of one of
which the Ostrich, and of the other the Apteryx, is
the type,
FAMILY I.— STRUTHIONID^.
The general characters of this family have K-en
indicated above, by contrast with those peculiari-
ties mentioned as pertaining exclusively to the genus
Apteryx. The birds forming this genus have long,
muscular, and powerful legs, terminated by two or
three toes, and without the smallest rudiment of a
hinder toe ; the neck is elongated, and generally naked
or clothed only with down ; and the bill is broad,
depressed, and triangular, with the nostrils situated in
a groove near the base of the upper mandible,
THE OSTRICH (Struthio Camelus) —Plate 21, fig. 79—
an inhabitant of the vast sandy deserts of Africa, is the
largest of living birds, measuring from six to eight feet
in height when it carries its head erect. It is distin-
guished from all the other species by the structure of
the feet, which have only two toes, of which the outer
one is considerably shorter than the inner. The gene-
ral appearance of this magnificent bird is well shown
in our figure ; its plumage consists of very soft decom-
posed feathers, of which those of the wings and tail
are greatly developed, and constitute the well-known
Ostrich plumes.
Over the boundless African deserts the Ostrich
roams in flocks, trusting, like the antelopes and other
quadrupeds of these regions, to its swiftness of foot for
security from auimals of prey or the pursuit of man.
So rapid is its course, indeed, that the swiftest horse is
unable to keep up with it, and the hunters are com-
pelled either to bewilder it by approaching it in differ-
ent directions, or to drive it in a circle by continually
relieving each other in the pursuit, until the swift runner
is tired out. When in imminent danger, the Ostrich fre-
quently defends himself by violent kicks with his feet.
The food of the Ostriches consists of herbage, seeds,
insects, worms, and snails, and probably of almost any
nutritive materials that come in their way ; in cap-
tivity they are known to be by no means particular in
their choice of diet, swallowing even such indigestible
articles as leather, wood, and iron. AVhether these
hard substances assist the digestion of the bird like the
small stones swallowed by many other granivorous
species, we can hardly say ; but there is certainly no
foundation for the belief, formerly widely spread, and
perhaps still entertained by the ignorant, that the
Ostrich is capable of digesting metals.
In its native wilds the Ostrich is polygamous in its
habits. The eggs, which are of large size, usually
weighing about three pounds, are deposited to the
number of ten or twelve in a hole scratched in the
sand, where their evolution is effected principally by
the heat of the sun. The female, however, watches
over them carefully, and sits upon them at night. The
young birds can run as soon as they quit the egg.
THE NAlTDU^m americana)— Plate 21, fig. 80—
also called the Rhea and the American Ostrich, is not
more than half the size of the African species, from
which it differs structurally in having three toes upon
each foot and the head and neck clothed with downy
feathers, and in the total absence of tail-feathers. The
plumes of the wings are elongated and decomposed,
somewhat resembling in their structure those of the
African Ostrich, to which, however, they are far inferior
in delicacy, and are only employed in the manufacture
of light brooms. This bird is found abundantly in
the great plains of South America, nearly down to its
southern extremity ; it lives in flocks, and is polyga •
mous, but according to the late Earl of Derby the male
bird scratches the hole in the ground for the reception
of the eggs, which he collects from the scattered places
where they are frequently deposited by the females,
and afterwards sits upon them. According to Mr.
Darwin, the males, when thus engaged, sit so closely
that they may almost be ridden over before they will
stir ; but at the same time they are so fierce, that if
disturbed they will often attack the intruders, and have
even been known to leap up and endeavour to kick a
man on horseback. These birds, according to Mr.
Darwin, show no reluctance to take the water, but
will swim easily but slowly across even broad and rapid
rivers, or from island to island in bays. They are hunted
by men on horseback, and captured either by means
of the lasso, or with an instrument composed of two
large balls or heavy stones, united by a long leathern
THE EMEU. BIRDS. THE APTEUYX.
407
thong. The latter instrument is thrown at the legs of
the bird, which it binds together, and, of course, pre-
vents all further progress.
THE EMEU (Dromaius Novce~Hollandia>)—P\&tQ 22,
fig. 82. In the Emeu, as in the remaining species of
this family, the feet consist of three toes ; its distinctive
characters consist iu the position of the nostrils, which
open not far from the tip of the upper mandible, in the
complete concealment of the wings under the hair-like
feathers of the body, and in the claws of all the toes
being nearly equal in length. This' bird is inferior in
size only to the African ostrich, measuring from five
to seven feet in height ; the crown of its head and the
back of the neck are clothed with feathers, but the
throat is naked, and the plumage, which hangs down
like long hair on each side of the body, is of a mixture
of brown and gray tints.
The Emeu is abundant in. the southern parts of
Australia, but it is rapidly becoming extinct in the
British Colonies. Its flesh is very good, that of the
young birds especially being exceedingly delicate ; the
eggs, which are of a green colour^ are also eaten both
by natives and colonists, and the natives of some dis-
tricts are said to live chiefly upon Emeu's eggs during
the breeding season of these birds. Unlike the pre-
ceding species, the Emeus pair, but the males, as in
the Rhea, hatch the eggs. The young birds exhibit
black stripes upon a nearly white ground.
BARTLETT'S EMEU (Dromaius irroratus) is a second
species very nearly allied to the preceding, the existence
of which was long since suspected by Mr. Bartlett, but
only recently proved by the importation of specimens
into Europe. It is distinguished by its speckled plum-
age, and inhabits the western parts of Australia, where
it would appear to represent the common Emeu.
THE CASSOWARY (Casuarius galeat us}— Plate 21,
fig. 81. The Cassowaries, resembling the Emeus in
having three toes on each foot, are distinguished from
them by the inequality of the claws, of which the inner
one is much elongated, by the presence of five stiff
cylindrical shafts destitute of barbs in each wing, by
the position of the nostrils near the middle of the
upper mandible, and by their having a large horny
casque or helmet on the crown of the head.
The Common Cassowary is generally described as
being a native of the Molucca Islands and of New
Guinea, but Mr. Sclater states that the only certain
locality that he knows for it is the island of Ceram.
It is about five feet in height, and its body is clothed
with a very long hair-like plumage of a black colour,
through which, the five bare quills of the wings project ;
its casque is black, and the naked wattled skin of the
head and neck is bright red, tinged here and there
with a somewhat livid azure blue. This bird feeds
upon fruits, herbage, and seeds; and, like the ostrich,
swallows indiscriminately almost anything that comes
in its way. It runs very swiftly, and when in danger
kicks very severely with its powerful feet. Its eggs are
of a grayish-green colour.
THE MOORUK (Casuarius Bennettii) was lately
described by Mr. Gould from specimens brought alive to
Sydney from the island of New Britain, and afterwards
presented by Dr. Bennett to the Zoological Gardens
in London. It is a smaller bird than the common
Cassowary, measuring less than four feet in height to
the crown of the head; the casque forms a sort of
double crest at the back, the bare skin of the neck is
blue, and the wings contain only four spines. The
Mooruk runs very rapidly, and possesses an extra-
ordinary power of leaping ; it feeds principally on soft
vegetable and animal matters, but, like the other birds
of this family, will swallow almost anything. The
natives of New Britain regard these birds as to a
certain degree sacred, and treat them as pets, often
carrying them about in their arms.
Three other species of Cassowary are mentioned
by Mr. Sclater in the Proceedings of the Zoological
Society. These are the CAPE YORK CASSOWARY
(C. australis), a native of North Australia, which has
a "bright red helmet, and blue and scarlet caruncles;"
the BICARUNCULATED CASSOWARY (C. bicarunculatus),
distinguished by having the throat wattles placed far
apart ; and a species mentioned by Mr. Blyth as living
in a menagerie at Calcutta, ia which the naked skin
and wattles of the neck are yellow. These species are
still very imperfectly known.
FAMILY II.— APTERYGID^S.
The three remarkable birds, inhabitants of New
Zealand, which constitute this family resemble the
Emeus in the general form of the body and in the
nature of the plumage, but are at once distinguished
from those ostrich-like birds by the shortness of their
legs and the presence of a short hind toe, armed with
a strong claw on each foot. A further distinction is
afforded by the form of the bill, which is elongated,
nearly cylindrical, and slightly curved; the nostrils are
situated quite at the tip of the upper mandible. The
wings, as in the Emeu, are rudimentary and completely
concealed beneath the feathers of the body.
SHAW'S APTERYX (Apteryx australis)— Plate 22,
fig. 83 — the species first discovered, was described by
Dr. Shaw nearly fifty years ago ; but for a long time its
place in the system was a matter of dispute. It is
called the Kivi-kivi, in imitation of its cry, by the
natives of New Zealand. This curious bird stands
about two feet high when most erect ; its plumage is
of a tolerably dark-brown colour. It runs with great
rapidity, and when pursued takes refuge in holes of
the rocks, or amongst the roots of a tree, which are
also its haunts during the day-time. When seized it
defends itself vigorously with its powerful feet. Its
activity is nocturnal, and it feeds principally upon
earthworms, which it captures by driving its long bill
into the soil, first of all, according to some authors,
stamping upon the ground as if to ascertain the presence
of its prey. These birds live in pairs and construct a
rough nest in the holes which they ordinarily frequent;
in this the female lays a single egg about the size of
that of a goose. Their flesh is much esteemed by the
New Zealanders, but a still higher value is placed upou
their skins or feathers, which are employed by the
chiefs in the manufacture of cloaks.
The other two species are MAXTELL'S APTERYX
(A. Mantettii), and OWEN'S APTERYX (A. Owenii).
403
-BIRDS. OTIDUXE.
OEDEE VII.— GKALLJ3.
THE name of this order refers to the stilted appearance
of most of the birds composing it, they being mounted
upon long and slender legs which present no small
resemblance to stilts, and enable their possessors to
wade readily in shallow waters. Hence the birds of
this order are often called Waders, although this name
is by no means applicable to the whole of them, a good
many being inhabitants of dry places.
The characters of this order may be shortly given
as follows: — The feet are adapted for walking, and
furnished with three distinct toes, usually united by a
small membrane at the base, and sometimes bordered
with membranous lobes, but not completely united
as in the swimming birds. The legs, and especially the
tarsi, are always rather long, and sometimes much
elongated, and the naked scaly skin of the feet is almost
always continued for a greater or less distance above
the articulation of the tarsus with the tibia. The whole
of the naked skin is usually reticulated, but in some
species the toes, and even the front of the tarsi, is
covered with scutella or plates. The posterior toe is
sometimes entirely wanting, and generally but little
developed. It varies also in its position, being either
placed on the same plane as the anterior toes, or
slightly elevated on the back of the tarsus.
To compensate for the great elevation of the legs,
the neck is almost always considerably elongated, and,
as a general rule, the bill is likewise rather long. By
this means the bird, when stalking along upon the
ground, or wading in shallow water, is enabled to pick
up worms, mollusca, and insects, or to strike with ease
and rapidity at passing fishes. The wings are generally
well developed, and furnished with long quills.
In habits, as in form, the Grallatorial birds present
many diversities. They are generally very active,
running and flying with equal ease and celerity. Some,
as already mentioned, frequent marshy places and the
borders of water, in which they seek their food, whilst
others haunt dry sandy heaths, and similar situations.
Even amongst the aquatic species we find a great
diversity — some wading in the shallow water oy means
of their long and slender legs ; others, which are provided
with very elongated toes, running over the floating
leaves of aquatic plants ; others, again, some of which
have their toes bordered with membranous lobes,
swimming about and diving with ah1 the ease of the
most expert Natatorial birds. Their food, however,
nearly always consists of animal substances.
FAMILY I.— OTIDID^E.
The first family of this order includes the Bustards,
which, as we have already stated, make the nearest
approach to the gallinaceous birds, whilst by some
ornithologists they have been regarded as forming a
part of the order Cursores. They are generally large
and rather heavy birds, with a short, stout, compressed
bill, exhibiting some resemblance to that of the galli-
naceous birds. The nostrils are situated in grooves
near the base of the upper mandible, and the basal
portion of these grooves is clothed with short feathers ;
the legs are long and moderately slender ; the naked
skin of the tibiae and feet is reticulated; the hinder
toe is entirely wanting, and the anterior toes are rather
short and stout, with blunt claws at their extremities.
The wings are of considerable size. The Bustards
are met with in dry places, where they feed chiefly
upon worms and insects, with a slight intermixture of
green herbage. They run with great rapidity, and are
endowed with considerable powers of flight, although
they do not rise easily from the ground. They are
polygamous in their habits.
THE GEEAT BUSTAED (Otis tardei)— Plate 22, fig.
84 — which was formerly abundant on the heaths and
downs in many pails of this country, is now nearly, if
not quite extinct in Britain. It occurs in Germany
and France, and more or less abundantly throughout
Southern Europe, always frequenting the wild and
open parts of the country. The male of this fine bird
measures nearly four feet in length, and the female
about three feet. The general colour of the plumage of
the upper surface is buff, with numerous delicate trans-
verse black bars ; the lower surface is white, and the
head and neck are white with a grayish tinge ; from
each side of the chin in the male, and also, according
to some writers, in the adult female, there springs a tuft
of feathers about seven inches in length, which passes
backwards beneath the cheek. Bustards were formerly
hunted with dogs in this country. On the continent
they are now frequently shot with the rifle, and, as
they are very shy and wild, the sportsmen often have
much difficulty in stalking them. The flesh of the
young birds especially is highly esteemed, and on the
continent they are often seen in the markets for sale.
The Bustard is polygamous, and the females lay two
or three eggs in a small hollow in the ground. Its
food consists partly of vegetable matters, and, in
addition to worms and insects, it is said to kill and
devour small quadrupeds and reptiles.
THE LITTLE BUSTAED (Otis tetrax), another
European species, is much smaller than the preceding,
measuring only about seventeen inches in length. The
plumage of its upper surface is pale chestnut, delicately
marked with transverse undulated black lines; the
lower parts of the body, the wing-coverts, and the
base of the primary quills are white, and the remainder
of the primaries grayish-black. During the breeding
season the neck of the male exhibits a bluish-gray tint
at its upper part ; this is bounded beneath by a narrow
collar of black and another of white, and below the
CHARADRIIDJ2. BIRDS. TlIE CREAM-COLOURED COURSER.
409
latter there is a broader black band, crossed in the
middle by a white one.
The little Bustard is generally distributed in South-
ern Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa. In
northern countries it is only a straggler, and the
individuals killed in Britain cannot be regarded other-
wise than as accidental visitors. As they occur here
only in winter, and chiefly in the eastern counties,
they probably come to us from the north of Europe.
The little Bustard frequents open districts, and has a
rapid and powerful flight. Its food consists of herbage,
seeds of various kinds, and insects. The eggs are laid
upon the ground amongst tall herbage ; they vary in
number from three to five.
THE HOTJBAEA BUSTAED (Eupodotis undulatd),
which inhabits Northern Africa, is also met with in
Spain. It is considerably smaller than the Great
Bustard, which it resembles in general form, but has
the legs still more elongated; its general colour is
yellowish or buff, delicately mottled with numerous
small brown spots ; the wing primaries are black with a
white spot in the middle ; the male is adorned on the
head with a crest of long light feathers, and on the
sides of the neck with a large ruff of similar plumes.
Other species of this group are met with in Africa,
India, and Australia ; they are all very similar both in
appearance and habits.
FAMILY II.— CHARADRIIIXffi.
This family, the best known species of which are
the Plovers, includes a considerable assemblage of
various forms, some of which exhibit much resemblance
to the Bustards both in appearance and habits, whilst
others partake more of the characters of some of the
genuine wading birds. In these birds the bill is
usually shorter than the head, and the basal part of
the upper mandible is depressed, soft, and weak, whilst
the apical portion is stronger, harder, and more or less
arched. The nostrils are situated in long grooves,
which extend half the length of the upper mandible.
The legs and feet are usually much elongated and
slender, with the naked skin extending considerably
above the articulation of the tarsus ; the anterior toes
are but moderately developed, and united at the base
by a small membrane ; the posterior toe is often want-
ing, and, when present, attached to the back of the
tarsus at some little distance from the ground.
The majority of the birds of this family are inhab-
itants of the Eastern hemisphere. They are found in
all localities, generally in flocks, and some of them
frequent fields and pastures at a distance from water,
whilst others haunt the margins of rivers and lakes, or
even seek their subsistence on the sea-shore. Many of
them are migratory birds, passing to high latitudes
during the summer for the purpose of breeding.
THE COMMON THICK-KNEE ((Edicmmus crepi-
lans) — Plate 22, fig. 85 — is one of the species belonging
to this family which make the nearest approach to the
Bustards. It has long legs, terminated by only three
toes, which are united for some distance by a mem-
brane ; its nostrils are situated near the middle of the
beak, which is depressed and weak at the base, horny
VOL. T.
and arched towards the apex. It is rather a large
species, measuring about seventeen inches in length.
In this country the Thick-knee occurs only in the
summer, and is more abundant in the southern and
eastern counties of England than elsewhere. It fre-
quents especially the sandy plains of Norfolk, from
which circumstance it is frequently called the Norfolk
Plover. It is also found in most of the temperate and
warmer parts of the Old World. The food of these
birds consists chiefly of worms, slugs, and insects, but
they are likewise said to devour small mammalia and
reptiles. They frequent open districts, heaths, and
fallow fields, and the female deposits her two eggs upon
the bare ground. These birds appear to be crepuscular
or nocturnal in then- habits, and their shrill whistling
note is often heard at night in the solitary districts
which they haunt.
THE CREAM-COLOURED COURSER (Cursonus gal-
licus) is another species closely allied to the Bustards,
with which it agrees in its general habits. It is an
inhabitant of the northern parts of Africa, and is said
to be more abundant in Abyssinia than elsewhere. On
the north coast of Africa it is known as a summer
visitor from the interior, and a few specimens have
been known to extend their migration into Europe, and
even as far north as this country. This bird is much
smaller than the preceding species, measuring only
about ten inches in length. Its general colour is pale
buffy-brown above, and buffy- white beneath ; the pri-
maries are black, and the head exhibits a white and
black streak on each side, meeting behind ; the feet are
cream colour. Like the rest of its genus the Cream-
coloured Courser runs with extreme rapidity. It fre-
quents dry ground.
THE BRAZEN-WINGED COUESEE (Cursorhis chal-
copterus) — Plate 23, fig. 86— also called the PURPLE-
WINGED COURSER, is a native of Southern and Tropical
Africa. It is about the same size as the preceding
species, but has a shorter and stouter bill. The general
colour of its plumage is an ashy-brown ; the head is
variegated with white and reddish-brown, and the
wing-feathers are adorned with violet spots, margined
with a shining green band.
THE COLLARED PEATINCOLE (Glareola tarquata)
—Plate 23, fig. 87. The Pratincoles, all of which are
inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere, are distinguished
by the shortness of their bill, which is considerably
arched, and has its gape very wide, extending back as
far as the eyes, as in the Fissirostral birds. From this
peculiarity, coupled with its long, narrow, and pointed
wings and forked tail, Linnaeus was induced to arrange
the species known to him in the same genus with the
swallows, although, at the same time, recognizing its
relationship to the wading birds.
The Collared Pratincole is an inhabitant of the
warmer and temperate parts of Africa, Asia, and
Europe, migrating towards the north in the spring,
sometimes even as far as England. In its general
habits this bird resembles the plovers, frequenting
sandy plains and the margins of water, and running
with great rapidity. As might be expected, from the
form of its wings and tail, it also flies remarkably
well, its flight greatly resembling that of a swallow;
410
GRALL^E. BIRDS. GRUID^K.
and it further resembles those birds in its habit of
capturing insects on the wing. Insects and worms
constitute its chief food. The eggs are deposited in the
midst of a tuft of rushes or other herbage. They are
three or four in number. Several other species are
met with in Africa, and two or three in India and the
neighbouring islands.
THE GRAY PLOVER (Squatarola helvetica} — Plate
23, fig. 89 —also called the GRAY SANDPIPER, a winter
visitor to this country, appears to be distributed over the
whole of the northern parts of the Old World, breeding
in the arctic regions during the summer, and migrating
southwards, as far as Africa and India, for the winter
season. It measures about twelve inches in length,
and is speckled with black and white above, and black
beneath, in the summer ; in the winter the plumage is
gray above, and paler or white beneath.
THE GOLDEN PLOVER (Charadrius pluvialis) —
Plate 23, fig. 88 — is a permanent resident in Britain,
where it is found in considerable numbers on the hills
and swampy grounds, especially towards the north.
It is widely distributed in the Northern hemisphere,
and appears to resort to the regions within the arctic
circle in great quantities in the summer to breed. The
lower surface is black in summer, and in the winter
dusky-white, spotted with yellow. The whole length
is about eleven inches. Like the other Plovers, this
species associates in considerable flocks, and utters a
shrill whistling note. It feeds upon insects, worms,
and slugs. The eggs are four in number, and are
deposited in a hollow in the ground, amongst the
heath, with but little lining. The young birds run as
soon as they quit the egg, and the parents make use
of many artifices in protecting their helpless family
from any enemy.
THE DOTTEREL (Charadrius morinellus) is a summer
visitor to this country. It is smaller than the preced-
ing species, measuring only nine inches and a half in
length; its plumage above is ash colour, variegated
with brown and buff; the head is brown, with a white
streak on each eye; the breast is fawn colour, with
a white transverse band, and the belly black. The
Dotterel breeds on the high grounds of the northern
parts of England and Scotland, laying three or four
eggs in a small hollow in the ground; its food consists
of worms, insects, and slugs.
THE RING-PLOVER (Charadrius hiaticuld), a still
smaller species, less than eight inches in length, is a
permanent resident in Britain, where it chiefly fre-
quents the flat sandy, shores of the sea. It is also met
with in the northern parts of Europe and America,
advancing to the arctic shores during the summer.
The neck and lower surface are white ; on each side
of the head is a large black spot, and across the lower
part of the neck is a broad black band, leaving a dis-
tinct white collar round the neck.
THE LAPWING (Vanellus cristatus), likewise called
the Peewit, in imitation of its note, is an abundant
species on marshy grounds, heaths, and moors in this
country, and also throughout Europe and Asia. This
bird frequents marshy ground near the borders of lakes
and rivers, and is also found on open heaths, commons,
and moors. It deposits its eggs, usually four in
number, in a slight depression in the ground ; they are
in great esteem for the table, and, in those districts
where the birds abound, these eggs are carefully sought
for and brought to market. When disturbed upon
their eggs the parent birds fly or run off, or fly round
the intruder, using various stratagems to lure him from
the place. The food both of the old and young birds
consists, like that of the preceding species, of worms,
slugs, and insects ; and Latham states that he saw a
Lapwing approach a worm-cast, turn it to one side,
and then walk two or three times round the hole
to give motion to the ground ; on the worm making its
appearance it was seized by the watchful bird.
The Lapwing is rather more than twelve inches in
length. Its head is adorned with a pointed crest of
elongated feathers, which the bird can elevate or
depress at pleasure ; the crown of the head, the face,
throat, and upper part of the breast are black; the
sides and back of the neck are white, speckled with
black ; the upper surface is dark-green with a purple
and coppery lustre, and the lower surface is white.
The tail is white at the base and black at the apex.
THE OYSTER-CATCHER (Hcetnatopus ostralegus)
—Plate 23, fig. 90— is a British example of a small
group consisting of about a dozen species, distributed
in all parts of the world. Its most striking pecu-
liarity is the form of the bill, which is much longer
than the head, and a little curved upwards, of a
pentagonal form at the base, but compressed in the
apical portion, so as to constitute a thin blade, ter-
minating in an abruptly truncated extremity. The
Oyster-catcher frequents our coasts throughout the
year, and also appears to inhabit most of the shores
of the northern parts of the Old World. It is like-
wise met with along the course of rivers. Its food
consists principally of small mollusca, which it picks
up in abundance on the shores, and its peculiarly
constructed bill is said to be of great service to it
in opening the shells of the bivalves, and in detaching
limpets from the rocks. Its English name is evidently
derived from the supposition that it is able even to
open oysters with this instrument. The eggs, which
are usually four in number, are deposited on the
bare ground, and the parents, like the other plovers,
endeavour by various wiles to lure away intruders
from their nest.
FAMILY III.— GRUID^E.
The Cranes, which constitute the types of this
family, are large and handsome birds — inhabitants for
the most part of the warmer regions of the globe.
They have a large and strong bill, which is sometimes
straight and pointed, sometimes more or less arched
at the extremity; their nostrils are placed in large
grooves, and generally near the middle of the upper
mandible; their legs are of great length and rather
slender, with the tarsi compressed and covered in front
with broad shields, and the naked skin continued
upwards to a considerable distance on the tibiaB ; and
their toes are rather long, with the exception of the
hinder one, which is small and elevated on the back of
the tarsus, so that it does not touch the ground in
THE COMMON CRANE. -
-MARCGRAVE'S CARIAMA.
411
walking. The two outer anterior toes are united at
the base by a very small membrane. The tail in these
birds is usually very short, but the wings are broad
and strong ; and in the true Cranes the tertiaries are
greatly developed, forming elegant decomposed plumes,
which hang gracefully over the hinder portion of the
bird, and often give it a most elegant appearance.
The head is frequently adorned with a crest.
THE COMMON CRANE (Grus cinerea)—&g. 127— is
an inhabitant of Europe, Asia, and Africa, resorting to
Fig. 127.
The Common Crane (Grus ciuerea).
the warmer regions during the winter, and migrating
to the northward in the spring. It is now a very rare
and occasional visitor to this country, but in former
times appears to have been much more abundant here,
as it is frequently mentioned in old household books,
and in the descriptions of great feasts. Curiously
enough, it usually occurs here in severe winters.
The Crane measures about four feet in length, and
the general colour of its plumage is ash-gray. The
sides of the head and neck are white, the wing-primaries
are black, and the elongated and decomposed tertiaries,
which were formerly much in request as ornaments for
the head, are variegated and tipped with blue-black.
The bird has a long and slender neck, and a long,
straight, and pointed bill. In their migrations the
Cranes, like the wild geese and swans, fly in a regular
body, usually in the form of a wedge, but sometimes
in a long extended line. They fly at a great height
in the air, and, like the aquatic birds above alluded to,
frequently emit their loud and trumpet-like cry, which
may be distinctly heard even when the birds are at
a great elevation. The trachea, as in the wild swan,
is much convoluted, and a great portion of it lies in
a cavity of the sternum.
The favourite haunts of the Crane are marshy
districts, where it finds in abundance the worms, mol-
lusca, and frogs, which constitute a great part of its
nourishment. It does not, however, confine itself to
this diet, but feeds freely on grain and the leaves of
aquatic plants. Its nest is generally placed
amongst the thick reeds, osiers, or luxuriant
herbage in the marshes which it frequents,
but occasionally upon the top of a ruined
building. The female lays only two eggs.
THE DEMOISELLE CRANE (Anthropoid®*
virgo] has a tuft of elongated feathers on each
Bide of the bead, and numerous long slender
plumes depending from the base of the neck.
The wing-coverts are very long and pointed.
This elegant bird is an inhabitant of Northern
Africa and South-western Asia, and also
occurs, although but sparingly, in Southern
Europe. It measures about three feet four
inches in length, and is of a bluish-ash colour,
with the greater part of the head and the neck
black. It is frequently called the Numidian
Crane, from its African habitat.
THE CROWNED DEMOISELLE (Bdtearica
pavonina) — fig. 128 — is another beautiful
species, resembling the preceding in general
form, but at once distinguishable from it by the
presence of a large spreading tuft of stiff red-
dish-brown fibres, which springs from the back
of the head. The sides of the head are naked
and red, and there is a kind of wattle on
each side of the throat. This graceful bird is
an inhabitant of many parts of Africa, and also
extends its range to the Mediterranean islands
and the south of Europe. With the preceding
species it is frequently seen in aviaries.
MARCGRAVE'S CARIAMA (Cariama cris-
tata)— Plate 23, fig. 91. Besides the preceding
and several other species of true Cranes,
most of which are found in the Eastern hemisphere,
this family includes some singular American birds,
to which the name of Trumpeters is often given.
These birds have a shorter and more arched bill
than the true Cranes, and their tertiary feathers are
not elongated or decomposed. Of these, the species
known as the Cariama is a large bird about thirty or
thirty-two inches in length, of a reddish-gray colour,
very finely mottled with brown. The head is adorned
with a tuft of straight, decomposed plumes, and the
rather long and ample tail is crossed near the tip
by a broad black band. The wings are short, and
the bird possesses but little power of flight; but its long
legs enable it to run with great speed upon the elevated
plateaux of South America where it dwells. It haunts
the margins of woods and forests, and feeds upon
worms, insects, lizards, and small snakes. The Cariama
is a wild and shy bird. Its voice is very loud and
strong.
412
BIRDS. -
THE TRUMPETER (Psophia crepitanii}, also called
the AGAMI, another South American species, is espe-
cially abundant in Guiana, where it is frequently
domesticated and kept in the poultry yards, from a
notion that it protects the fowls from the assaults of
The Crowned Demoiselle (Balearic* pavomna).
predaceous birds. It becomes exceedingly tame, and
will then follow its owner about like a dog, and even
endeavour to drive away other domestic animals to
prevent their receiving any notice. The Trumpeter is
about the size of our common Heron. It has a short
convex bill, long tarsi, and a short tail. Its general
colour is black, with a very brilliant metallic blue
lustre on the upper surface. The bill is yellowish,
and the feet orange colour. The name of this bird
is derived from the peculiar loud and rough trumpet-
ing sound which it emits. Its flesh is said to be very
delicate. Two other species of Trumpeters are known ;
one of them (P. viridis) is of a green colour above,
and the other (P. leucopterd) has the wing-quills white.
FAMILY IV.— ARDEID^E.
This family includes a much greater number and
variety of birds than the preceding — the Herons,
Bitterns, Storks, Ibises, and many other forms. Of
course, in so extensive a family the characters are
liable to great variation, but all the birds referred to
this group agree in one important point, namely, the
full development of the posterior toe, which is placed
on the same plane as the three anterior ones, and is
applied to the ground in walking. The legs are
long and slender, and naked for a considerable
distance above the articulation of the tarsus.
The latter is generally scutellated. The bill is
always of considerable size, and strong; in the
majority it is of a conical form, and often very
acute at the point. The wings are greatly
developed, and the birds are generally endowed
with considerable powers of flight, although they
are rarely very rapid in their motion through
the air. These birds are found in all the warmer
and temperate parts of the world, and many of
them are either very widely distributed or per-
form more or less extensive migrations. They
haunt marshy places and the margins of lakes
and rivers, and feed for the most part upon fishes,
frogs, and other aquatic animals.
THE GRAY HERON (Ardea cinerea)— Plate 24,
fig. 92. This fine bird, which may be taken as
the type of the Herons properly so-called, is a
native of Britain, where it is tolerably common
and generally distributed. It is a large species,
measuring fully three feet in length, and is fur-
nis'ned with enormous wings, which, when spread,
look quite disproportionate to the size of the bird.
The general colour of the plumage is bluish-gray
above, and white beneath. The back of the head
is adorned with a crest of long dark slate-
coloured feathers ; the bill is yellow, and the legs
greenish.
The common or Gray Heron appears to be
generally distributed over the C Id World, but in
its most northern haunts it is migratory, only
visiting them in the summer. At this season
the bird frequents inland districts, along the
margins of lakes and rivers, in the neighbourhood
of marshy places ; but in the winter it frequently
resorts to the shores of the sea and the mouths
of rivers. Its food consists principally of fishes,
which it captures by standing patiently in the water
until they pass within its reach, when the long
neck is immediately darted out, and the luckless prey
is generally secured and swallowed. Large fish are
sometimes transfixed by one of the acute mandibles ;
and Mr. Yarrell mentions a case in which a Heron
drove its upper mandible through the eyes of a large
eel, which then, in its agony, coiled itself so tightly
round the neck of its captor that the bird was prevented
from breathing, and the pair were found dead in this
close but by no means loving embrace. Besides fish,
the Heron feeds freely upon frogs, newts, and other
aquatic animals, and is said even to devour small birds
and quadrupeds.
At the commencement of the breeding season, the
Herons, which have lived in solitude through the
winter, become very sociable in their habits, and collect
together, like the rooks, in some wood or clump of
large trees, which is generally frequented by them for
THE PURPLE HEROH. BIRDS. THE NIGHT HERON.
413
many years in succession. Upon these trees they
build their broad flat nests, which are composed of
sticks and twigs, and lined with wool. The eggs are
four or five in number, and of a sea-green colour. The
young birds remain in the nest until they are able to
fly and provide for themselves* — the parents feeding
and tending them with great care.
THE PUEPLE HERON (Ardea purpurea) is generally
distributed in the warmer and temperate parts of
Europe, Asia, and Africa, and is not a very rare visitor
to this country. It has the sides of the neck fawn
colour, with black streaks, the back slate colour, the
long feathers falling over the wings chestnut, and the
lower surface maroon, mixed on the belly with slate
colour. It is a fine bird, measuring about thirty inches
in length. Unlike our common Heron, this species
dwells amongst the reeds and other tall herbage of
swamps and marshes, where it also makes its nest.
THE GEEAT EGRET (Ardea Egretta}— Plate 24,
fig. 93 — an inhabitant of both North and South Ame-
rica, is a beautiful species of a pure white colour,
adorned with a sort of train of long decomposed plumes,
descending from the upper part of the back, and falling
gracefully over the tail. Including these plumes it
measures upwards of four feet in length. In the
United States this is a migratory bird, inhabiting the
swamps and rice-fields of the southern states. Its nest
is built on the cedars in the same way as that of the
common Heron, and the birds usually collect in con-
siderable societies during the breeding season.
THE GREAT WHITE HERON (Ardea alba), which
is also called the GREAT EGRET, and was long supposed
to be identical with the last species, is an inhabitant of
Europe and of Western Asia, and an accidental visitor
to this country. It is smaHer than the American spe-
cies, but closely resembles it in its general characters.
THE LITTLE BITTERN (Ardetta minuta) differs from
all the preceding species in having the legs clothed with
feathers down to the articulation of the tarsus. It is an
inhabitant of South-western Asia, the south of Europe,
and the whole continent of Africa. It occurs occa-
sionally in Central and Northern Europe, and a good
many specimens find their way into England, where
they have sometimes been supposed to breed. The
Little Bittern is about thirteen inches in length. The
general colour of the upper surface is blue-black, but
the wing-coverts are buff, as is also the lower surface ;
the front of the neck is white, and the bill and feet are
yellow. This bird frequents marshes and the margins
of rivers, where it dwells amongst the osiers and luxu-
riant herbage. Small fish, frogs, and other aquatic
animals, constitute its food. The nest is made upon
the ground amongst reeds or dense herbage, and the
female lays four or five eggs.
THE GREAT BITTERN (Botaurm stellar is}— Plate
24, fig. 94. This bird is widely distributed in almost
all parts of the Old World, and in former days was a
common species in Britain; but as the fens and marshes
have been gradually drained, the Bittern has become
more and more scarce, until now it is looked upon as
a rare bird in this country. It is a large bird, measur-
ing about thirty inches in length ; its legs are long,
naked for a short distance above the tarsal articulation,
and terminated by four long toes, capable of being
widely spread; its bill is hardly so long as in the
Herons, but is strong, and acute at the tip. The
feathers of the neck are very full and capable of being
erected, so as to give the neck the appearance of being
of great thickness, when the back of the neck is found
to be nearly bare of feathers.
The Bittern resides in fens, morasses, and marshy
places, and amongst the dense flags and reeds along
the borders of rivers, where in spring its loud, booming,
or bellowing note is still frequently heard. Its food
consists of almost any animals which it is able to over-
come and swallow — such as small mammalia and
birds, fishes, frogs, newts, and insects. Entire water-
rails have sometimes been found in its stomach. It
feeds principally at night, and remains in concealment
during the day, when it is not easily driven from its
retreat. When forced to rise, its flight is not vigorous;
but if wounded it defends itself courageously from both
dogs and men, and is able to inflict severe injuries with
its sharp and powerful bill. The nest of the Bittern is
composed of sticks, reeds, &c., and is placed amongst
the thickest parts of the marsh herbage, usually close
to the water's edge. The female lays four or five eggs
of a pale brown colour ; and the young, when hatched,
remain in the nest and are carefully tended by their
parents until they are able to provide for themselves.
THE NIGHT HERON (Nycticorax europceus}, which
is an inhabitant of the warmer and temperate parts
of Europe, Asia, and Africa, is occasionally met
with in Britain, principally in the southern counties.
It is about two feet in length, and is supported upon
rather shorter legs than the preceding species. The
back of the head is adorned with some slender varie-
gated white plumes ; the top of the head and back of
the neck are black ; the back is black, with a greenish
tinge; and the whole lower surface is white. This
bird, like the Bittern, is nocturnal in its habits, and
frequents marshes, fens, and the borders of lakes and
rivers, where it conceals itself among the rushes, reeds,
and other herbage. Unlike the Bittern, however, it
builds its nest on a tree. Its food consists of frogs,
fishes, and aquatic insects.
THE EOATBILL (Cancroma cockkaria) — Plate 24,
fig. 95— one of the most remarkable birds of this
family, is at once distinguished by the peculiar form
of its bill, which is very large and wide, and has the
upper mandible deeply and broadly furrowed on each
side from the base to the apex, leaving a strong rounded
keel in the middle, terminated at the tip by a distinct
hook. This bird is about the size of a large fowl ; the
male has a pendent crest of elongated black feathers
on the back of the head ; in the female the crest is
•wanting. The Boatbill is widely distributed in South
America, frequenting the borders of the creeks and
rivers, in which it seeks the fishes and Crustacea which
constitute its food. It perches on trees, and in its
habits appears to resemble the ordinary Herons.
THE WHITE SPOONBILL (Platalea leucorodia) is
another species remarkable for the singular form of its
bill, which is much depressed, broad at the base, thence
gradually narrowed to a little past the middle, and
dilated towards the apex into a flat oval plate. Both
GRAIX^E. BIRDS. ARDEIDJE.
mandibles take part in this curious formation. The
White Spoonbill is a native of Asia, Africa, and Europe,
in many places being tolerably abundant ; in northern
countries, and even in England, it is only an occa-
sional visitor. Its plumage is entirely white, with the
exception of a band across the breast which is of a
buff colour ; the naked skin of the throat is yellow ;
the back of the head bears a crest of elongated slender
feathers ; the bill is black, with the extremity yellow ;
and the legs are black. The length of the full-grown
male is about thirty-two inches ; the female is rather
less, and has a smaller crest. The trachea of the
Spoonbill is very curiously convoluted in the form of
the figure 8.
The Spoonbill resembles the preceding species in
its general habits, frequenting the margins of rivers
and lakes, in which it procures the fishes, frogs, aquatic
insects, and other animals, which constitute its food.
In capturing minute animals at the water's edge or in
the mud, it makes use of its wide spooulike bih1 much
in the same way as a duck. It is an abundant bird in
Holland during the summer, but migrates southward
at the approach of winter, during which season it
haunts the coasts of the Mediterranean in flocks. The
nest is generally made amongst the reeds and herbage
of the marshes, but in some places the Spoonbill is
said to build, like the heron, in trees.
THE EOSEATE SPOONBILL (Platalea Ajaja)— Plate
25, tig. 96 — a beautiful species of a rose colour with
the wings rich carmine, enjoys a wide distribution in
South America. In its habits it resembles the Euro-
pean species.
THE WHITE STOEK (Ciconia alba}— Plate 25, fig.
97. In the Storks and their immediate allies the bill
is very strong, conical, and usually pointed ; the upper
mandible has no grooves, and the nostrils are pierced in
its sides near the base of the bill. The White Stork,
which is a well-known European bird and an occasional
visitor to Britain, is migratory in its habits, passing
the summer only in temperate and cold latitudes. It
is a large and handsome species, measuring about three
feet and a half in length, and is of a white colour, with
the extremities of the wings black.
The Stork frequents marshes and the banks of rivers,
devouring indiscriminately any aquatic animals that
come in its way, and not even sparing the young
of water fowl. It also feeds freely upon any offal or
carrion ; and for this reason in many places its visits
are regarded with great favour ; and it may be seen
stalking about with perfect confidence even in the
crowded streets of towns. It often takes up its abode
upon the house-tops and there builds its nest, return-
ing every year to take possession of its old dwelling ;
and in Holland and Germany it is usual for the people
to place boxes upon the roofs for the accommodation
of the Storks. The nest consists of a mass of sticks
and similar rough materials, in the midst of which the
female lays three or four eggs; the young, when
hatched, are attended with great care by the parent
birds, which feed them by introducing their bills into
the gaping mouths of their offspring and then disgorg-
ing a portion of their last meal. The affection shown
by the Stork for its young has indeed become pro-
verbial ; and the female has been known to prefer
perishing with her young ones in a conflagration to
making her escape without them.
THE BLACK STOEK (Ciconia nigra] is another
European species, of which a few specimens have been
taken in this country. It inhabits as wide a range of
country as the White Stork, and like it is a migratory
bird ; but instead of approaching the dwellings of man,
it takes up its abode in the most sequestered spot it
can find. This bird is nearly as large as the White
Stork, and is of a deep black colour, with purple,
coppery, and green tints, except on the lower surface,
from the breast backwards, the plumage of which is
\vhite. The bill and feet are orange red.
THE ADJUTANT (Leptoptilus Argala), also called
the GIGANTIC CRANE, is a large and curious bird,
inhabiting India and the Indian islands. It frequently
attains a height of five feet, and measures fully half as
much more from the tip of the bill to that of the enor-
mously elongated feet. This remarkable bird has a
long, powerful, conical bill with an acute tip, with the
nostrils in the form of longitudinal slits near the base
of the ridge of the upper mandible ; its head and neck
are nearly bare of feathers ; in front of the neck is a
large pouch, and the base of the neck is surrounded
by a sort of ruff of feathers. The wings are of enor-
mous size and the legs are very long and stilt-like, the
naked reticulated skin extending far above the articu-
lation of the tarsus. The Adjutant is of an ashy-gray
colour above, with the borders of the elongated wing-
coverts white ; its lower surface is white. This bird
is exceedingly voracious, devouring anything that comes
in his way ; with his enormous bill he is able to snap
up even such large articles of food as fowls, cats, and
rabbits, and the capacity of his throat is such that he
swallows these whole. A small leg of mutton will also
disappear in the same way, and where the Adjutant is
kept in a tame state, it requires no little care to protect
provisions of all kinds from his sudden attacks. He is
nevertheless regarded as a benefactor by the inhabitants
of the countries in which he occurs, on account of the
quantities of carrion which he devours, and for this
reason his presence in the towns is even encouraged.
In a wild state this bird lives in flocks, generally fre-
quenting the flat shores of the mouths of rivers.
THE MAEABOU STOEK (Leptoptilus Marabou) is
an African species, a little smaller than the preceding,
which it resembles in its form and general habits.
This bird is chiefly remarkable for the great delicacy
of the feathers growing from beneath the wings, which
are known as Marabout feathers, and form some of the
most admired ornaments of ladies' head dresses.
THE SENEGAL JABIEU (Mycteria senegalensis) —
Plate 25, fig. 98 — is an inhabitant of the same region
as the last species, to which it is nearly equal in size.
It is at once distinguishable from all the preceding forms
of this group by the peculiar form of the bill, which is
curved upwards at the tip. In its habits this bird
resembles the Storks. A nearly allied species, the M.
australis — is an inhabitant of Australia ; and a third,
distinguished by having the bill black and the head
and neck nearly naked (M. americana), is met with
in- the tropical regions of South America.
THE MADAGASCAR OPEN-BILL. BIRDS.— THE SACRED IBIS.
415
THE MADAGASCAR OPEN-BILL (Anastomus lamelli-
gerus — Plate 26, fig. 99 — is also a species of the group
of Storks, but is distinguished from all the preceding
forms by the curious conformation of its bill. This
organ is long and stout, as in the other Storks, and the
mandibles are in apposition for the basal half of their
length ; but from this point to near the tip they are
separated by a small interval, the tips again coming in
contact. The edges of the open part of the bill are
furnished with numerous lamellae, or little plates. This
bird, which is found in Southern Africa and Mada-
gascar, is about the size of the common Stork, which it
resembles in its habits. Another species (A. oscitans]
inhabits the continent of India.
THE TUFTED UMBRE (Scopus umbretta) — Plate 26,
fig. 100. This remarkable species, which is an inhabit-
ant of Africa, is about the size of a crow, and of a brown
colour ; the male has the back of the head adorned
with a large crest. The bill is much compressed, and
its upper mandible is furrowed along the sides and
terminated by a curved or slightly hooked tip.
THE BAL2ENICEPS (Balceniceps rex). This singular
bird, which is an inhabitant of Nubia and the banks of
the White Nile, was described about ten years ago by
Mr. Gould, who regarded it as in some respects allied
to the Pelicans. It was placed by Mr. Gray amongst
the Herons and in the neighbourhood of the Boatbill,
with which curious bird it has some analogy in tho
form of its bill; but Professor Reinhardt of Copenhagen,
in a paper recently published, contends, and apparently
with good reason, that the Balseniceps is most nearly
allied to the Umbre, also an African bird, with which
it would form a small subordinate group, standing in
the immediate vicinity of the Storks. The Balseniceps
is a large and powerful bird, measuring about four
feet and a half in length ; its head is large and bears
a broad, somewhat depressed bill, of which the upper
mandible is spoon-shaped, but terminated by a strong
hook. It stands upon a pair of long slender legs, of
which the naked reticulated part extends for a con-
siderable distance above the tarsal joints.
THE SACRED IBIS (Geronticus celhiopicus) — fig. 129.
The group of birds to which the common name of Ibis
is given, is distinguished from the other forms of the
present family by the slender and elongated form of
the bill, which is obtuse at the tip and gently curved
downwards. The Sacred Ibis, which is an inhabitant
of many parts of Africa, was regarded witli great
Fig. 129.
The Sacred Ibis (Geronticus a-thiopicus).
veneration by the ancient Egyptians, who kept many
of these birds in the courts of their temples, and fre-
quently embalmed their bodies after death. The Ibis
is also constantly to be found represented on the sculp-
tured monuments of Egypt. It is about the size of a
large fowl, and its plumage is white, with the exception
of the tips of the wings, which are black ; the head
and greater part of the neck are nearly naked and
black, and the bill and feet are black.
THE MILKY IBIS (Tantalus lacteus)— Plate 26, fig.
101 — belongs to a genus in which the bill is stouter
than in that including the Sacred Ibis, but in which
the head and part of the neck are still bare of feathers.
This bird is an inhabitant of Java.
THE AFRICAN TANTALUS (Tantalus Ibis}, which"
was long supposed to be the Sacred Ibis of the Egyp-
tians, is found chiefly in the tropical parts of Africa,
especially on the western coast. It resembles the last
species, but has the naked skin of the face red.
THE SCARLET IBIS (Ibis nibrd) is a beautiful
species of a bright scarlet colour, with the tip of the
wings black, which inhabits the marshes bordering the
great rivers of South America, and is described as
one of the chief ornaments of those regions. It has
only a small portion of the head naked.
THE GLOSSY IBIS (Ibis falcinellus), which is nearly
allied to the last species, appears to be distributed over
nearly all parts of the known world. It is occasionally
seen in this country, and even finds its way as far
north as Sweden. In ancient Egypt this bird shared
416
-BIRDS. SCOTM>PACID^.
•with the Sacred Ibis in the veneration of the people ;
it is seen represented on their monuments, and its
mummies have been found in the tombs.
The Glossy Ibis is about two feet in length, and the
plumage of its upper parts is of a dark-reddish or
chestnut-brown colour, with beautiful purplish and
bronzed green tints. The lower surface and neck are
dark reddish-brown, the bill is purplish-brown, and
the feet are green. Like many other species of the
Ibis group it is migratory ; it lives chiefly in swampy
places by the sides of rivers and lakes, and feeds on
young frogs, small fishes, insects, worms, and mollusca.
FAMILY V.— SCOLOPACID^E.
These birds, which are among the smaller species of
their order, are distinguished by their long, slender,
and nearly cylindrical bills, which are obtuse at the
tip and generally somewhat flexible, of a softer texture
than in most birds, and often covered at the tip with a
delicate skin, abundantly supplied with nerves, and
thus forming an admirable tactile organ. The upper
mandible is a little longer than the lower one and
usually grooved on each side ; the nostrils, which are
small, are pierced at the base of the bill in the grooves.
In the development of the legs the birds of this family
differ considerably amongst themselves — some having
the legs longer and more slender in proportion to their
size than any other birds, whilst others are supported
upon comparatively short limbs. The anterior toes
are of moderate length, and frequently connected .at
the base by membranes ; the posterior toe when present
is small and slightly elevated, but sometimes entirely
wanting. The wings are well developed, and the birds
generally possess considerable powers of flight.
The species of this family, which are exceedingly
numerous, are all true wading birds, frequenting marshy
places and the banks of rivers, in the mud and soft
ground of which they seek the worms and insects which
constitute their chief food.
THE CURLEW (Numenius arquata) — fig. 130 — a
common British species, is one of the largest birds in
this family, the female measuring upwards of two feet
in length, whilst the male is a few inches less. It is
Fig. 130.
The Curlew (Numenius arquata).
of a brown colour, with the edges of the feathers whitish,
and the rump wjite ; the lower surface is white or
nearly so, with the breast pale brown, and the neck
and breast streaked with dark brown. The bill, which
is long and considerably curved downwards, is brown,
and the naked part of the long slender legs is pale blue.
During the late autumn and winter the Curlew fre-
quents the sea-shore, where it finds an abundance of
small Crustacea, worms, and other marine animals ;
but at the approach of spring it migrates inland, and
usually in a northerly direction, to breed upon the
moors and hills. The nest consists of a few dry leaves
and similar materials brought together in a tuft of her-
bage, and in this the eggs, four in number, are laid.
They are of a pear-shape, and are generally placed
with the smaller ends together. Our common Curlew
is generally distributed in all parts of the Old World.
THE BLACK-TAILED GODWIT (Limosa melanura)
is a bird of passage in this country, appearing with us
chiefly in the spring and autumn on its way to and
from its northern breeding-places, although a few pairs
remain through the summer and breed in our fens and
marshes. It is met with throughout the northern half
of the eastern hemisphere. This bird measures from
sixteen to seventeen inches in length; it has a long
bill, very slightly curved upwards. Its plumage varies
greatly with the seasons ; but it is always distinguish-
able by its black tail.
THE COMMON REDSHANK (Tot anus Calidris] is a
not uncommon British species, and resides in this
country throughout the year. It is also met with on
the continent of Europe, in most parts of Asia, and in
Northern Africa. The female is about eleven inches
in length. In its winter plumage the upper surface is
THE COMMON SANDPIPER. BIRDS. THE STILT.
4J7
ashy-brown, with the primaries nearly black, the rump
white and the tail barred with gray ; the lower surface
is white, with a few dusky streaks. In summer the
back and especially the wings are spotted with brown-
ish-black, and the lower surface is streaked and spotted
with black. The bill is dark-red with the tip black,
and the feet are red. During the winter the Redshanks
are seen in flocks on the sea-shore, seeking small marine
animals by probing with their bills into the wet sand
and mud ; for the breeding season they resort to inland
marshes, moors, and heaths. The nest is composed of
a little coarse grass. Like many other wading birds
the Eedshank swims with facility.
THE COMMON SANDPIPER (Totanus hypoleucus) is
a summer visitor to this country, arriving in April and
taking its departure again in September. It is also
known as the SUMMER SNIPE. It is about seven inches
and a half in length ; its colour above is greenish-
brown, with a blackish bar on each feather ; the pri-
maries are nearly black ; the breast is a pale-ash colour
streaked with black, and the rest of the lower surface
pure white. This is a lively and active little bird,
which frequents the margins of our rivers, lakes, and
ponds, where it runs nimbly along on the gravel and
mud, seeking for worms and insects. It is rarely seen
on the coast. Its nest is composed of a little moss and
•A few dry leaves in the immediate vicinity of water;
generally in a hole of the bank under the shelter of a
tuft of rushes or grass, or at the root of a tree. The
eggs are four in number. This species swims well,
and even the young birds before they are able to fly
will take to the water when threatened with any danger.
, They can even dive with facility and remain under
water for a considerable time, coming up at a distance
from the place where they went down ; they are said
to progress under water by the agency of their wings.
THE GREENSHANK (Totanus Glottis) is another
migratory species, which makes its appearance with
us chiefly in the spring and autumn on its journey to
and from the high northern latitudes in which it prefers
to breed. Some specimens, however, remain with us
through the summer, especially in the northern parts
of Scotland. It is of an ashy-brown colour above,
with the edges of most of the feathers buffy- white ;
the primaries are black and the tail white, barred or
striped with brown ; and the lower surface is white,
with the neck and breast, and the sides under the
wings, marked with ash-coloured streaks. The bill is
black and the feet olive-green. This bird occurs in
Europe, Asia, and North America, and generally in
the vicinity of the coasts.
THE AVOCET (Recurvirostra Atmcetta) — Hate 27,
fig. 102 — is remarkable for the length of its legs and
for the singular form of its bill, which is long, slender,
and strongly curved upwards. It measures about
eighteen inches in length, and its plumage is curiously
pied with black and white. The toes are united by
large membranes, but it does not appear to use its feet
in swimming, as is done by some species not so well
provided. The Avocet inhabits Asia and Africa, and
visits Europe as a bird of passage ; it is rare in this
country, but appears to have been more abundant
formerly. It is sometimes seen on the coast, but more '
VOL. I.
frequently in marshy places on the borders of water in
the interior , it walks about on the soft sand or mud,
or wades deeply into the water, poking about with its
long, flexible, and curiously formed bill in search of
the worms, aquatic insects, and small crustaceans on
which it feeds. The nest is made in a small hole in
the ground, and the bird is said to lay only two eggs.
THE STILT (Himantopus melanoplerus), also called
the LONG-LEGGED PLOVER, is especially remarkable
for the immense length of its slender legs, which appear
quite out of proportion to its little body. It is nearly
allied to the Avocet, but has a straight bill ; and the
posterior toe, which is small in the Avocet, is in the
present bird entirely waiting. The back and wings
are nearly black, with a slight green tinge ; the
remainder of the plumage is white, the bill is black,
and the feet are pink. The length of the bird is about
thirteen inches. This species is found in Europe,
Africa, and Asia ; it is a rare visitor to this country.
THE AMERICAN STILT (Himantopus nigricollis), a
bird very nearly allied to the last species, but distin-
guished from it by its black head and neck, is found on
the Atlantic coasts of North America in company with
the American Avocet. During the breeding season it
associates in small parties of six or eight pairs, which
make their nests, at a short distance apart, amongst
the thick tufts of grass on the dry ground near the salt
marshes frequented by them. The nests are composed
of dry grass, twigs, and similar materials, and as the
birds sit they continually add to the height of their
nests, probably with a view to protect the eggs or
young from any accidental rising of the water above
its ordinarj' level. Several other species of Stilts are
known ; they are scattered over all parts of the world.
THE RUFF (Philomachus pugnux). The male of
this species is adorned during the breeding season with
a large quantity of feathers, springing from the head
and throat and forming a large ruff, which is capable
of being raised or depressed at the pleasure of the bird,
hence its ordinary English name. The females, which
are called Reeves, are destitute of this ornament. This
bird is rather more than ten inches in length ; the
feathers of the upper surface are black, broadly mar-
gined with ash-colour and brown ; those of the neck
and breast are still more broadly edged with grayish-
white, and the remainder of the lower surface is white.
The Ruff inhabits most parts of Europe in the sum-
mer, but is most common towards the north ; it is also
found in Asia and Northern Africa, and performs a
regular migration in spring and autumn. In this
country it is met with in the fen districts, where it
breeds, but is much less common here than formerly.
It is polygamous in its habits, and the males fight with
the greatest ferocity and determination.
THE KNOT (Tringa Canutus), unlike the preceding
species, is a winter visitor to this country, where it is
not an uncommon bird from autumn- to spring. It
does not appear ever to breed in any part of the British
islands, but resorts to very high northern latitudes for this
purpose. Like a good many other birds which have
this habit, it is common to both hemispheres, of which
it seems to inhabit all the northern parts. The Knot
is about ten inches in length, and in the summer its
3 G
418
GRALL.E. BIRDS. RALLID.E.
upper plumage is black, with the feathers margined
with reddish-brown and white, and the whole lower
surface rich reddish-chestnut , in the winter it is ashy-
gray above, and white streaked with gray beneath.
In this country the Knot is met with on the shores,
chiefly of the southern and eastern counties.
THE DUNLIN (Tringa variabilis), which is about
eight inches in length, undergoes changes in its plumage
analogous to those occurring in the preceding species,
and the difference between the bird in its summer
and in its winter dress is so great, that it was long
supposed to form two species, distinguished under the
names of the Dunlin and the Purre. The Dunlin is
diffused over the whole northern hemisphere, and
migrates to high latitudes in the spring to breed ; in
this country it is abundant on the sea-coasts during
the autumn and winter, but appears to breed only in
the most noithern parts of Scotland, and in the Orkney
and Shetland islands. It frequents flat sandy shores,
where it is seen in constant activity, running along or
taking short flights near the edge of the water, and
continually probing with its bill in search of the small
Crustacea on which it chiefly feeds.
THE COMMON SNIPE (Scolopax gallinago)—P]ate
27, fig. 103. — This well-known bird, although generally
migratory in its habits, and breeding in high northern
latitudes, is still truly indigenous to this country, in all
parts of which it is known to breed, but most commonly
towards the north. It is, however, most abundant
here during the winter, when it is met with in marshy
places all over the country. The bill in the Snipe, and
in all its immediate allies, is thickened, soft, and very
tender at the extremity, and this part, being richly
supplied with nerves, serves as a delicate organ of
touch in searching in the soft ground for the insects
and worms which constitute the food of the bird. The
nest of the Snipe is a very slight structure, composed
of a little dry grass or other herbage, brought together
in a small hollow in the ground, often under the shel-
ter or in the midst of a tuft of grass or rushes. The
eggs are from two to four in number. The Common
Snipe is found in all parts of Europe, and in Northern
Africa and Asia Minor, but in its more southern places
of residence it is only a winter visitor.
THE JACK SNIPE (Scolopax gallinula), a smaller
and rarer British species than the preceding, is found
in this country almost exclusively during the winter,
although a few specimens remain to breed in the
northern parts of Scotland. It is widely distributed
over the eastern hemisphere towards the north, and
migrates into high latitudes every summer.
THE GEEAT SNIPE (Scolopax major) is a larger
species, measuring about twelve inches in length. Like
the preceding Snipes it is widely distributed, and
migrates far north to breed.
THE WOODCOCK (Scolopax rusticola}, which, like
the Snipes previously referred to, is a winter resident
in this country, is also known to remain here through
the summer, and to breed in many parts of Britain,
especially in the north of Scotland. It arrives here
early in October, and leaves us again for the north in
March, and during its residence here dwells chiefly
i:i plantations and copses in the vicinity of water. It
feeds at night, when it sallies forth from its cover and
proceeds silently to its feeding ground, where it seeks
the worms and larvae of insects which constitute its
nourishment. In its mode of nidification it resembles
the other Snipes.
THE GRAY PHALAEOPE (Phalaroims lolatus). — The
Phalaropes closely resemble the Snipes in their general
characters, but are at once distinguishable by the
structure of their feet, which have the anterior toes bor-
dered with membranous lobes, rendering them efficient
swimming organs. Hence, they have been placed by
some ornithologists in the same group with the Coots
and Grebes, in which nearly the same structure of foot
prevails, although in all other respects the Phalaropes
are evidently true members of the Snipe family.
The Gray Phalarope is a pretty little bird, measuring
about eight inches in length. In winter its colour is
pearl-gray above, with the greater part of the wing-
feathers lead-gray, margined with white; the lower
surface is white. In the summer it is nearly black
above, with the margins of the feathers pale-yellow,
and reddish-chestnut beneath. This bird is widely
distributed in the Northern hemisphere, being met with
in Europe, Asia, and North America. It is migratory
in its habits, resorting to the extreme north for the
breeding season, and passing the winter in the warmer
temperate latitudes. It is usually seen in this country
in autumn, when it is not uncommon, and a few speci-
mens remain with us through the winter. As might
be expected, from the structure of its feet, the Phala-
rope is a good swimmer. It has been seen several
miles out at sea, swimming about and capturing the
small Crustacea and other animals which float at the
surface of the water. When swimming its appearance
resembles that of a teal. Two other species .of Phala-
ropes are met with in North America, one of which,
the KED-NECKED PHALAROPE (P. hyperboreus), is also
found in Europe.
FAMILY VI. — EALLID^.
In this family the bill is always short, much com-
pressed, and wedge-shaped; the upper mandible is
grooved along each side, and the nostrils are generally
placed near the middle of the bill. The legs are
also short, rarely so long as in the preceding family.
They are generally pretty stout. The toes, espe-
cially the anterior ones, are greatly elongated; the
hinder toe is sometimes of moderate length, some-
times very long, and it is either placed on the same
plane with the anterior toes, or elevated a little upon
the back of the tarsus. The claws with which the toes
are armed are often very long, especially that of the
hinder toe ; and the birds in which this structure
occurs are thereby enabled to run with ease upon the
floating leaves of aquatic plants. The wings are
moderate, and the tail generally short. The neck, also,
is short, and in their general aspect the birds resemble
the Gallina3 more than the true Waders.
In their habits the birds of this family vary greatly.
Some of them frequent dry places, and especially corn-
fields, whilst others haunt marshy places and the
margins of water. Of the latter, some, as already
THE WATER-RAIL. BIRDS. THK COOT.
stated, run over the floating aquatic plants, and others
swim and dive with ease. Their food consists of
worms, small mollusca, and insects, but they also eat
a good deal of vegetable matter. We may commence
with those forms which are represented in Britain.
THE WATER-RAIL (Rallus aquations)— Plate 28,
fig. 106 — is an abundant species in many parts of
Europe, but does not occur very commonly in England,
where, however, it is a constant resident In the north
of Europe it is a summer visitor. This bird frequents
marshes, where it dwells amongst the dense beds of
reeds, rushes, and other herbage. Through these the
compressed form of its body, which, indeed, is common
to all the species of this family, enables it to pass with
great facility, so that it can hardly be driven from its
cover by any means. It is also able to swim and dive
well. The nest consists of a mass of sedges and coarse
grass, collected amongst the thickest herbage of its
haunts. The appearance of the Water-rail is well
shown in our figure. Its bill is longer than in most
other species of the family, and the whole length of the
bird is nearly a foot.
THE LAND-RAIL (Crex pralensis), which is also
called the CORN-CRAKE, is a common visitor to Britain,
arriving here towards the end of April. It resem-
bles the Water-rail in its general appearance, but
is nearly two inches shorter, and has a much shorter
bill. The Land-rail is abundant all over Europe,
and also visits Northern Africa in the winter. It
haunts damp meadows and the borders of rivers, and
is also commonly found in corn-fields, from which its
curious cry of crek, crek, crek, may be constantly
heard in the dusk of the evening. The food of this
bird consists of worms, slugs, insects, and even small
reptiles, and its flesh is regarded as exceedingly good.
Its nest, which is placed on the ground in a field of
thick grass, clover, or corn, is composed of dried herb-
age, and usually contains from seven to ten eggs. The
female sits very close ; indeed, an instance is recorded
of her head being cut off by mowers. When in
danger, and unable to escape, the Land-rail will feign
death in the most perfect manner, and persist in this
simulation until it gets an opportunity to steal away.
Several other Crakes or Land-rails are met with in
this country. They all visit us in the summer. Other
species are dispersed in all parts of the world.
THE GALLINULE (GaUinula chloropus}— Plate 28,
fig. 108. — The Gallinules are distinguished from the
preceding species by having the ridge of the upper
mandible dilated at the base into the form of an oblong
plate, of rather soft consistence, which covers more or
less of the forehead. They are all aquatic in their
habits. The hinder toe is more developed than in the
preceding species of this family. The common Gallinule,
Moor-hen, or Water-hen of this country is generally
distributed over the Old World, always inhabiting
marshy places. The Gallinule swims and dives with
great facility, and is rarely seen except on the water,
along which , it moves with a nodding motion of the
head, probably corresponding to the strokes given by
the feet. It picks up most of its food while thus
swimming about, and obtains some also by diving
t ) the bottom of the water, but in the morning and
evening not unfrequently wanders to the damp mea-
dows in its vicinity in search of worms, insects, and
slugs. Occasionally this bird perches on the branch
of a tree, and it has even been known to place its nest
upon a branch hanging close to the surface of the
water ; but the nest is generally made on the ground
amongst .reeds and "other herbage. The eggs are
usually seven or eight in number, and the birds pro-
duce two or three broods in the season. In winter the
Gallinules frequent running water, which is not liable
to be frozen over, and in severe winters they take to
hedge rows and plantations, and appear to feed on
berries and seeds.
THE COOT (Fulica atra), which is very nearly allied
to the Gallinule, is distinguished from it by the broad
membranous lobes with which the toes are bordered
on each side The base of the upper mandible is
dilated into a frontal plate. The Coot is considerably
larger than the Gallinule, measuring about sixteen
inches in length ; its colour is a sooty black, with the
tips of the secondaries white, forming a narrow band
across the wing ; the bill is flesh co^ur, with its frontal
dilatation white, and the feet are dark green. This
bird is widely distributed in Europe and Asia, and per-
forms a partial migration towards the north in the
summer. It frequents large open sheets of water, and
is very watchful in its habits ; for which reason other
water fowl are said to be exceedingly fond of associ-
ating with it. It swims and dives well, and is active
and lively on land ; it even perches and moves about
the branches of trees with great ease.
THE SULTANA BIRD (Porpliyrio pulverulentus) —
Plate 28, fig. 107. — The species of the genus Por-
phyrio are very nearly related to the Gallinules, which
they resemble in most of their characters. They are
distributed over most parts of the world, principally
in the warmer regions; only one species, and this a
native of Africa, occurs in Europe. In their habits
they resemble the Gallinules. The species figured
is a native of Southern Africa, where it is met with on
the banks of rivers.
THE JACANA (Parra Jacana).—The Jacanas differ
from the preceding species in the form of the bill,
which is more or less arched towards the tip, and in
the great length and acuteuess of the claws, especially
those of the hinder toes. The wings also are armed
with spurs at the bend. The claw of the hind toe is
perhaps more elongated in the present species than in
any other. It is an inhabitant of Brazil, where it fre-
quents the rivers, and runs by means of its elongated
toes over the floating leaves of the aquatic plants. At
the base of the bill there is a large dilated plate stand-
ing up in front of the forehead, and a sort of wattle-like
prominence occupies the base of the lower mandible ;
the head and lower surface are black, and the upper
parts' chestnut. Its length is about ten inches.
THE CHINESE JACANA (Parra sinensis] — Plate 27,
fig. 104— is an example of a different group of these
birds, which some ornithologists have elevated into a
genus, under the name of Hydrophasionus. It is des-
titute of the frontal plate at the base of the upper
mandible. Several other species are found in America,
Africa, and Southern Asia.
420
N.VTATOKES. BIRDS. Ax.VTID.K.
THE HORNED SCREAMER (Palamedea cornuta) —
Plate 28, fig. 105 — is nearly allied to the Jacanas. Its
head is decorated with a singular long and slender
horn, and its wings are armed each with two spurs.
The toes, and especially the claws, are comparatively
shorter than in the true Jacanas. This bird is about
the size of a goose, and of a blackish colour, with a
large red spot on each shoulder. It dwells in the
marshes of South America, living in pairs, and utters
loud cries which may be heard at a great distance.
It is said to live chiefly upon leaves and seeds.
THE CHAJA (CJiauna cJiavaria), instead of the curi-
ous horn of the Screamer, has on the back of the head
a circle of feathers, which are capable of being raised
or depressed at the pleasure of the bird. The Chaja
is an inhabitant of Brazil and Paraguay; it feeds chiefly
on vegetable matters, and is frequently kept with the
domestic poultry, as it is said to drive away birds of
prey. This bird is remarkable for the looseness of its
skin, which appears to be separated from the subjacent
muscles by a stratum of air-cells, and the skin crackles
when the finger is pressed upon it.
ORDER VIII.— NAT ATORES.
IN the Natatorial or Swimming Birds we find in its
highest state of development a character which, as
already stated, occurs more or less amongst the mem-
bers of the preceding order, namely, the union of the
anterior toes by a web or membrane. In fact, in most,
of these birds the feet are completely palmated, the
membranes extending quite down to the extremities of
the toes ; but this is not universally the case, for in
some forms the toes are merely bordered with a wide
membrane. The posterior toe is almost always small,
more or less elevated on the back of the tarsus, and
directed a little inwards; in a few species it attains
a greater degree of development, and is then united by
a membrane to the inner anterior toe. By the agency
of these webbed feet the birds of this order are enabled
to swim with great ease and rapidity, and most of them
pass the greater portion of their existence upon the
surface of the water, not a few also being able to dive
and progress beneath the surface with astonishing faci-
lity. The legs are usually rather short, and placed very
far back towards the tail, a position which, coupled
with the boat-like form of the body, greatly increases
the natatorial power, but renders the gait of these
birds upon dry land awkward and waddling in the
extreme. In some forms, such as the Penguins and
skeleton, the legs are so placed that the bird is com-
pelled to hold itself quite upright when outt of the
water.
The body, as already indicated, is of an elongated,
boat-like form, admirably adapted for speedy motion
tlirough the water ; it is generally stout and bulky,
and most frequently terminates in front in a rather
elongated and very flexible neck. The plumage is
dense, and exhibits a very thick under-coat of down ;
the outer surface is kept constantly greased by the
birds, so that the water runs off it with great readi-
ness. In other respects these birds exhibit many
and important differences amongst themselves. In the
development of the wings we find a far greater varia-
tion than in any other order of birds, some species
being endowed with enormous organs of flight, which
suffice to support them in the air for the whole day
without apparent fatigue ; whilst others have mere
rudimentary pinions, quite unfitted for flight. The
latter are the most thoroughly aquatic in their habits
of the members of the order ; and between these two
extremes we find every intermediate grade. The bill
is also subject to great variations in size, form, and
texture.
As might be expected from the preceding state-
ments, the habits of these birds vary greatly, and they
form six well-defined families, presenting important
difierences both in structure and mode of life.
FAMILY I.— ANATHLE.
The birds forming this family, of which our common
Geese and Ducks are characteristic examples, arc
easily distinguished from all the rest of their order by
the peculiar characters presented by the bill. This
organ is generally of a rather broad and flattened
form, and furnished with a soft covering; and the
edges of both mandibles exhibit a series of fine, tooth-
like lamellae or plates. The office of these, which
interlock when the mandibles are nearly closed, is to
form a sort of strainer, by means of which the birds
are enabled to separate small particles of food from the
water and mud in which they commonly seek their
nourishment. The feet are well developed, and the
anterior toes are united by ample membranes ; the
hinder toe is small, free, and raised more or less on
the back of the tarsus. The wings are also tolerably
large and powerful, enabling the birds, notwithstand-
ing their bulky and rather heavy bodies, to fly with
considerable ease and rapidity; many of them are
migratory in their habits, and perform long journeys
to and from their breeding places. They are generally
gregarious, and most of them frequent fresh waters,
although they are often seen on the sea-shore in the
winter season. Their food consists chiefly of worms,
aquatic insects, and mollusca, which they obtain as
above described by straining the mud and water
through the fine lamellte of their bills. The species
of this family are very numerous, and we can only
refer to a few of the most interesting forms.
THE FLAMINGO (Phcenicopterus ruber)— Plate 29,
fig. 109.— This singular bird undoubtedly presents the
nearest approach in many respects to the preceding
order, although its characters distinctly show that it
belongs to the present family. It is supported upon
TIFF. FLAMINGO. BIRDS TIIK WILD SWAN.
421
enormously long legs, of which the naked part extends
far above the articulation of the tarsus, as in the Wad-
ing birds, with which it was, on this account, long asso-
ciated by ornithologists ; but the feet are fully webbed,
it presents the same lamellated structure of the edges
of the bill which prevails amongst the Anatidse, and
its plumage possesses all the characters of that of
these- birds. The bill itself is of a singular form, but
Fig. 131.
is wonderfully well adapted to the peculiar mode of life
of this bird —fig. 131. As the Flamingo stalks along
upon its long stilt-like legs, or wades in the shallow
waters, it holds down its long neck towards the ground,
and the peculiarly formed upper mandible is thus turned
back downwards, and constitutes a receptacle for any
small objects in the mud or water. These are retained
by the lamelhe of the mandibles, assisted by the spines
which fringe the fleshy tongue, and the Flamingo is
thus enabled to retain the small fishes, mollusca, and
Crustacea which constitute its food.
The Flamingo is an inhabitant of Southern Europe,
Africa, and Asia. It is a large bird, old males often
standing nearly five feet in height, and as it is grega-
rious in its habits, collecting in large flocks upon the
sea-coast, its bright red wings give these parties a
close resemblance to bodies of soldiers standing in line.
The nest of this bird is very curious, being a small hill
of mud, with a cavity in its summit ; in this the female
lays two or three eggs, which she hatches by sitting
astride upon the hillock. Other nearly allied species
are found in both hemispheres.
THE WILD GOOSE (Anser ferus}— Plate 29, fig. 110
— also known as the GRAY-LAG GOOSE, is believed
to be the original stock of our domestic geese, though
another species, the White-fronted Goose, is also pro-
bably one of their progenitors. It is a migratory bird,
inhabiting most parts of Europe and Asia, frequenting
high northern latitudes in the summer for the purpose
of breeding, and descending to the warm and temperate
regions in the autumn. It was formerly not uncom-
mon in this country in the winter, but of late years
has become rare.
THE BEAN GOOSE (Anscr segetum] is the most
abundant of our British species ; and although chiefly
resident here only in the winter, a few pairs are known
to remain in Britain through the summer to breed, espe-
cially in the north of Scotland. It is found all over
Europe, and breeds in the extreme north of that con-
tinent. Its name of Bean Goose is given to it from its
fondness for pulse and grain ; it is known to frequent
corn-fields often in great flocks, which do considerable
damage. In its migrations this bird, and many of its
allies, usually fly at a great height in the air, and in
the form of a wedge, or rather of the letter V, with
the point directed forward ; they generally fly by
night, when their passage is betrayed by the clanging
sound of their voices.
THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE (Anser albifrons), a
rather smaller species than either of the preceding, is
distinguished by having a white band at the base of
the upper mandible, continued in the form of a patch
on the forehead ;. it is an inhabitant of the whole
northern hemisphere, and is an abundant winter visitor
to this country. Its note somewhat resembles a laugh ;
and hence it has sometimes been called the Laughing
Goose.
THE BKENT GOOSE (Anser Bernida), the smallest
British species, has a white spot on each side of the
neck. It is very abundant here during the winter,
but, unlike the preceding species, dwells chiefly upon
the coast, feeding upon sea-weeds of various kinds.
THE NEW HOLLAND GOOSE (Cereopsis Novce Hol-
landice] — Plate 29, fig. 111. — Of the numerous other
species of Geese distributed in all parts of the world,
our space will only permit us to refer to the curious
Australian bird, to which the name of Cereopsis has
been given. In this bird the base of the upper man-
dible is occupied by a large cere, towards the front ot
which the nostrils are pierced ; the tarsi are rather
elongated, and the webs uniting the toes are deeply
cut. out in a semicircular form. It is about the size
of our Common Goose, and is of a gray colour, with
the quills of the wings and tail blackish ; the bill is
black, the cere yellow, the tarsi reddish-orange, and
the feet black. The Cereopsis frequents the shores of
Australia. Its voice is very strong and clanging.
THE WILD SWAN (Cygnus ferus}, called the WHOOP-
ING SWAN, in allusion to the whooping cry of tlie male,
is a winter visitor to this country, its summer residence
and breeding place being in the high northern latitudes
of the Old World. In the Orkneys, however, a few
pairs generally remain through the summer and breed.
The Whopping Swan is about the same size as the
ordinary Tame Swan and, like it, is of a white colour;
but the bill is yellow, with the extremity black, while
in the Tame Swan the black is at the base of the bill.
In this country the Wild Swans frequent the rivers
and lakes, and in severe winters move down to the
sea-shore. As in the cranes and severalother birds
which have a loud and trumpet-like voice, the trachea
of the Wild Swan is very long, and is bent back into
a large fold or loop, enclosed in the interior of the
breast-bone.
THE TAME SWAN (Cyynus olor}, or MUTE SWAN,
so called from his possessing only a soft and rather
musical voice, very different from the strong notes of
the preceding species, is the well-known and grace-
ful species so often seen adorning with its delicate
422
NATATORES. BIRDS. ANATID^R.
white plumage, and elegant form, the surfaces of
our lakes, rivers, and ornamental waters. It is the
only species that permanently resides in this country,
where, however, it is generally met with in a half-
domesticated condition. This bird has the extreme
tip of the upper mandible and its edges, and a patch
at the base of the bill extending to the eye, and
occupying a large tubercle in front of the forehead,
black ; the rest of the bill is orange-yellow. During
the breeding season the swans live in pairs, each pair
keeping to its own part of the water, and at this time
the male becomes exceedingly fierce, attacking any
animal that intrudes upon his domains. The nest is
formed of a mass of reeds, rushes, and other plants,
and is placed close to the edge of the water, or
amongst the plants growing upon some small bank
which is hardly above the surface.. The eggs are six
or seven in number. When hatched the young birds
accompany their parents into the water, and occasion-
ally the mother will even take her family upon her
back and swim along with them, apparently with the
view of relieving them from the necessity of making
way against the stream. The whole family remains
together throughout the winter, and in the summer
or autumn the owners of the swans put a particular
mark upon the bills of the young birds, produced by
those belonging to them. Many of these marks are
very curious; representations of a considerable num-
ber, with interesting historical details, will be found
in Mr. Yarrell's " History of British Birds."
THE BLACK SWAN (Cygnusatratus).— Amongst the
species of Swans none is more remarkable than the
Black Swan, from the complete exception which it
makes to the ordinarily white colour of these birds.
This species, which is an inhabitant of various parts
of New Holland, and has even given its name to the
colony of Swan Eiver in Western Australia, is of a
black colour, with the exception of the wing-quills,
which are white, and the lower part of the belly, which
is of an ash colour. The bill is orange red, and the
feet are brownish. The Black Swan is nearly as large
as the common species, but appears to be rather inferior
to it in 'strength.
THE WILD DUCK (Alias Boschas), of which the male
is known as the Mallard, is an abundant species in this
country, and was formerly much more numerous here,
before the fens and marshes were so generally drained.
A few pairs remain here through the summer ; but the
majority resort to high northern latitudes to breed, and
visit us in large flocks at the approach of winter. The
Wild Duck frequents marshy places and the borders of
rivers and lakes, where it finds an abundant supply of
nourishment in the form of worms, insects, and mol-
lusca, except in very severe winters, when it is forced
to resort to estuaries in search of food and open water.
In a wild state it always pairs ; but the domestic ducks,
which are derived from this species, are polygamous
in their habits.
As the flesh of the Wild Duck is exceedingly good,
it is captured in great quantities during the winter
season, sometimes by means of the gun, and sometimes
by peculiar traps known as decoys. These consist of
long-curved canals, leading out of a piece of water
much frequented by water-fowl, and covered with nets
supported upon hoops. The birds are enticed or
driven into these canals by means of decoy ducks,
trained to come to a whistle, and assisted by equally
well-trained spaniels. The fowlers are concealed by
means of reed-screens, so disposed that they may be
seen by the birds which have advanced beyond them
into the decoy, and which are thus caused to give up
all thoughts of retreat; they consequently push forward
to avoid the dog and his master, until they reach the
termination of the canal, which gradually grows nar-
rower, and ends in what is called a tunnel net capable
of being detached from the main net of the decoy as
soon as it is filled with birds. These are then taken
out and killed by the fowlers.
THE SHIELDRAKE ( Tadorna Vulpanser) is a well-
known species on the British coasts, where it resides
throughout the year, but is most abundant in the winter.
It is an exceedingly handsome bird, having the head
and upper part of the neck deep green, the lower part
of the neck white, and below this a broad annular
band of chestnut ; the back and lower surface are white,
the latter with a dark-brown band along the middle ;
the scapulars and part of the tertials are black, and
the primaries dark brown. The bill is of a vermilion
colour. The length of the bird is rather more than
two feet. On some parts of our coast the Shieldrakes
regularly breed in the rabbit burrows, whence they
are known as Burrow Ducks.
THE SHOVELLER (Spatula clypeata], another Bri-
tish species, is an inhabitant of the northern parts
of both hemispheres, breeding chiefly in the extreme
north. It is easily distinguished by the great
width of the extremity of the bill, from which its
names of Shoveller and Broad-bill are derived; the
upper mandible is terminated with a rather strongly-
hooked nail. This bird inhabits inland marshes, lakes,
and rivers, seeking its animal food in the mud and
shallow water. It also feeds to a considerable extent
upon grass and other vegetable matters.
THE PINTAIL DUCK (Dafila acuta) resembles the
preceding species in its wide distribution, and is a
winter visitor to Britain. The male has the central
tail-feathers much elongated and black. In its habits
it resembles the shoveller. It is frequently taken with
the common wild duck and other allied species in the
decoys, and its flesh is in high esteem.
THE TEAL (Querquedula Crecca) is one of the
smallest species of ducks, measuring only fourteen
inches in length. It is found all over the northern
parts of the Eastern hemisphere, but does not extend
its range to America, where its place is taken by
another species. In this country it is a winter visitor,
although a few pairs remain here to breed.
THE WIDGEON (Mareca penelope), another well-
known British duck, is a winter visitor to our islands.
THE POCHARD (Aythya ferina). — Besides the pre-
ceding ducks, which are chiefly inhabitants of the fresh
waters, there is a considerable number of nearly-allied
species, which haunt the sea-shore, and may be regarded
as marine ducks. Of these the Pochard, which is one
of the best known, is found both inland and on the
coast. The Pochard measures nearly twenty inches in
THE EIDER DUCK. BIRDS. THE GOOSAJTDKK.
423
length ; it has the head and neck chestnut-red, the lower
j part of the neck and the breast deep black, and the
rest of the plumage freckled with delicate gray spots
and lines upon a white ground. The eye is red. This
bird is a winter visitor to this country, and breeds in
the extreme northern parts of both hemispheres. Its
flesh, when it feeds in fresh waters, is exceedingly
good ; but specimens killed on the sea-shore are
coarse, and of a bad flavour. The Canvas-backed
Duck (A. Valisneria) of North America, a nearly-
allied species, is noted for the goodness of its flesh.
THE TUFTED DUCK (Fullgula cristata) is another
abundant and well-known British species, which chiefly
frequents the sea-coast. It occurs all over the nor-
thern parts of the Old World. This is a short and
stout-bodied bird, with a small crest on the back of
the head ; the male has the head and neck and the
back black, and the lower surface white, whilst the
female is dark brown above and grayish .white beneath.
Its length is about seventeen inches.
Of other allied species we may mention the HAR-
LEQUIN DUCK (Fulifjula histrionica), the SCAUP
DUCK (F. maril(i), the GOLDKN-EYE (F. clanyulci),
the BUFFEL-HEADED DUCK (F. albeola), and the
LONG-TAILED DUCK (Harelda glatialis), all of which
visit our shores for the winter season.
THE EIDER DUCK (Somateria moft'ssma)— fig.132
—an inhabitant of some parts of the British coasts,
especially towards the north of Scotland, is most abun-
dant in the extreme north of both hemispheres, where
it breeds amongst the rocks of the coasts in vast quan-
tities. The male of this species has the cheeks white,
the top of the head black, the back of the head green,
the back and smaller wing-feathers white, the primaries
and secondaries and the great wing-coverts black, the
lower surface and tail black, and the neck white,
with its lower part pale buff; the bill is dusky green,
with its tip white, and the feet are green. The length
is rather more than two feet. The female is pale brown,
variegated with spots of a darker brown.
The Eider Duck frequents the sea-coast and feeds
upon marine animals. It is highly valued on account
of the great quantity of very tine, soft, and elastic down
which it produces, and which is most abundant in the
breeding season, at which period the female plucks this
delicate substance from her skin, and employs it as a
lining for her nest. The down is collected from the
nests by the inhabitants of countries where Eider
Ducks abound ; and as the female continues to lay
and to pull the down from her body for a considerable
time when thus plundered, it is said that she will fur-
nish as much as half a pound of this material in the
course of the season. It is much esteemedfor its warmth
and lightness, and is employed in the manufacture of
quilts and similar articles.
THE COMMON SCOTER (Oidemia ninra) is entirely
of a, black colour, with only the ridge of the upper
mandible orange; the female is paler and blackish-
brown. Its length is about nineteen inches. This
bird is a winter visitor to our coasts, and feeds upon
mu^els and other bivalve mollusca, which it procures
by mving, an exercise in which this and all the marine
ducks are very expert.
THE LOBATED DUCK (Hydrobates lobatus}, a native
of Southern Australia, is remarkable for the singular
leathery flap which hangs down beneath the lower
mandible in the male. The plumage of this bird is of
a blackish colour, crossed by numerous paler lines. It
measures about thirty inches in length.
THE GOOSANDER (Mergus Merganser) — fig. 133.
Besides the preceding forms, which all possess a broad
and more or less depressed bill, the present family in-
cludes a considerable number of species in which that
organ is nearly cylindrical, or even compressed, with
the upper mandible terminated by a strongly -hooked
nail. These birds frequent both inland waters and the
sea-shore, and are chiefly confined to the northern
parts of the world. They are exceedingly active iu
424
NATATORES. BIRDS. COLYMBID.-E.
the water, swimming and diving with astonishing ease
and rapidity in pursuit of the fishes and other animals
which constitute their food.
The Goosander, which is one of the largest species
of tliis peculiar form, is a common bird in the northern
Head of Goosander.
regions of both hemispheres; in this country it is
usually seen only in the winter, although some indivi-
duals remain to breed in the northern parts of Scot-
land. It frequents indifferently the fresh and salt
waters, but in severe winters is usually driven to take
up its abode in deep bays, where its great power of
diving enables it to procure a supply of food.
THE RED-BREASTED MERGANSER (Mergus ser-
rator) is another species which may be regarded as,
to a certain extent, permanently resident in Britain,
although chiefly a winter visitor ; and the HOODED
MERGANSER (AT, cucullatus), distinguished by its
broad crest, with a large white patch on each side of
it, is a native of North America, of which, however,
specimens have found their way to oimshores.
FAMILY II.— COLYMBID^E.
The birds known as Divers and Grebes, which con-
stitute this family, are readily distinguished from those
just described, by the absence of the lamellae along the
edges of the bill, which is rather elongated, of a coni-
cal form, and acutely pointed. The nostrils are small
and very narrow, forming mere slits in the sides of the
upper mandible ; the wings are short, and the legs are
placed so far back, and attached to the body in such a
manner, that the birds are compelled to sit upright, rest-
ing upon the whole length of the tarsus when on dry
ground. The feet are large, and the toes sometimes
fully webbed, sometimes bordered by ample but dis-
tinct membranes ; the posterior toe is always present,
although small.
These birds, which are essentially aquatic in their
habits, never venturing to move far from the water's
edge, are found principally in the northern hemisphere.
Some of them frequent fresh waters, others prefer the
sea-coast ; they fly with considerable rapidity, but only
for short distances. They swim and dive with the
greatest ease, and progress under water with the most
astonishing rapidity, then- movements when submerged
being greatly aided by the action of the wings. Then-
food consists of fishes, mollusca, insects, and Crustacea.
THE GREAT NORTHERN DIVER (Coli/mlus fjluci-
alts), the largest species of this group, measuring
nearly three feet in length, is met with chiefly in
the arctic regions of both hemispheres, but advances
further south at the approach of winter, when it
occurs in great abundance about the shores of the
northern parts of Scotland. At this period it lives
principally on the sea, capturing herrings, sprats, and
other small fish by diving ; but in the summer these
birds frequent the numerous fresh-water lakes of the
extreme north, on the margins of which they make
their large flat nests of dry herbage. On laud the
Diver is very awkward, as it is compelled to rest upon
its lower surface, and push itself on with its feet ; but in
the water it moves with surprising rapidity, its speed
equalling that of a four-oared boat ; and even under
water it moves with undiminished swiftness, coming
up at intervals for the sake of air, but often remaining
below the surface for six or seven minutes at a time.
Two . other species, the BLACK-THROATED DIVER
(C. arcticus) and the RED-THROATED DIVER (C. sep-
tentrionalis), which correspond with the Great Northern
Diver hi their distribution and habits, are sufficiently
distinguished by the peculiarities indicated in their
names. They are both met with on the British coasts,
the latter abundantly, the former more rarely.
THE GREAT CRESTED GREBE (Podiceps cristatus).
— The Grebes are distinguished from the Divers by the
peculiar structure of their feet, in which the mem-
branes, instead of uniting the toes, are cleft nearly to
the base of the latter, forming broad membranous
margins. In other respects, the two forms are very
similar, as also in their habits, although the Grebes
frequent lakes and other pieces of fresh water in pre-
ference to the sea. The Great Crested Grebe, one
of the largest -•pecies, measures from twenty-one to
twenty-two inches in length, and has the plumage of
the upper surface dark brown, and that of the lower
parts white ; the wings exhibit a white patch formed
by the secondary quills ; the top of the head is dark
brown, and is adorned at the back with a double crest
of the same colour; the cheeks are white, and below
the head there is a sort of tippet, hanging down all
round the neck, of a pale chestnut colour, deep chest-
nut at the lower margin.
This bird is an inhabitant of most of the northern
parts of both hemispheres. In this country it is a
constant resident, frequenting the lakes and other
extensive pieces of water. It feeds upon acuiatic
animals of all kinds, which its great natatorial powers
enable it to capture with ease.
THE HORNED GREBE (Pocliceps cornutus), also
known as the SCLAVONIAN GREBE, is a much smaller
species than the preceding one, which it resembles in
its general habits and distribution, but is a rare bird
in this country in summer. The male is distinguished
ALCTD.E. BIRDS. THE GUILLEMOT.
425
by the peculiar tufts of feathers which spring from the
back and sides of the head.
THE LITTLE GEEBE (Podiceps minor), also called
the DABCHICK, and in some places the DIDAPPER, is
the smallest British species of this family, and is by no
means uncommon in this country throughout the year.
It is widely distributed in the northern parts of the
Old World, but is not found in America. The Little
Grebe measures only nine inches and a half in length,
and is nearly black above, and grayish-white beneath,
•with the cheeks and upper part of the neck reddish-
chestnut. It frequents rushy lakes and ponds during
the summer, but in winter resorts to small streams,
and when the weather is severe even to estuaries and
sheltered parts of the sea-coast. Its food consists of
small fishes, insects, and other aquatic animals ; and
its nest, which contains from four to six eggs, is of
large size, and placed amongst the reeds and rushes
which fringe its place of abode.
THE SENEGAL COOT-GEEBE (Podica senegalensis)
is nearly allied to the true Grebes, but differs from them
in having a well-developed tail, in the greater length
of the legs, and in having the posterior toe larger,
placed nearly on the same plane as the anterior toes,
and bordered by a membrane. Its neck is also much
elongated. This bird, presenting a curious combina-
tion of characters, has frequently been placed with the
Coots in the preceding order. It is a native of Western
Africa.
FAMILY ILL— ALCLD^E.
In this family, which includes the Auks, Puffins, and
Penguins, the wings are still smaller than in the pre-
ceding group, frequently quite incapable of raising their
owners into the air, and in some cases even reduced to
a nearly rudimentary condition, and covered only with
a scaly skin. In all cases, however, these organs are
of service to the birds when swimming beneath the
surface of the water, an occupation in which much of
their lives is passed. The legs in these birds are placed
quite at the hinder extremity of the body, so that
when on shore they are under the necessity of sitting
upright, and supporting themselves on the whole lower
surface of the tarsus, which forms a sort of sole, and the
hinder toe is either entirely wanting or quite rudimen-
tary. The anterior toes are well developed and united
by ample membranes.
The Alcida? are distributed in most parts of the
world, but are most abundant in high northern and
southern latitudes. They are found upon the barren
rocky shores of the arctic and antarctic lands and
islands, often in flocks consisting of vast numbers of
individuals ; they pass the greater part of their time in
the sea, which furnishes them with an abundant supply
of the fishes on which they chiefly prey.
THE COMMON GUILLEMOT ( Una Troile], which is
likewise called the FOOLISH GUILLEMOT, is one of the
most abundant and best known British species of
this family, and at the same time one of those which
approaches in its characters most nearly to the Divers
and Grebes. In common with the other Guillemots,
it has the wings sufficiently developed to enable it to
VOL. I.
fly, and the bill is elongated and conical ; its colour is
a sooty black on the back and wings, except the tips
of the secondaries, which are white ; the upper part of
the throat is also black, but the rest of the lower sur-
face is pure white. The length of the bird is about
eighteen inches.
The Common Guillemot is abundant round our
coasts at all seasons, and breeds in thousands upon
the ledges of the cliffs in many places. It makes no
nest, but lays a single egg upon the bare rock, and the
female sits upon the egg in an upright position. The
young, when hatched, remain for a time upon the ledge
of rock, but when arrived at a certain age, the old birds
are said to take their offspring on their backs, and fly
with them down into the sea.
THE RINGED GUILLEMOT ( Uria lacrymans} and the
BLACK GUILLEMOT (Uria Grylle} are also common
European and British species ; the former closely
resembles the Common Guillemot, but has a white
ring surrounding each eye, and giving off a narrow line,
which runs backwards on the head ; and the latter is
of a black colour, with a large white patch upon each
wing. The Black Guillemot is also abundant on the
arctic shores of America.
THE PUFFIN (Fratercula arctica), also called the
SEA-PARROT and COULTERNEB in allusion to the form
of its bill, is a summer visitor to our shores, on some
parts of which it breeds in vast numbers. The female
deposits her single egg, sometimes in the fissures of
the cliffs, sometimes in burrows which she excavates
in soft ground to a depth of about three feet, and
sometimes in rabbit burrows, the possession of which
she disputes with the rightful owners. On land the
Puffin is a very awkward bird ; but it flies swiftly, and
swims and dives well.
THE RAZOR-BILL ( Ulamania torda) is another spe-
cies remarkable for the singular form of its bill, which
is considerably longer than that of the Puffin, but very
much compressed and much arched towards the point.
The bill is black, with three grooves and a white line ;
the upper surface and wings are black, with a narrow
streak running from the base of the bill to each eye,
and the tips of the secondaries and tertiaries white ;
the whole lower surface is pure white, and the feet are
nearly black. The length of the adult bird is about
seventeen inches. The habits of the Razor-bill closely
resemble those of the Guillemots ; it is most abundant
in the arctic seas, but occurs more or less on all the
European coasts.
THE LITTLE AUK (Mergulus Alle). — In this bird
the bill is shorter and thicker than in the Guillemots,
and the general form of the body is short and stout.
It is a small species, less than nine inches in length ;
the head and throat and all the upper surface are
black, with a small spot over each eye, and the tips of
the secondaries and tertiaries white ; the lower surface
is white, the bill black, and the feet yellowish-brown.
In winter the throat is white. The Little Auk is
found abundantly in the arctic seas, and occurs not
uncommonly round the British coasts in winter.
THE GREAT AUK (Alca impennis). — This bird,
which is nearly, if not quite extinct, is a native of the
arctic seas, and was formerly met with occasionally
SH
426
NATATORY
-BIRDS. PROCELLARIDJ
upon the northern shores of Britain. It is a large
bird, measuring about thirty-two inches in length ; the
wings, although furnished* with ordinary feathers, are
far too small to support its bulky body in the air ; and
its bill is large, strong, much compressed, and marked
with several furrows on each side. In its habits the
Great Auk closely resembles the Guillemots. For-
merly it occurred not uncommonly about the shores of
Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, and the
eastern coast of North America, as far down as La-
brador and Newfoundland, but for many years it has
scarcely ever been seen in any of these localities, and
in some of them it is certainly extinct. Examples of
it are so rare in collections, that a good specimen is
now worth fifty guineas, and even the egg will fetch
from twenty to thirty pounds.
THE PATAGONIAN PENGUIN (Aptenodytes pata-
gonica). — The birds which we have just been describ-
ing are found with some allied forms in the extreme
northern seas; the Penguins, which constitute the
remainder of this family, are equally peculiar to
Ihose approaching the antarctic circle. They are
distinguished by the rudimentary state of the wings,
which are not only far too small to support the birds
in the air, but are even destitute of the ordinary quills,
the skin of these parts being covered only with scales,
which represent rudimentary feathers. These curious
organs serve as paddles to assist the birds in swimming
beneath the surface of the water; they are also some-
times used as a second pair of feet to aid them in their
movements on shore.
The Patagonian Penguin is a large species, standing
nearly three feet in height when in an erect position ;
its colouring is ehown by our figure. It is found in
large flocks about the coasts of Patagonia and the
islands scattered over the antarctic ocean. On shore it
is seen in compact bodies, the young birds, moulting
birds, and sitting females keeping in distinct parties ;
each female lays only a single egg, which she hatches
by holding it between her legs, and when disturbed,
waddles away with her treasure secured in the same
manner. At this period the male goes to sea to fish,
and brings a supply of food to the female, and the
latter, from her sedentary life becomes very fat. The
young birds are also fed on shore for some time.
THE CAPE PENGUIN (Spheniscus demersus), which
is found about the Cape of Good Hope, and also on
the shores of the Falkland islands, is nearly the size
of a goose, and is black above and white beneath,
with a black line on the breast. It occurs in immense
numbers, and breeds among the rocks.
THE JACKASS PENGUIN (Eudyptes demersa) is
very generally distributed in the antarctic seas, and
occurs in many places in vast quantities. It is about
the size of a large duck, black above and white be-
neath, with the back of the head adorned with a pair
of tufts of a white or yellow colour. The name of
Jackass Penguin given to this bird is an allusion to
the peculiar braying sound which it emits when on
shore ; its note when at sea is deep and solemn.
This bird makes use of its little wings as fore-legs
when moving on the land, and is described by Mr.
Darwin as advancing so rapidly in this way among
the tussocks of grass, that it might easily be mistaken
for a quadruped.
FAMILY IV.— PROCELLARID.E.
Whilst the birds of the preceding family are very
scantily furnished with wings, and some of them
totally incapable of flight, those to which we have
now to advert possess large wings, and fly with great
ease and rapidity. They have a tolerably stout body,
supported upon moderately long legs, which are placed
less backward than in any of the preceding groups, so
that these birds walk with more grace than most of
their allies. The anterior toes are well developed
and united by large webs, but the posterior toe is
rudimentary or entirely wanting. The structure of
the bill serves to distinguish these birds from those
of the following family, which they resemble in general
form. The apical portion of both mandibles is dis
tinctly separated from the basal part, and the upper
surface of the base of the upper mandible is usually
occupied by a pair of tubes, generally united together,
at the extremity of which are the openings of the
nostrils. The nostrils are always of a tubular form.
These birds are strictly oceanic in their habits, pass-
ing nearly their whole time upon the surface of the
sea, and even apparently delighting in rough weather.
Few of them ever visit the shore except for the pur-
pose of breeding, when they deposit their eggs, and
hatch and bring up their young upon the ledges of the
rocks. Their food consists of fishes and other marine
animals, together with fragments of animal matter
which they find floating on the waves.
THE GREAT SHEARWATER (Puffinus major), a very
abundant species in the North American seas, is also
seen upon the British coasts, especially on the Atlantic
side. It has a long and rather slender, dark-brown
bill, and the upper surface ashy-gray, with the back of
the neck nearly white, and the primaries and tail-
feathers blackish ; the whole lower surface is white,
variegated with brown about the vent, and the feet
are brownish-yellow. The length of this bird is
eighteen inches.
THE HANKS SHEARWATER (Puffinus Anrjlorum] is
a smaller species, only fourteen inches in length, and
of a brownish-black colour above. It resides all the
year in the British seas, especially along our western
coasts, and occurs on most of the shores of Europe and
on those of North America. This bird breeds in cre-
vices amongst the rocks and in rabbit burrows, laying
a single egg. It goes out to sea in the evening during
the breeding season, both sexes passing the day in their
burrow, where they are heard crooning over a sort of
guttural song. Like many other species of this family,
this bird when caught in the hand emits a large quan-
tity of a green oily matter of a most abominable odour.
THE GREAT BLACK PETREL (Puffinus ccquinoctialis]
— A considerable number of birds nearly allied to the
preceding are met with in the Southern seas, extending
even to the Antarctic ocean. One of these is the Great
Black Petrel, which inhabits various parts of the Pacific
ocean, and is found on the shores of New Zealand and
THE STORMY PETREL.
BIRDS. - THE FULMAR.
427
Australia, and at the Cape of Good Hope. It is a
rather large species, about eighteen inches in length,
and of a sooty-black colour, with the throat white.
THE STORMY PETREL (Procellaria pelagica)—fig.
134 — is the smallest species of the present order,
measuring less than sixinches in length. It is of a ciooty-
black colour, with the outer margins of the tertiary quills,
the upper tail-coverts, and the sides of the vent white.
The bill and feet are black. This bird is found in all
parts of the European seas, and wanders about all over
Fig. 134
The Stormy Petrel (Procellaria pelagica).
the Atlantic ocean, depending, however, upon its long,
pointed, and powerful wings for its rapid movements
from place to place. Even in stormy weather the
Petrels, notwithstanding their small size, are very active,
flying along over the surface of the waves, with their
feet close to, or dipping in the water ; indeed, the
sailors believe that it is principally at the approach of
a storm that these birds make their appearance, and
they are known amongst mariners by the names of
Devil's birds and Mother Carey's chickens. The name
of Petrel is supposed to be a diminutive of Peter, and
to be given to the birds in allusion to their apparently
walking on the surface of the water, as the apostle did
on the lake of Gennesareth. The food of the Petrels
consists of small fishes, Crustacea, mollusca, and other
marine animals ; and they will also follow ships for con-
siderable distances in order to pick up any fragments
of food that may be thrown overboard. This bird
breeds amongst the stones and debris of rocks on our
coasts, generally on small islands, and the female lays
only a single egg. Upon this she sits so closely, that
she may readily be taken by hand j when thus treated,
she vomits a quantity of oil, which is collected for
burning in many places. Many other species of these
birds, all of small size, occur in various seas ; three of
them are met round the British coasts.
THE GIANT PETREL (Ossifmgus girjanteus), an
inhabitant of the Great Southern ocean, is a truly
gigantic species, when compared with the diminutive
birds just mentioned, being about twenty-eight inches
in length. Its plumage is blackish-gray above, and
paler gray beneath, with the head and neck dirty white.
THE CAPE PETREL (Daption capensis) measures
thirteen inches in length, and has the upper surface
speckled with black and white, and the lower parts
white. From its spleckled plumage it is sometimes
called the Pintado Petrel, and it is well known to
sailors under the name of the Cape Pigeon. This bird
is met with abundantly at the Cape of Good Hope and
also in other parts of the Great Southern ocean.
THE FULMAR (Fulmarus glacialis), a British
species, very nearly allied to the preceding, is most
abundant ia the arctic seas of both hemi-
spheres, where it satisfies its voracious
appetite by devouring anything that comes
in its way on the surface of the water.
During the summer it is a constant com-
panion of the whale-fishers, when they are
engaged in cutting the blubber off their
captures ; any fragments which fall into the
water during this operation, are immediately
snapped up by the watchful birds. Their
squabbling on. these occasions is said to
be very amusing. The Fulmar breeds on-
rocky coasts, selecting the ledges of lofty
and inaccessible precipices for this purpose.
It lays a single egg either in a rude nest,,
or in a depression in the turf clothing th&
ledge, and so numerous are the birds in
some localities, that the whole face of the
cliffs seems to be covered with them. The
eggs are taken in great numbers by the
inhabitants of the vicinity, who esteem them
highly as an article of food; and both the old and
young birds when seized emit a quantity of clear amber-
coloured oil, which is collected like that of the Petrel
above mentioned. The young birds also are very fat,
and are boiled down in great quantities for the sake of
the oil they furnish.
THE BROAD-BILLED PETREL (Prion wttatus).
— This bird, with a few nearly-allied species, is an
inhabitant of the Southern ocean, in many parts of
which it is met with abundantly. It is distinguished
by the broad and depressed form of the bill, but in its
habits appears to resemble the preceding species.
THE WANDERING ALBATROSS (Diomedea exu-
lans).— The Albatrosses, of which several species are
met with in the Pacific and Southern oceans, are dis-
tinguished from the preceding birds of this family
by the position of the nostrils, which form a pah- of
short tubes, projecting from the sides of the upper
mandible near its base. They, are all. large birds, and
strictly oceanic in their habits, scarcely ever approach-
ing the shores, except in the breeding season.
The present species is the largest, and is known to
the sailors by the names of the Cape Sheep, and the
Man-of-war bird. It is an inhabitant of the Southern
ocean generally, and flies almost incessantly over the
surface of that stormy sea, supported upon its ample
and apparently untirable pinions, which in large speci-
mens cover a space of fully fifteen feet. In this way
the Albatross passes rapidly along just above the
surface of the waves, and ready at any moment to
plunge down upon the passing fishes, of which its
voracious appetite leads it to consume immense q.uan-
428
NATATORES. BIRDS. LARID.*:.
tities. Its courage, however, is not equal to its size
and strength ; and the sea-eagles and even the larger
gulls will attack it boldly and compel it to give up
its prey. It is said sometimes to attack sailors who
fall overboard, and is frequently captured by means
of a hook baited with a piece of meat, and trailed along
at the stern of a ship. The eggs of this bird and its
allies, which are of a large size, are deposited upon the
rocky and desolate islands scattered over the ocean
which they frequent; they are said to be exceedingly
good, and, like the young birds, are eaten by the sealers
and whalers.
FAMILY V.— LARID^C.
In this family, of which our common Gulls furnish
well-known and characteristic examples, the wings are
well developed, and the birds possess a great power of
flight. The bill is variable in its form, but generally
rather elongated and compressed, not furnished with
a distinct tip as in the preceding family, and the nostrils
Fig. 135.
Head of Common Gull.
form linear or oval slits in the sides of the upper man-
dible without any trace of tubular structure — fig. 135.
The feet, which are placed moderately forward, so as
to enable the birds to walk with ease, are generally
small ; the three anterior toes are long and united by
a complete membrane, and the hinder toe is small and
elevated on the back of the tarsus.
These birds are generally distributed and numerous
in most parts of the world, but are most abundant in
the Northern and Southern seas. They fly well, and
float very lightly and buoyantly upon the surface of the
waves, but do not swim much, and are incapable of
those remarkable diving exercises which compensate
so many of the short-winged species for the imperfec-
tion of their power of flight. They are generally noisy,
screaming birds, which live together in considerable
flocks, and breed in company upon the ledges of pre-
cipitous rocks ; their food consists chiefly of fishes,
•which they capture by dashing down into the water
as they skim lightly and swiftly above its surface ; but
they by no means confine themselves to this diet, and
many of them feed freely even upon carrion.
THE COMMON GULL (Larus canus), one of the most
abundant of the British species of this family, occurs
also in most parts of Europe and in North America.
It is about eighteen inches in length, and is of a pearl-
gray colour above ; the head and neck and lower surface
are white ; the secondaries and tertials are tipped with
white, and the primaries are black on the outer webs,
with a white patch near the tips of the first and second.
The bill is greenish-gray, becoming yellow towards the
tip, and the feet are of a dark-greenish colour.
This bird is common on most parts of our coasts
throughout the year, but is more abundant in some
places than in others. It may be seen walking about
upon the shore or sand-banks engaged in picking up
any portions of food left by the tide, or taking short
flights over the shallow water, to seize upon small
fishes and other floating objects. It may also fre-
quently be seen in some districts at a distance of several
miles from the sea, following the ploughs in order to
pick up the insects and grubs ; and it is by no means
uncommon for it to advance many miles along the
course of a tidal river. The Common Gull breeds on
the ledge of a cliff", wherever the coast presents such
conveniences ; on flat shores, it breeds in the marshes,
or on low sandy islands. The nest is rather large, and
is composed of sea-weeds and grass ; the female lays
two or three eggs.
THE GREAT BLACK-BACKED GTJLL (Larus marinus}
is a constant inhabitant of our coasts, although by
no means so numerous as the species just described.
It is a large bird, measuring as much as thirty
inches in length, and is very predacious in its habits,
destroying not only fish, which may be looked upon as
its natural prey, but also small birds and even "weakly
lambs.
THE LESSEE BLACK-BACKED GULL (Larus fuscus]
closely resembles the preceding species in its general
appearance, but is less than two feet in length. It is
an abundant species about the British coasts, and is
widely distributed over the seas of the Old World.
This species always breeds on the ledges of rocks,
making a nest of grass, in which the female lays two
or three eggs. The old birds are very bold in defence
of their eggs and young, dashing towards any intruder,
to frighten him from the vicinity of the nest, and
sometimes actually striking him with their bills. In
other respects the habits of this bird resemble those of
the preceding species.
THE HERRING GULL (Lams argentatus), an abundant
and widely-distributed species in both hemispheres, is
a little larger than the last species, with which it asso-
ciates most amicably, usually breeding in the same
locality. It has the head, neck, and lower surface pure
white, and the back and wings delicate French gray ;
the tertials are tipped with white, and the primaries are
black, with small white spots at the extremities of the
first three. The bill is yellow, with the apex of the
lower mandible red, and the feet are flesh colour. The
Herring Gull receives its name from its partiality to
small fish, in pursuit of which it approaches the boats
of the fishermen with great boldness.
THE LITTLE GULL (Larus minutus) is the smallest
species of this family, measuring little more than ten
inches in length. It has the head and upper part of
the neck black ; the lower part of the neck white ; the
upper surface pale ashy-gray, with the primaries darker,
THE BLACK-HKADKD GUI.L. BIRDS. THE ARCTIC SKUA.
429
and tipped with white ; and the lower surface white.
The Little Gull is rather a rare bird in this country, but
is more common in Southern Europe. It is said to
feed upon insects and worms.
THE BLACK-HEADED GULL (Xema ridibunda),vfliich
is widely distributed in the northern parts of the Old
World, is abundant throughout the year on our low
marshy coasts, where it breeds. It is frequently found
at great distances inland, not only following the ploughs
to pick up insects and their larvae, but even taking up
its abode upon lakes and other large sheets of water.
This bird is about sixteen inches in length, and has the
head and upper part of the neck dark brown, the back
and wings French gray, with some of the primaries
edged with black, and the rest of the plumage pure
white ; the bill and feet are bright red. The Black-
headed Gull feeds on small fishes, insects, and worms.
Its flight is light and buoyant, and its note is a hoarse
cackle, having some resemblance to a laugh, whence
the specific name of the bird is derived. The nest of
this species is made amongst the herbage of the marshes
which it frequents.
THE LAUGHING GULL (Xema atricilla), a very simi-
lar species to the preceding, both in appearance and
habits, is abundant on the North American coasts, and
also visits the European shores.
THE KITTIWAKE (Rissa tridactyla} is an example
of a small group of Gulls, in which the hinder toe
is represented only by a small tubercle, without
any trace of a claw. It is abundant on many parts of
the British coasts, and extends hence to the highest
northern latitudes. The Kittiwake has the plumage of
the back and wings delicate French gray, the outer
margin of the first primary and the tips of the succeed-
ing ones black, and the head, neck, and lower surface
pure white ; the bill is greenish-yellow, with the inte-
rior of the mouth orange. The wings are very long
and pointed, crossing, when closed, above the tail.
This bird breeds on the ledges of lofty and precipitous
cliffs, forming a nest of sea-weeds, and usually laying
three eggs.
THE IVORY GULL (Pagophila eburnea) is distin-
guished by the pure and delicate white of the whole
of its njumage ; it has a yellow bill with a greenish
base, and black feet. When alive the plumage of
this bird is said to exhibit a delicate rosy tint, which
vanishes soon after it is killed. The whole length is
from sixteen to eighteen inches. The arctic seas are
the chief resort of the Ivory Gull, which is very rarely
seen so far south as the British islands. Notwith-
standing the delicacy of its appearance, it is a most
voracious bird, and by no means particular in its choice
of food ; like the Fulmar it greedily devours any float-
ing carrion or other animal matter, and is a constant
attendant upon the whalers during the operation of
flensing or cutting the blubber off the whales.
. THE COMMON SKUA (Lcstris cataractcs}.— The
Skuas, although nearly allied to the ordinary gulls,
are distinguished from them by the possession of a
more powerful, hooked beak, in which the base of the
upper mandible is covered with a cere, and by their
large and strongly-hooked claws. These characters
indicate very predaceous habits, and the Skuas are to
be reckoned amongst the most raptorial of the aquatic
birds.
The Common Skua is an inhabitant of the arctic
seas, and visits the British shores chiefly in the winter.
This, or a very nearly allied species, is also found
abundantly about the Falkland Islands, the Straits of
Magellan, and other parts of the antarctic ocean. It
is of a dark-brown colour, slightly variegated with
reddish-brown ; the primaries are marked with dirty
white near their base ; the two middle tail-feathers are
scarcely longer than the rest ; and the bill and feet are
black. The length of the bird is about two feet.
The Skua is generally seen in pairs. Its flight is
exceedingly rapid and powerful, and it avails itself of
this advantage to chase the smaller gulls and compel
them to give up the fishes which they have just caught,
rarely taking the trouble of fishing for itself. It also
preys upon its smaller neighbours, and displays its
analogy with the Kaptorial birds by tearing its prey to
pieces with its bill, securing it the while by means of
the crooked claws with which its toes are armed. This
bird breeds upon the rocks, and lays two or three eggs.
It defends its young with great courage, and will even
beat off the eagle if he comes too near its place of abode.
THE AECTIC SKUA (Lestris parasiticus) is consi-
derably more abundant in Britain than the preceding
species, and even breeds on our northern shores. It
is readily distinguished by its much smaller size, by
the elongation of the central feathers of the tail, and
by the pale colour of the lower surface. In its habits
it resembles the Common Skua. Two other species
— the POMARINE SKUA (L. pomarinus] and BUFFCXN'S
SKUA (L. Buffonii) — are found on our coasts ; the
latter is a very small species, measuring only twelve
inches in length to the extremity of the very elongated
middle tail-feathers ; it has the neck and breast white.
THE BLACK SKIMMER (Rhynchops nigra). — The
preceding species, with many others scattered over
the seas of nearly the whole world, may all be re-
garded as true Gulls; but we come now to an example
of a small subordinate group, which differs from
them in some very peculiar characters. The most
striking peculiarity of the Skimmers is to be found
in the form of their bill, which suffices to distin-
guish them at once from all other birds. This organ
is elongated and compressed, almost resembling a
pair of blades placed one above the other ; the upper
mandible is considerably shorter than the lower one,
which consequently projects some distance beyond it.
The wings are long and pointed, indicating great
power of flight, and the tail is forked. The Black
Skimmer is an inhabitant of the coasts of America,
from the Straits of Magellan to the United States.
It is about nineteen inches long, black above, with
a white band on each wing, and white beneath ; the
bill and legs are red. Supported on its long and
pointed wings, which sometimes extend fully forty
inches, the Skimmer darts swiftly along the surface
of the ocean, dipping the extremity of its curious bill
into the water as it moves along, for the purpose of
capturing the small fishes and Crustacea upon which it
chiefly feeds. This, however, is not, according to
Lesson, the only use of the bill ; that writer states.
430
NATATORES. BIRDS. LARID.E.
that on the coast of Chili the Skimmers insert the
knife-like extremity of the lower mandible into the
gaping shells of the bivalve mollusca left nearly dry
by the retreating tide ; the mollusc, objecting to this
treatment, immediately closes his shell, and in so doing
of course seizes the bill of his enemy, who then drags
him from his retreat amongst the sand, carries him up
to the beach, breaks his shell open by a few blows, and
speedily devours its contents. The few other species
of Rhynchops are met with chiefly in tropical seas.
THE COMMON TEEN (Sterna Hirundo)—&g. 136.—
The Terns, of which a vast number of species have been
described from the seas of all parts of the world, are dis-
tinguished from the Gulls by their long, straight, and
pointed bills, small slender feet, very long wings, and
forked tails ; from the latter characters, and their inces-
sant activity on the wing, they are frequently known as
SEA-SWALLOWS. These are not the only points of
resemblance between the Terns and the Swallows ; in
their mode of flight there is some similarity, many of
them capture insects on the wing, and hawk about in
pursuit of them over lakes and inland marshes, and the
species met with in temperate climates are for the most
part summer visitors, and retreat, like their name
sakes, to warmer regions at the approach of winter.
The females lay from two to four eggs, either on the
bare ground or on the ledges of rocks, without any
nest; and the old birds exhibit much courage in defend-
ing their offspring from the attacks of other birds.
The Common Tern is an exceedingly elegant spe-
cies, of a slender and graceful form, with long wings
crossing above the forked tail, of which the lateral
Fig. 136.
The Common Tern (Sterna hiruiulo).
feathers run out into very long and acute points. The
whole top of the head is black, the back and wings are
pale gray, the whole lower surface white, and the bill
and feet coral-red. The whole length of the bird is
about fourteen inches. This species inhabits Europe
and Africa : it arrives on our coasts in May, and leaves
us in September. Its food consists of small, fish, and
although chiefly seen about the sea, it will not. unfre-
quently advance far inland along the course of large
rivers, and even sometimes take up its abode upon a
lake. The nest of this species is usually made upon
the ground in a marshy place.. Three other similar
species are met with in this country ; these are the
CASPIAN TERN (S.. caspia), the ROSEATE TERN (S.
Dougallii), and the SANDWLCH TERN (S. Boysii).
The former is a large species, measuring nineteen
inches in length, although its tail is much shorter than
that of the species just described.
THE ARCTIC TEEN (Sterna arctica) has also some
resemblance to the common Tern, but the lower surface
is gray instead of white. This bird appears to advance
further north than the other species, being found
breeding upon the shores of the arctic seas in both
hemispheres. Its tail and wings are even longer than
in the species figured above.
THE LESSER TERN (Sterna minuta) is a beautiful
little species, measuring only eight inches in total
length. It is widely distributed over the whole
northern hemisphere, and is not uncommon on the
British coasts. The top of the head is black, with a
white patch on the forehead, the back and wings are
delicate pearly-gray, and the lower surface is pure
white.
THE BLACK TERN (Hydrochelidon nigra) has the
tail less forked than in the preceding species, and its
plumage is of a dark gray colour, with the vent and
under tail-coverts white ;. the bill is black, and the feet
are reddish-brown, with the membrane not extending
much beyond the middle of the toes. The length of
this bird is nearly ten inches. It is found inland
about marshes, lakes, and large sheets of water. Its
food consists chiefly of dragon flies, beetles, and other
insects, which it captures on the wing in the manner
of a swallow.
THE NODDY (Anoiis stolidus) is a species nearly
allied to the true Terns, but differs from them in the
form of the tail, which is rounded off at the extremity
instead of being forked. The plumage is of a dark
brown colour, with the top of the head buff, and the
back of the head sooty-gray; the bill and feet are
black. Its length is about fourteen inches. This bird
is found in the warmer parts of the Atlantic ocean, on
both shores of which it is well known, but can hardly
be regarded as more than an occasional visitor to the
British islands. It feeds upon fishes, which it captures
as it skims over the waves. The Noddy breeds on the
rocky islands of the Atlantic,. where it makes its nest
with a little sea-weed, but on the keys;of the Gulf of
Mexico, where it is very abundant, it builds a regular
nest in a tree or bush. It lays three eggs.
PELECANID.E. BIRDS. THK GANNET.
431
FAMILY VI.— PELECANIDyE.
The birds forming this last family of the order Nata-
tores, and concluding our review of the class of birds,
are at once distinguishable from all others by the struc-
ture of their feet, which have the hinder toe turned
inwards, and united by a narrow triangular web with
the inner anterior toe — fig. 137. They have a head
Foot of Pelican
of small or moderate size, supported upon a long and
slender neck, and armed with a bill which is also usually
elongated in its form, and terminated either by a sharp
point, or, as far as the upper mandible is concerned, by
a hooked nail. The legs, which are generally short and
stout, are not placed very far back, and the wings are
generally of great extent and power. These birds are
all great destroyers of fish, which constitute their sole
nourishment. In other respects their habits exhibit
much diversity, and will be best understood by referring
to examples of the different forms occurring in the
family.
THE COMMON PELICAU (Pelecanus Onocrotalus).
— The Pelicans are distinguished by their very long
bills, of which the upper mandible is terminated by
a hook, and the lower one furnished with an enor-
mous pouch, formed of a naked leathery skin, in
which the birds are enabled to stow away the fishes
which they capture in their excursions over the surface
of the rivers. They are large and powerful birds, the
species now under consideration measuring between
five and six feet in length, and twelve or thirteen in
expanse of wing. Its plumage is white, with more or
less of a rosy tinge, and the nail at the tip of the upper
mandible is bright red. This bird frequents both the
seas and the fresh waters of Asia, Africa, and Eastern
Europe, and is generally seen in small flocks. It swims
and flies exceedingly well, and, notwithstanding its
large size, perches freely upon the branches of trees.
When seeking its food, the Pelican sweeps on its enor-
mous wings at some little height above the surface of
the water, until it perceives a fish passing beneath it,
when it instantly dashes down upon its victim with the
most astonishing velocity, and with such precision, that
it rarely misses its aim. The fish when captured is
otowed away in the great yellow pouch under the chin,
and the Pelican then flies on to seek more prey. The
nest of this bird consists of a mass of grass, sedges, and
other aquatic plants, and is usually placed quite close
to the edge of the water. The eggs are two or three
n number. During the process of incubation, the male
is said to furnish his partner with food, and when the
young are hatched both parents are assiduous in
attending upon them. In disgorging their prey for the
nourishment of their young, the birds are described as
pressing the pouch against the breast ; and it is gene-
rally supposed that the notion which prevailed amongst
the ancients, and came down nearly to our own day,
that the Pelican in times of scarcity nourished her
young with her own blood, must have 'originated in the
observation of the gesture above-mentioned, when the
bright red tip of the bill, strongly contrasted with the
pure white plumage of the breast, would easily produce
the impression of a spot of blood. About ten other
species of Pelicans are known to naturalists. They are
scattered over almost the whole world, but agree in
their general habits.
THE GANNET (Sula Bassand), also called the So-
LAND GOOSE, and sometimes the BOOBY, is another
arge species of this family, which is found in thousands
upon certain parts of the coast of Britain, and occurs
elsewhere on the shores both of Europe and North
America. One of its best known British stations is
the Bass rock in the frith of Forth, from which, indeed,
ts specific name is derived. The adult Gannet is nearly
three feet in length, and is of a white colour, with the
naked skin of the sides of the face blue, the head and
eck yellowish or buff, and the primary feathers black.
The young bird exhibits a blackish plumage, more or
less spotted with white.
In their mode of life the Gannets much resemble the
Pelicans. They fly rapidly over the surface of the sea
in search of the fishes on which they feed, and on seeing
then- prey beneath them, immediately rise into the air
to gain sufficient impetus to carry them down to the
requisite depth in the water, and then closing their
wings, descend perpendicularly upon their intended
victim, which, indeed, they rarely miss. They are
very partial to herrings, pilchards, and sprats, which,
swimming in large shoals, and always near the surface
of the water, insure them a good supply of food, and
the fishermen, when they see a flock of Gannets busily
engaged, know at once where to direct their boats.
The nest of the Gannet consists of a mass of weeds
and grass, placed upon a ledge of rock. In this the
female lays a single white egg, and the young bird when
hatched is furnished with an abundant supply of food
by its parents. On the Bass rock the young birds are
taken in considerable numbers every year, and sold for
food at a low price. They are clothed with a beautiful
white down, said to be quite equal to swan's-down for
making tippets, &c. The old birds are taken for the
sake of their feathers. A method sometimes adopted
for securing them consists in fixing a herring upon a
board and towing it along the surface of the sea ; the
Gannets, seeing it, dart down upon it immediately, and
generally kill themselves by the force with which they
strike the board. On the Bass rock, where they are
protected, they become so tame that they will allow
432
THE CORMORANT. BIRDS. THE TROPIC BIRD.
themselves to be stroked by the hand as they sit upon
their nests.
THE CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax Car Jo). —The
Cormorants constitute an exceedingly numerous group
of birds, including species scattered in all parts of
the world, and frequenting indifferently salt and fresh
water. They have a rather long, nearly straight,
compressed bill, with the upper mandible strongly
hooked at the tip, but destitute of the pouch char-
acteristic of the Pelicans ; the face and upper part
of the throat are naked, and the latter is capable of
much dilatation, so as to serve as a receptacle for their
prey.
The Common' Cormorant is a large bird, measuring
about three feet in total length. It is of a black colour
beneath, and dark-brown above, with the margins of
the feathers black ; on each thigh there is a white
patch ; the naked skin of the face and throat is yel-
low, bordered with white. In the spring and summer
the feathers of the back of the head are elongated,
forming a sort of crest, and the head and neck bear
numerous slender white feathers.
This bird is abundant on the British coasts, where
it breeds on the elevated ledges of lofty cliffs, making
a large nest of grass and sea-weeds, in which the
female lays from four to six eggs. The Cormorant
flies well, and, unlike the preceding species, swims
rapidly, and dives with facility in pursuit of its slippery
prey, in securing which the hooked point of the upper
mandible is of the greatest service to it. It is widely
distributed in the Old World, extending from this
country to China.
THE FISHING CORMORANT (Phalacrocorax sinen-
sis), a native of Northern India and China, is trained
by the Chinese to the business of fishing, for which
our British species was formerly employed. The
Chinese species is taken to the water with a leather
thong or metal ring round his neck to prevent his
swallowing the fish, and carried in a small boat to the
fishing station. Each boat carries several cormorants,
which descend from it into the water at the word of
command, dive down in pursuit of the fishes, and on
making a capture bring their prey to their master with
the greatest docility. If one of them gets hold of a
fish too large for his strength, the others will come to
his assistance, and between them the struggling prey
is conveyed to the boat. A second British species of
this genus is the SHAG or GREEN CORMORANT (P.
graculus), which ranges as far south as the Cape of
Good Hope.
THE FRIGATE BIRD (Tachypetes a?m7ws).— This
bird is distinguished by having the tips of both
mandibles bent downwards, by the enormous length
of its wings, which are larger in proportion to
its size than in any other bird, and by the small
size of its feet, of which the toes are only partially
united by a web. The Frigate Bird is abundant on
the Atlantic shores of both America and Africa ; it
passes nearly its whole life in the air, through which it
darts with incredible swiftness, or sails along with out-
stretched pinions at a considerable height, looking out
for its prey, on which it descends with lightning-like
rapidity and the most unerring precision. Not con-
tent with the produce of his own fishing, however, he
often acts the part of a pirate, attacking other marine
birds, and compelling them to disgorge their booty.
The Frigate Bird is said to build its nest upon trees.
LE VATLLANT'S DARTER (Plotus Le Vaillantii). —
The name of Darters is given to a few species of birds
inhabiting the tropical regions of both continents, and
distinguished by the elongated form of their bodies,
their long and slender necks, and elongated pointed
mandibles. In most respects they resemble the Cor-
morants, and, like some of these, frequent fresh waters,
haunting the margins of lakes and rivers. They are
said frequently to perch upon the branch of a tree over-
hanging the water, and there to watch for the appear-
ance of a fish, upon which they immediately dart down.
When disturbed, they slip into the water with so little
effort, that they produce scarcely more agitation of the
surface than might be caused by an eel. They nidi-
ficate on the branches of trees. The species figured,
Le Vaillant's Darter, is a common species in Southern
Africa, where it is known under the name of the
Schlanghalsvogel or Snake-necked bird.
THE COMMON TROPIC BIRD (Phaeton cethereus),
although nearly related to the Darters, is essentially
oceanic in its mode of life, passing its whole exist-
ence in almost incessant activity over the waves of
the tropical ocean. It is from the fact that this
bird and its allies are rarely seen beyond the
tropics, that their ordinary name is derived ; they are
also known under the name of Paille-en-queue or
Straw-tail, in allusion to the two long and slender
feathers which they bear in their tails. These feathers
in the present species are of a pale-yellow or whitish
colour. Notwithstanding the distances to which it
flies over the open sea, this bird is said to return every
night to roost upon dry land ; its food consists entirely
of fish, and it breeds, like most of its tribe, upon the
rocks of the tropical shores or upon the scattered islands
of the ocean. Another well-known species is the
RED-TAILED TROPIC BIRD (P. pJicenicurus), which has
the elongated feathers of the tail red.
THE MUSEUM
NATURAL HISTORY.
BIRDS
WILLIAM S. DALLAS, F.L.S.,
Curator of York Museum : Author of Treatise on Zoology ; Elements ol Entomology. Ac.
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
282
371
358
240
326
326
284
284
326
260
260
260
352
352
414
uEgotheles Novae Hollandias, the New Holland Goatsucker 279
412
378
356
363
362
363
363
297
297
296
297
336
336
360
360
360
360
361
336
336
355
315
314
315
315
411
328
328
329
328
328
328
328
319
319
296
376
407
407
407
249
247
249
249
249
249
249
373
373
Ababeel, the, Cypselus affinis . . .
Abba-Gumbah, the, Bucorvus abyssinicus .
Aberdevine, the, Carduelis spinus . .
Abou Duchir, the, Gypaetos nudipes . .
Acanthiza chrysorrhoea, the Yellow-tailed Acanthiza
Acanthiza, the Yellow-tailed, Acanthiza chrysorrhcea
Acanthylis caudacuta, the Needle-tailed Swift .
Acanthylis oxyura, the Sharp-tailed Swift .
Acanthylis pelasgia, the Aculeated Swift
Accentor modularis, the Hedgesparrow .
Accipiter fuscus, the American Brown Hawk .
Accipiter Nisus, the Sparrow-hawk . .
Accipiter virgatus, the Streaked Sparrow-hawk
Acridotheres ginginianus, the Bank Mynah .
Acridotheres tristis, the Common Mynah .
Adjutant, the, Leptoptilus Argala
Agami, the, Psophia crepitans
Agapornis Swiiideriana, the Love-bird . .
Agelaius phoeniceus, the Red-winged Starling .
Alauda arborea, the Woodlark . .
Alauda arvensis, the Skylark ...
Alauda Calandrella, the Short-toed Lark .
Alauda cristata, the Crested Lark . .
Alcedo bengalensis, the Indian Kingfisher .
Alcedo Biru, the Biru Kingfisher . .
Alcedo ispida, the Common Kingfisher . .
Alcyone azurea, the Azure Kingfisher . .
Alectrurus, the Pied, Alectrurus tricolor .
Alectrurus tricolor, the Pied Alectrurus .
Amadavade, the, Amadina Amandava . •
Amadina Amandava, the Amadavade . .
Amadina Gouldiae, the Gouldian Finch . .
Amadina Lathami, the Spotted-sided Finch .
Ammodromus maritimus, the Sea-side Finch .
Ampelis Cotinga, the Blue-riband Cotinga .
Ampelis Pompadora, the Pompadour Cotinga .
Amydrus morio, the Cape Starling . .
Anthochaera carunculata, the Short-eared Wattle-bird
Anthochsera inauris, the Long-eared Wattle-bird
Anthochaera lunulata, the Lunulated Wattle-bird
Anthochaera mellivora, the Brush Wattle-bird .
Anthropoides virgo, the Demoiselle Crane .
Anthus agilis, the Indian Tree Pipit . .
Anthus arboreus, the Tree Pipit . .
Anthus ludovicianus, the Brown Lark . .
Anthus petrosus, the Rock Pipit . .
Anthus pratensis, the Meadow Pipit . .
Anthus Richardi, Richard's Pipit . .
Anthus rufulus, the Common Indian Pipit .
Anumbi, the Sharp-tailed, Anumbius acuticaudatus
Anumbius acuticaudatus, the Sharp-tailed Anumbi
Apaloderma narina, the Narina Trogon .
Aprosinictus scapnlatus, the King Paroquet .
Apteryx australis, Shaw's Apteryx . .
Apteryx, Mantell's, Australis Mantellii .
Apteryx, Shaw's, Apteryx australis . ,
Aquila Bonellii, Bonellfs Eagle . .
Aqnila chrysae'tos, the Golden Eagle . ;
Aquila fucosa, the Wedge-tailed Eagle .
Aquila imperialis, the Imperial Eagle . .
Aquila naevia, the Spotted Eagle .
Aquila naevioides, the Tawny Eagle . .
Aquila pennata, the Booted Eagle . .
Aracari, the, Pteroglossus aracar-i . .
Aiacari, the Green, Pteroglossus viridis .
VOL. I.
Page
Aracari, the Koulik, Pteroglossus piperivorus . . 373
Arapunga, the, Chasmarhynchus albus . , . 340
Ardea alba, the Great White Heron . . .413
Ardea cinerea, the Gray Heron . . .412
Ardea Egretta, the Great Egret . . .413
Ardea purpurea, the Purple Heron . . . 413
Ardetta minuta, the Littk Bittern . . .413
Arrian, the, Vulture monachus .... 237
Artanros fuscus, the Murasing Chatterer . . 338
Artamus sordidus, the Wood Swallow . . . 338
Astrapia nigra, the Incomparable Bird of Paradise . 351
Astur approximans, the Australian Goshawk . . 261
Astur Novae Hollandiae, the New Holland Goshawk . 261
Astnr palumbarius, the Goshawk . . .261
Athene boobook, the Boobook Owl . . .266
Athene Brama, the Little Indian Owl . . .266
Athene cunicularia, the Burrowing Owl . .266
Athene maculata, the Spotted Owl . . .266
Athene Noctua, the Little Rufous Owl . . .265
Athene passerina, the Little Owl . . . 265
Athene radiata, the Radiated Owl . . . 266
Athene scutulata, the Hairy Owl . . . 266
Athene strenua, the Powerful Owl . . .266
Attagis Latreillei, Latreille's Attagis . . . 404
Australian Kingfisher, the Halcyon sancta . .299
Australis Mantellii, ManteWs Apteryx . . .412
Avocet, the, Recurvirostra Avocetta . . .417
Babbler, the Black-faced, Garrulax chinensis . . 331
Babbler, the White-headed, Malacocercus griseus . 331
Balaeniceps, the, Balceniceps rex . . .435
Balaeniceps rex, the Balceniceps . . .415
Balearica pavonina, the Crowned Demoiselle . .411
Barbacou, the Wax-billed, Monasa atra . .301
Barbet, the Cayenne, Capita cayanensis . . 383
Barbet, the Ceylon, Megalaima zeilanica . . 384
Barbet, the Green Indian, Megalaima viridis . . 384
Batara, the Spotted, Thamnophilus ncevius . . 342
Bateleur, the, Helotarsus ecaudatus . . .251
Batrachostomus auritus, the Great Eared- Goatsucker . 280
Batrachostomus javensis, Horsfield's Goatsucker . 280
Baya, the, Ploceus philippinus . . . .367
Bee-eater, the Azure-throated, Nyctiornis Athertonii . 303
Bee-eater, the Blue-headed, Merops nubicus . . 302
Bee-eater, the Common, Merops apiaster . . 301
Bee-eater, the Indian, Merops viridis . . . 302
Bee-eater, the Philippine, Merops philippinus . . 302
Bee-eater, the Swallow-tailed, Melittophagus hirundinaceus 302
Bee-eater, the Variegated, Merops ornatus . . 302
Beef-eater, the, Buphaga africana . . . 353
Bell-bird, the, Chasmarhynchus albus . . . 340
Bell-bird, the, Myzantha melanophrys . . .317
Bell-bird, the Crested, Oreoica gulturalis . . 342
Bhause, the, Astur palumbarius , . . 261
Billy-biter, the, Parus cceruleus . . .326
Bittern, the Great, Botaurus stellaris . . .413
Bittern, the Little, Ardetta minuta . . .413
Blackbird, the, Turdus merula . . 330
Blackbird, the Crow, Quiscalus versicolor
Blackbird, the Hill, Myiophonus cceruleus . . 3
Blackcap, the, Curruca atricapilla . . . 323
Bluebird, the, Sialia sialis .... 325
Blue-eye, the, Entomyza cyanotis . . • 316
Boatbill, the, Cancroma cochlearia . . .413
Bombycilla carolinensis, the Cedar Bird . . 336
Bombycilla garrula, the Bohemian Chatterer . . 336
31
434
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
Rotaurus stellaris, the Great Bittern . . .413
Bower-bird, the Satin, Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus . 353
Bower-bird, the Spotted, Chlamydera maculata . 354
Brachypternus aurantius, the Yellow-backed Woodpecker .382
Bubo bengalensis, the Googoo Horned Owl . . 268
Bubo maximus, the Eagle Owl .... 267
Bubo orientalis, the Oriental Horned Owl . . 268
Bubo virginianus, the Virginian Horned Owl . . 268
Bucco collaris, the Collared Puff-bird . . .301
Buceros bicornis, the Philippine Hornbill . .371
Buceros galeatus, the Round-helmeted Hornbill . . 371
Bnceros hydrocorax, the Ftat-helmeted Hornbill . 371
Bnceros pica, the Malabar Hornbill . . .371
Buceros Rhinoceros, the Rhinoceros Hornbill . .370
Bncorvus abyssinicus, the Abyssinian Hornbill . . 371
Bud-hunter, the Yellow, Leiothrix luteus . .337
Bnlbul, the Jocose, Pycnonotus jocosus . 332
Bnlbnl, the Red-vented, Pycnonotus hasmorrhous . 332
Bullfinch, the, Pyrrhula vulgaris . . .364
Bullfinch, the Purple, Carpodacus purpureus . .364
Bunting, the Black-throated, Euspiza americana . 362
Bunting, the Cirl, Emberiza Cirlus . . .361
Bunting, the Common, Emberiza miliaria . . 361
Bunting, the Cow, Molothrvs pecoris . . .356
Bunting, the Lapland, Plectrophanes lapponica . . 362
Bunting, the Painted, Spiza ciris . . . 361
Bunting, the Reed, Emberiza Schceniclus . .361
Bunting, the Rice, Dolichonyx oryzivorus . . 362
Bunting, the Snow, Plectrophanes nivalis . .362
Bunting, the Yellow, Emberiza CitrineUa . .361
Buphaga africana, the Oxpeclcer . . . 353
Bustard, the Great, Otis tarda . . . .408
Bustard, the Houbara, Eupodotis undulata . .409
Bustard, the Little, Otis tetrax . . . 408
Butcher-bird, the Australian, Cracticus destructor . 343
Buteo augur, the Abyssinian Buzzard . . . 247
Bnteo lagopns, the Hough-legged Buzzard . . 246
Buteo vulgaris, the Common Buzzard . . . 245
Buzzard, the Abyssinian, Buteo augur . . . 247
Buzzard, the Common, Buteo vulgaris . . . 245
Buzzard, the Crested Honey, Permis cristata . . 247
Buzzard, the Honey, Pernis apivorus . . . 246
Buzzard, the Moor, Circus ceruginosus . . . 263
Buzzard, the Rough-legged, Buteo lagopus . .246
Buzzard, the Turkey, Cathartes aura . . .242
Cacatna cristata, the Broad-crested Cockatoo . . 379
Cacatua galerita, the Great Sulphur-crested Cockatoo . 379
Cacatna Leadbeateri, Leadbeater's Cockatoo . . 379
Cacatua sulphurea, the Smatt Sulphur-crested Cockatoo . 379
Caccabis rubra, the Red-legged Partridge . . 403
Caereba cyanea, the Blue Guit-guit . . .307
Cactornis scandens, the Climbing Cactus Bird . .367
Cactus Bird, the Climbing, Cactornis scandens . . 367
Calamodyta arundinacea, the Reed Warbler . . 324
Calamodyta locustella, the Grasshopper Warbler . 324
Calamodyta phragmitis, the Sedge Warbler . . 324
Calamophilus biarmicus, the Bearded Tit . .327
Catenas nicobarica, the Nicobar Pigeon , . 391
Callipepla californica, the Californian Quail . . 406
Calopsitta Novae Hollandiae, the New Holland Crested
Paroquet . , . . .376
Calospiza thoracica, the Orange-breasted Tanager . 366
Calospiza tricolor, the Tri-coloured Tanager . . 366
Calospiza vittata, the Banded Tanager . . . 366
Calothorax macrurus, the Short-tailed Woodstar . 311
Calvptomena, the Green, Calyptomena viridis . .337
Oalyptomena viridis, the Green Calyptomena . . 337
Calyptorhynchus Banksii, the Banksian Cockatoo . 379
Calyptorhynchus funereus, the Funereal Cockatoo . 379
Campephaga fimbriatas, the Gray Caterpillar-eater . 338
Ciunpephaga humeralis, the White-shouldered Caterpillar-
eater 338
Campephaga lobatas, the Lobed Caterpillar-eater . 338
Campephaga nigra, the Black Caterpillar-eater . 338
Campephilus principally the Ivory-billed Woodpecker . 381
Canary Bird, the, Carduelis canaria . , .358
Page
Cancroma cochlearia, the Boatbitt . . . 413
Cape Coly, the, Colius capensis . . .369
Cape Sheep, the, Diomedea exitlans . . .427
Capercailzie, the, Tetrao Urogallus . . . 401
Capito cayanensis, the Cayenne Barbet . . 383
Caprimulgns asiaticus, the Bombay Goatsucker . . 276
Caprimulgns carolinensis, the Chuck-will's-widow . 276
Caprimulgus europaeus, the Common Goatsucker . 274
Caprimulgus indicus, the Large Indian Goatsucker 276
Caprimulgus pectoralis, the Collared Goatsucker . 276
Caprimulgns vociferus, the Whip-poor-will . .276
Caracara, the, Polyborus braziliensis . . .244
Caracara, the Southern, Milvago australis . . 245
Cardinalis virginiana, the Cardinal Grosbeak . .367
Carduelis canaria, the Canary Bird . . . 358
Carduelis elegans, the Goldfinch . . . 358
Carduelis spinus, the Siskin .... 358
Carduelis tristis, the Yellow Bird . . . 358
Carib, the Purple-breasted, Eulampis jugularis . . 311
Carpodacus purpurens, the Purple Bullfinch . .364
Carpophaga magnifica, the Magnificent Fruit Pigeon . 390
Carrancha, the, Polyborus braziliensis . . . 244
Cassicus cristatus, the Crested Oriole . . . 356
Cassowary, the, Casuarius galeatus . . . 407
Cassowary, the Bicarunculated, Casuarius bicarunculatus 407
Cassowary, the Cape York, Casuarius australis . 407
Casnarius australis, the Cape York Cassowary . . 407
Casuarius Bennettii, the Mooruk . . .407
Casuarius bicaruncnlatus, the Bicarunculated Cassowary 407
Casuarius galeatus, the Cassowary . . .407
Cat-bird, the Australian, Ptilonorhynchus Smithii . 354
Cat-bird, the, Minus felivox . . . .331
Caterpillar-eater, the Black, Campephaga nigra . 338
Caterpillar-eater, the Gray, Campephaga fimbriata . 338
Caterpillar-eater, the Lobed, Campephaga lobata . 338
Caterpillar-eater, the White-shouldered, Campephaga
humeralu 338
Cathartes aura, the Turkey Vulture . . . 242
Cathartes Californianus, the Californian Vulture . 243
Cathartes fastens, the Urubu . . . .242
Cedar-bird, the, Bombycilla carolinensis . . 336
Centnrns carolinus, the Red-bellied Woodpecker . 382
Cephalopterus ornatus, the Umbrella Bird . . 339
Cereopsis Novas Hollandiae, the New Holland Goose . 421
Ceriorais satyrus, the Tragopan . . 399
Certhia familiaris, the Common Brown Creeper . 317
Certhilauda africana, the Cape Sand-lark . . 364
Certhiole, the Black and Yellow, Certhiola fiaveola . 307
Certhiola flaveola, the Black and Yellow Certhiole . 307
Ceryle Alcyon, the Belted Kingfisher . . . 298
Ceryle Americana, the Green and White Kingfisher . 298
Ceryle maxima, the Great African Kingfisher . .298
Ceryle rndis, the Pied Kingfisher . . .297
Ceryle torquata, the Starry Kingfisher . . .298
Ceryle tricolor, the Red and Green Kingfisher . . 298
Ceyx tridactyla, the Three-toed Kingfisher . . 300
Chaffinch, the, Fringilla Calebs . . . 357
Chaja, the, Chauna chavaria . . . .420
Chamaepelia passerina, the Passerine Ground-Dove . 392
Charadrius hiaticula, the Ring Plover . . . 410
Charadrins morinellus, the Dotterel . . . 410
Charadrius pluvialis, the Golden Plover . . .410
Charmosyna papua, the Papuan Lory . . . 377
Chasmarhynchus albus, the Arapunga . . . 340
Chasse-fiente, Kolbe's Vulture . . .238
Chatterer, the Bohemian, Bombycilla garrula . . 336
Chatterer, the Crimson-rumped, Pericrocotus peregrinus 338
Chatterer, the Flammeous, Pericrocotus fiammeus . 338
Chatterer, the Murasing, Artamus fuscus . . 338
Chatterer, the Red, Phoenicocercus carnifex . . 337
Chauna chavaria, the Chaja . . . 420
Chelidon nrbica, the House Martin . .291
Chiff-chaff, the, Sylvia Hippolais
Chimachima, the, Milvago Chimachima . 245
Chimango, the, Milvago Chimango . . 245
Chionis alba, the White Sheathbill . . 404
Chlamydera maculata, the Spotted Bower-bird . 354
INDEX TO BIRDS.
435
Paue
Chlorospiza chloris, the Greenfinch . . .359
Chordeiles virginianus, the Virginian Goatsucker . 277
Chough, the Alpine, Pyrrhocorax alpinus . . 349
Chough, the Cornish, Fregilus graculus . . 349
Chough, the White-winged, Corcorax leucopterus . 349
Chrysolampis moschitus, the Ruby and Topaz Humminj-bird 309
Chrysonotus Tiga, the Tiga Woodpecker . ' 382
Chrysotis amazonicus, the Green Parrot . 378
Chrysotis festivus, the Festive Parrot . . . 378
Chuck-will's-widow, the, Caprimulgus carolinensis 276
Cicinnnrus regius, the, King-bird of Paradise . .351
Cinclodes antarctica, the Southern Cinclodes . .320
Cinclodes, the Southern, Cinclodes antarctica . .320
Cincloramphus rufescens, the Australian Sine/ing Lark 324
Cinclosoma punetatum, the Spotted Ground Thrush . 332
Cinclus aquaticus, the Water Ouzel . . . 333
Circae'tus gallicus, the Serpent Eagle . . . 250
Circonia alba, the White Stork . . . .414
Circonia nigra, the Black Stork . . .414
Circns aeruginosus, the Marsh Harrier . .263
Circus assimilis, the Australian Harrier . .263
Circus cineraceus, Montague's Harrier . . 263
Circus cyaneus, the Common Harrier . . .262
Circus Jardinii, Jardine's Harrier . . . 264
Circus melanoleucos, the Black and White Harrier . 263
Circus ranivorus, the Frog-eating Harrier . . 264
Circus Swainsoni, the Indian Harrier . . .263
Climacteris scandens, the Australian Brown Tree-creeper 318
Climacteris rufa, the Red Tree-creeper . . .318
Cloak-bird, the Scarlet, Drepanis coccinea . . 306
Coccothranstes vulgaris, the Haicfinch . . . 366
Coccothraustes japonicus, the Japanese Grosbeak . 367
Cock, the Bankiva, Callus Bankivus . . . 399
Cock, the Black, Tetrao Tetrix . . .401
Cock of the Rock, the Orange, Eupicola aurantia . 337
Cock-of-the-woods, the, Tetrao Urogallus . .401
Cockatoo, the Banksian, Calyptorhynchus Banksii . 379
Cockatoo, the Broad-crested, Cacatua cristata . . 379
Cockatoo, the Funereal, Calyptorhynchus funereus . 379
Cockatoo, the Great Sulphur-crested, Cacatua galertta . 379
Cockatoo, the Goliah, Microglossum aterrimum . .379
Cockatoo, the Long-nosed, Licmetis tenuirostris . 379
Cockatoo, Leadbeater's, Cacatua Leadbeateri . . 379
Cockatoo, the Small Sulphur-crested, Cacatua sulphurea 379
Colaptes auratus, the Golden-winged Woodpecker . 383
Colius capensis, the Cape Coly .... 369
Columba (Enas, the Stock-dove .... 389
Columba livia, the Rock-dove . . . .389
Columba Palumbus, the Ring-dove . . . 389
Collocalia esculenta, the Esculent Swallow . . 284
Colluricincla brunnea, the Brown Thrush . . 342
Colluricincla harmonica, the Port-Jackson Thrush . 342
Colluricincla rnfiventris, the Buff-bellied Thrush . 342
Colluricincla Selbii, Selbtfs Thrush . . .342
Colymbns arcticus, the Black-throated Diver . . 424
Colymbus glacialis, the Great Northern Diver . . 424
Colymbus Septentrionalis, the Red-throated Diver . 424
Conder, the, Sarcorhamphus Gryphus . . . 240
Conurus carolinensis, the Carolina Paroquet . . 375
Connrus guianensis, the Guiana Paroquet . .375
Connrus patagonicus, the Patagonian Parrot . .375
Conurus solstitialis, the Yellow Paroquet . . 375
Coot, the, Fulica atra . . . . .419
Copsychus sanlaris, the Magpie Robin . . . 324
Coquette, Gould's, Lophornis Gouldii . . .309
Coquette, the Tufted, I^ophornis ornatus . . 309
Coracias caudata, the Long-tailed Roller . . 293
Coracias gamila, the Common Roller . . .292
Coracias indica, the Indian Roller * ' . . 293
Corcorax leucopterus, the White-winged Chough . 349
Cormorant, the, Phalacrocorax Carbo . . . 432
Cormorant, the Fishing, Phalacrocorax sinensis . 432
Cormorant, the Green, Phalacrocorax graculus . . 432
Corn-crake, the, Crex pratensis . . . 419
Corvultur albicollis, the Caffrarian Crow-vulture . 348
Corvnltur crassirostris, the Abyssinian Crow-vulture . 348
Corvns corax, the Raven . . 345
Corvus Comix, the Hooded Crow
Coniis Corone, the Carrion Crow
Corvns coronoides, the Australian Crow
Corvus cnlminatns, the Indian Carrion Crow
Corvus frugilegns, the Rook
Corvus monedula, the Jackdaw
Corvus splendens, the Indian Hooded Crow
Corythaix albocristatus, the Louri Touraco
Corythaix persa, the Green Touraco
Cotinga, the Blue-riband, Ampelis Cotinga
Cotinga, the Pompadour, Ampelis Pompadora .
Coturnix Chinensis, the Chinese Quail .
Coturnix dactylisonans, the Common Quail
Coulterneb, the, Fratercula arctica
Courocon, the, Trogon Curucui
Courser, the Brazen-winged, Cursorius chalcoptenu
Courser, the Cream-coloured, Cursorius gallicus
Courser, the Purple-winged, Cursorius chalcopterus
Cow-pen Bird, the, Molothrus pecoris .
Coytle concolor, the Brown Sand Martin
Coytle fuligula, the African House Martin
Coytle riparia, the Sand Martin
Coytle rupestris, the Crag Swallow
Coytle sinensis, the Small Sand Martin
Cracticus destructor, the Australian Butcher-bird
Cracticus nigrogularis, the Black-throated Crow Shrike
Cracticus picatus, the Pied Crow Shrike
Cracticus Quoyii, Quoy's Crow Shrike .
Crane, the Common, Grus cinerea
Crane, the Demoiselle, Anthropoldes virgo
Crane, the Gigantic, Leptoptilus Argala
Crax alector, the Common Curassow
Crax globicera, the Globe Curassow
Creeper, the Australian Brown-tree, Climacteris scandens
Creeper, the Cayenne-tree, Dendrocolaptes cayanensis
Creeper, the Common Brown, Certhia familiaris
Creeper, the Red Tree, Climacteris rufa
Creeper, the Wall, Tichodroma mururia
Crex pratensis, the Land Rail .
Crossbill, the, Loxia curvirostra
Crossbill, the Parrot, Loxia Pityopsittacus
Crossbill, the White-winged, Loxia leucoptera .
Crow, the Australian, Corvus corono'ides
Crow, the Bald-headed, Picathartes gymnocephalus
Crow, the Bald-headed Fruit, Gymnocephalus calvtu
Crow, the Bare-necked Fruit, Gymnoderus fcetidus
Crow, the Carrion, Corvus Corone
Crow, the Hill Fruit, Strepera arguta .
Crow, the Hooded, Corvus Comix
Crow, the Indian Carrion, Corvus culminatus .
Crow, the Indian King, Dicrurus macrocercus .
Crow, the Indian Hooded, Corvus splendens
Crow, the Pied Fruit, Strepera graculina
Crow, the Piping, Gymnorhina tibicen .
Crow, the Red-legged, Fregilus graculus
Crow, the Royston, Corvus Comix
Crow, the Sooty Fruit, Strepera fuliginosa
Crow, the Tasmanian Piping, Gymnorhina organica
Crow, the White-backed Piping, Gymnorhina leuconota
Cuculus canorus, the Common Cuckoo .
Cuckoo, the Common, Cuculus canorus
Curassow, the Cashew, Ourax pauxi
Curassow, the Common, Crax alector .
Curassow, the Globe, Crax globicera .
Curlew, the, Numenius arquata
Cursorius chalcopterus, the Brazen^toinged Courser
Cursorius gallicns, the Cream-coloured Courser
Cuiruch atricapiUa. the Blackcap
Currnca cinerea, the Whitethroat
Curruca hortensis, the Garden Warbler
Curruca sylviella, the Lesser White-throat
Cushat, the, Columba Palumbus
Cyanurus cristatus, the Blue Jay
Cyclorhis guianensis, the Cayenne Green Shrike
Cygnus atratus, the Black Swan
Cygnus ferns, the Wild Swan .
Cygnus olor, the Tame Swan .
Page
346
346
346
348
347
347
348
336
336
403
403
425
295
409
409
409
356
291
291
290
290
291
343
343
343
343
411
411
414
394
394
318
319
317
318
318
419
364
365
365
346
348
339
339
346
344
346
348
338
348
344
344
349
347
344
344
344
384
384
394
394
394
416
409
409
323
323
323
323
389
345
342
422
421
421
438 INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
Page
Grakle, the Rusty, Scolecophagus ferrugineus .
355
Haliaetris leucogaster, the White-bellied Sea Eagle
252
Grallaria Rex, the King Ant-thrush,
332
Haliastur Indus, the Pondicherry Eagle
253
Great Auk, the, Alca impennis
425
Haliastur sphenurus, the Whistling Eagle
253
Grebe, the Great Crested, Podiceps cristatus
424
Harelda Glacialis, the Long-tailed Duck
423
Grebe, the Horned, Podiceps cornutus .
424
Harpactes erythrocephalus, Hodgson's Trogon .
296
Grebe, the Little, Podiceps minor
425
Harpactes fasciatns, the Fasciated Trogon
296
Grebe, the Sclavonian, Podiceps cornutus
424
Harfang, the, Surnia nyctea ....
264
Grebe, the Senegal Coot, Podica senegalensis
425
Harrier, the Australian, Circus assimilis
263
Greenfinch, the, Chlorospiza Chloris
359
Harrier, the Black and White, Circus melanoleucos
263
Greenshank, the, Totanus Glottis
417
Harrier, the Common, Circus cyaneus .
26-2
Griffard, the, Spizaetus bellicosus
250
Harrier, the Frog-eating, Circus ranivorus
264
Grinder, the, Seisura volitans .
334
Harrier, the Indian, Circus Swainsoni .
263
Grosbeak, the Azure, Guiraca cyanea .
367
Harrier, Jardine's, Circus Jardinii . .
264
Grosbeak, the Blue, Guiraca ccerulea .
367
Harrier, the Marsh, Circus ceruginosus .
263
Grosbeak, the Cardinal, Cardinally virginiana .
367
Harrier, Montague's, Circus cineraceus
263
Grosbeak, the Common, Coccothraustes vulgaris
366
Hawfinch, the, Coccothraustes vulgaris
366
Grosbeak, the Fine, Pinicola enucleator
364
Hawk, the American Brown, A ccipiter fuscus
260
Grosbeak, the Greenish, Spermophila falcirostra
364
Hawk, the Brown, Falco Berigora
257
Grosbeak, the Japanese, Coccothraustes japonicu*
367
Hawk, the Dor, Caprimulgus europceus
274
Grosbeak, the Republican, Phiketerus socius
368
Hawk, the Duck, Circus ceruginosus
263
Grosbeak, the Rose-breasted, Guiraca ludovicianu
367
Hawk, the Fish, Pandion Haliaetus .
252
Grouse, the Banded Sand, Pterocles arenarius .
404
Hawk, the Night, Caprimulgus europaus
274
Grouse, the Black, Tetrao Tetrix
401
Hawk, the Night, Chordeiles virginianus
'ill
Grouse, the Common, Lagopus scoticvs
402
Hawk, the Sparrow, Accipiter Nisus . .
260
Grouse, Pallas' Sand, Syrr haptes paradoxus
404
Hawk, the Streaked Sparrow, Accipiter virgatus ' " .
260
Grouse, the Pinnated, Tetrao cuptdo .
401
Hawk, the Swamp, Circus assimilis
263
Grouse, the Pin-tailed Sand, Pterocles akhata .
404
Hawk, the Whistling, Haliastur sphenurus
253
Grouse, the Red, Lagopus scoticvs . .
402
Helmet- crest, Guerin's, Oxypogon Guerinii
312
Grouse, the Wood, Tetrao Urogallus .
401
Helotarsus ecaudatns, the Short-tailed Eagle
251
Grus cinerea, the Common Crane
411
Hemignathus lucidus, the Brilliant Half-bill
306
Grypns Aquila, the Sickh-bilkd Humming Bird
310
Hemipodius tachydromus, the Andalusian Quail
403
Grypus naevius, the Saw-bill
Guacharo, the, Steatornis caripensis
311
278
Hermit, the Cayenne, Phaelornis superciliosus .
Hermit, the Little, Phaetornis eremita .
310
310
Guan, the Crested, Penelope cristata
395
Heron, the Gray, Ardea cinerea
412
Guiraca caerulee, the Blue Grosbeak
367
Heron, the Great White, Ardea alba .
413
Guiraca cyanea, the Azure Grosbeak
367
Heron, the Night, Nycticorax europceus
413
Guiraca ludoviciana, the Rose-breasted Grosbeak
367
Heron, the Purple, Ardea purpurea
413
Guit-guit, the Blue, Ccereba cyanea
307
Hill-star, the Chimborazian, Oreotrochilus Chimborazo .
31C
Gull, the Black-headed, Xema ridibunda
429
Hill-star, the Pichincha, Oreotrochilus Pichincha
310'
Gull, the Common, Larus canus
428
Hill-star, the White-sided, Oreotrochilus leucopleurus .
310
Gull, the Great Black-backed, Larus marinus .
428
Himantopus melanopterus, the Stilt
417
Gull, the Herring, Larus argentatus
428
Himantopus nigricollis, the American Stilt
417
Gull, the Ivory, PagophUa eburnea
429
Hirundo ariel, the Fairy Martin . .
288
Gull, the Laughing, Xema atricilla
429
Hirundo bicolor, the Severn Swallow
289
Gull, the Lesser Black-backed, Larus fuscus
428
Hirundo capensis, the Cape Swallow
288
Gull, the Little, Larus minutus
428
Hirundo erythrogaster, the American Barn Swallow
288
Guillemot, the Black, Uria grytte
425
Hirundo filifera, the Wire-tailed Swallow
288
Guillemot, the Common, Uria Troile .
425
Hirundo frontalis, the Australian Chimney Swallow
288
Guillemot, the Foolish, Uria Troile
425
Hirundo nigricans, the Tree Martin
288
Guillemot, the Ringed, Uria lacrymans
425
Hirundo panayana, the Panayan Swallow
287
Gurial, the, Halcyon leucocephala
Gymnocephalus calvus, the Bald-headed Fruit Crow
300
339
Hirundo rustica, the Chimney Swallow .
Hoatzin, the, Opisthocomus cristatus
286
370
Gymnoderus fcetidns, the Bare-necked Fruit Crow
339
Hobby, the, Falco subbuteo ....
257
Gymnorhina lenconota, the White-backed Piping Crow
344
Honey-eater, the Black, Myzomela nigra
316
Gymnorhina organica, the Tasmanian Piping Crow
344
Honey-eater, the Blackheaded, Melithreptus melanocephalus
317
Gymnorhina tibicen, the Piping Crow .
344
Honey- eater, the Garrulous, Myzantha garrula
317
Gyrfalcon, the, Falco Gyrfalco
Gypaetos barbatus, the Lammergeyer .
254
240
Honey-eater, the Long-billed, Meliphaga longirostris
Honey-eater, the Lunnlated, Melithreptus lunulatus
313
316
Gyps Bengalensis, the Bengal Vulture .
238
Honey-eater, the Luteous, Myzantha lutea
317
Gyps Fnlvus, the Tawny Vulture
238
Honey-eater, the Moustaehed, Meliphaga mystacalis
313
Gyps Kolbii, Kolbe's Vulture .
238
Honey-eater, the New Holland, Meliphaga Novce Hollandice
313
Gypaetos nudipes, the African Bearded Vulture
240
Honey-eater, the Painted, Entomophila picta
316
Gyps occidentals, the Tawny Vulture .
238
Honey-eater, the Red-headed, Myzomela erythrocephala
316
Honey-eater, the Sanguineous. Myzomela sanguinolenta
316
Hsematopus ostralegus, the Oyster-catcher
410
Honey-eater, the Singing, Ptilotis sonorus
314
Halcyon chelicuti, the Chelicuti Kingfisher
300
Honey-eater, the Sombre, Myzantha obscura
317
Halcyon cinereifrons, the Blue- collared Kingfisher
300
Honey-eater, the Swan River, Melithreptus chloropsis
317
Halcyon fuses, the Indian Kingfisher .
300
Honey-eater, the Tawny-fronted, Glyciphila fulvifrons
316
Halcyon fuscicapilla, the Brown-hooded Kingfisher
300
Honey-eater, the Tasmanian, Meliphaga australasiana
313
Halcyon leucocephala, the White-headed Kingfisher
300
Honey-eater, the Warty-faced, Xanthomyza phrygia
314
Halcyon sacra, the Sacred Kingfisher .
300
Honey-eater, the White-cheeked, Meliphaga sericea
313
Halcyon sancta, the Australian Kingfisher
299
Honey-eater, the Yellow-eared, Ptilotis chrysotis
314
Halcyon semicoerulea, the Red-bellied Kingfisher
300
Hoopoe, the Common, Upupa Epops
303
Halcyon senegalensis, the Senegal Kingfisher
300
Hoopoe, the Indian, Upupa nigripennis
303
Half-bill, the Brilliant, Hemignathus lucidus
306
Hornbill, the Abyssinian, Bucorvus abyssinicus .
371
Haliae'tus albicilla, the White-tailed Eagle
251
Hornbill, the Flat-helmeted, Buceros hydrocorasr
371
Haliagtus leucocephalus, the White-headed Eagle
251
Hornbill, the Malabar, Buceros pica
371
INDEX TO BIRDS.
439
Page
Hornbill, the Philippine, Buceros bicomis . . 371
Hornbill, the Rhinoceros, Buceros Rhinoceros . .370
Hornbill, the Round-helmeted, Buceros galeatus . 371
Humming-bird, De Lalande's Crested, Trochilus Delalandi 309
Humming-bird, the Giant, Patagona gigas . .309
Humming-bird, the Little, Mellisuga minima . . 313
Humming-bird, the Long-tailed Emerald, Trochilus poly tmus 309
Humming-bird, the Ruby-throated, Trochilus colubris , 308
Humming-bird, the RubyandTopaz, Ckrysolampis moschitus 309
Humming-bird, the Sickle-billed, Grypus Aquila . 311
Humming-bird, the Stella, Oreotrochilus Estella . 310
Humming-bird, the Swallow-tailed, Eupetomena macrura 311
Hydrobates lobatus, the Lobated Duck . . .423
Hydrochelidon nigra, the Black Tern . . .430
Ibijau, the Great, Nyctibius grandis
Ibijau, the Jamaica, Nyctibius jamaicensis
Ibis falcinellus, the Glossy Ibis
Ibis, the Glossy, Ibis falcinellus
Ibis, the Milky, Tantalus lacteus
Ibis rnbra, the Scarlet Ibis
Ibis, the Sacred, Geronticus cethiopicut
Ibis, the Scarlet, Ibis rubra
Icterus spurius, the Orchard Oriole
Icteria viridis, the Yellow-breasted Flycatcher .
lerax eutolmus, the White-naped Falcon
Indigo-bird, the, Spiza cyanea .
Irrisor erythrorhynchus, the Red-billed Irrisor .
Irrisor, the Red-billed, Irrisor erythrorhynchus
Jabiru, the Senegal, Mycteria senegalensis
Jacamar, the Great, Jacamerops grandis
Jacamar, the Green, Galbula viridis
Jacamar, the Long-tailed, Galbula leptura
Jacamar, the Paradise, Galbula paradisea
Jacamar, the Three-toed, Jacamaralcyon tridactyla
Jacamaralcyon tridactyla, the Three- toed Jacamar
Jacamerops grandis, the Great Jacamar
Jacana, the, Parra Jacana
Jacana, the Chinese, Parra sinensis
Jackass, the Laughing, Dacelo gigas
Jackdaw, the, Corvus monedula
Jacobin, the, Florisuga mellivora . .
Jay, the, Garrulus glandarius .
Jay, the Birch, Coracias garrula
Jay, the Blue, Cyanurus cristatus ,
Jean-le-Blanc, the, Circaetus galliots ,
Jerfalcon, the, Falco Gyrfalco .
Jugger, the, Fako Jugger
Kakapo, the, Strigops habroptilus
Kalong-wiwi, Pholidus badius . . .
Kestrel, the, Falco tinnunculus
Ketupa ceylonensis, the Ceylonese Eared Owl .
Ketupa flavipes, the Yellow-footed Owl
King-bird, the, Tyrannus intrepidus
Kingfisher, the Australian, Halcyon Sancta
Kingfisher, the Azure, Alcyone azurea .
Kingfisher, the Belted, Ceryle Alcyon .
Kingfisher, the Biru, Alcedo bint
Kingfisher, the Blue-collared, Halcyon cinereifrons
Kingfisher, the Brown-hooded, Halcyon fuscicapilla
Kingfisher, the Buff-breasted, Dacelo cervina .
Kingfisher, the Chelicuti, Halcyon Chelicuti
Kingfisher, the Common, Alcedo ispida
Kingfisher, the Crab-eating, Halcyon semiccerulea
Kingfisher, the Giant, Dacelo gigas
Kingfisher, the Green and White, Ceryk Americana
Kingfisher, the Great African, Ceryle maxima .
Kingfisher, the Indian, Alcedo bengalensis
Kingfisher, the Indian, Halcyon fusca .
Kingfisher, Leach's, Dacelo Leachii
Kingfisher, the Pied, Ceryle rudis
Kingfisher, the Red-bellied, Halcyon semiccerulea
Kingfisher, the Red and Green, Ceryle tricolor
Kingfisher, the Sacred, Halcyon sacra .
Kingfisher, the Senegal, Halcyon senegalensis .
278
278
415
415
415
415
415
415
356
335
258
361
304
304
414
301
300
300
300
301
301
301
419
419
298
347
311
345
292
345
250
254
256
380
272
257
269
268
335
299
297
298
297
300
300
299
300
296
300
298
298
298
297
300
298
297
300
298
300
300
Kingfisher, the Starry, Ceryk torquata
Kingfisher, the Ternate, Tanysiptera Dea
Kingfisher, the Three-toed, Ceyx tridactyla
Kingfisher, the White-headed, Halcyon leucocephala
Kinglet, the, Regulus cristatus ....
Kite, the Black, Milmu niger ....
Kite, the Black-winged, Elantts melanopterus .
Kite, the Common, Milvus vulgaris
Kite, the Govinda, Milvus Govinda
Kite, the Swallow-tailed, Nauclerus furcatut .
Kittacincla macroura, the Indian Nightingale
Kittiwake, the, Rissa tridactyla
Kivi-Mvi, the, Apteryx australis
Knot, the, Tringa Canutus ....
Lagopus scoticus, the Common Grouse . .
Lagopus vulgaris, the Ptarmigan
Lammergeyer, the, Gypaetos barbattu .
Lanner, the, Fako lanarius ....
Laniarius barbarus, the Gonolek . .
Lanius borealis, the American Gray Shrike
Lanius collurio, the Red-backed Shrike
Lanius cristatus, the Crested Shrike
Lanius excubitor, the Great Cinereous Shrike .
Lanius ludovicianns, the Loggerhead Shrike
Lanius rutilns, the Wood-chat ....
Lapwing, the, Vanellus cristatus
Lark, the American Meadow, Sturnella Ludovidana
Lark, the Australian Singing, Cincloramphus rufescens .
Lark, the Brown, Anthus ludovicianus .
Lark, the Cape Sand, Certhilauda africana
Lark, the Crested, Alauda cristata
Lark, the Gingi, Pyrrhulauda yrisea
Lark, the Short-toed, Alauda Calandrella
Lark, Smith's Finch, Pyrrhulauda australis
Larus argentalus, the Herring Gull
Larus canus, the Common Gull
Larus fuscus, the Lesser Black-backed GuU
Larus marinus, the Great Black-backed GuU
Larus minutus, the Little Gull ....
Latreille's attagis, Attagis LatreiUei
Leatherhead, the, Tropidorhynchus corniculatus
Leiothrix luteus, the Yellow Bud-hunter
Leipoa ocellata, the Ocellated Leipoa .
Leptoptilus Argala, the Adjutant
Leptoptilus Marabou, the Marabou Stork
Lestris Buffonii, Bti/on's Skua
Lestris cataractes, the Common Skua .
Lestris parasiticus, the Arctic Skua
Lestris pomarinus, the Pomarine Skua .
Leuconerpes dominicanns, the Dominican Woodpecker .
Licmetis tenuirostris, the Long-nosed Cockatoo .
Linnet, the, Linota cannabina
Linnet, the Mountain, Linota montium
Linota cannabina, the Linnet
Linota canescens, the Mealy Redpok .
Linota linaria, the Redpok ....
Linota montium, the Mountain Linnet .
Little Auk, the, Mergulus A Ik .
Lophophorus impeyanus, the Impeyan Pheasant
Lophorhina superba, the Superb Bird of Paradise
Lophornis Gouldii, Gould's Coquette
Lophornis ornatus, the Tufted Coquette
Lorikeet, the Blue-bellied, Trichoglossus hcematodes
Lorikeet, the Orange- winged, Trichoglossus pyrrhopterus
Lorius domicella, the Collared Lory
Lory, the Collared, Lorius domicella
Lory, the Papuan, Charmosyna papua .
Louri, Touraco, the, Corythaix albocristatus
Love-bird, the, Agapornis Sicinderiana
Loxia curvirostra, the Crossbill
Loxia leucoptera, the White-winged Crossbill .
Loxia Pityopsittacus, the Parrot Crossbill
Lyre-bird, the, Menura superba
Lyre-bird, Prince Albert's, Menura Alberti
Maccaw, the Blue and Yellow, Macrocercus Ararauna . 374
Paee
298
300
300
300
323
259
259
258
259
260
326
429
407
417
402
402
240
256
343
341
340
341
341
341
341
410
352
324
329
364
363
363
363
364
428
428
428
428
428
404
315
337
395
414
414
429
429
429
429
383
379
358
359
358
359
359
359
425
398
351
309
309
377
378
377
377
378
364
365
365
321
322
440
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
Maccaw, the Great Green, Macrocercus militaris . 374
Maccaw, the Hyacinthine, Macrocercus hyacinthinus 375
Maccaw, the Scarlet, Macrocercus Macao . .374
Maccaw, the Small Green, Macrocercus severus . 374
Macrocercus Ararauna, the Blue and Yellow Maccaw . 374
Macrocercns hyacinthinus, the Hyacinthine Maccaw . 375
Macrocercus Macao, the Scarlet Maccaw . .374
Macrocercus militaris, the Great Green Maccaw . 374
Macrocercus severus, the Small Green Maccaw . 374
Macrodipteryx longipennis, the Leona Goatsucker . 277
Magpie, the, Pica caudata . . . .348
Magpie, the Black, Strepera fuliginosa . . 344
Malacocercus griseus, the White-headed Babbler . 331
Maleo, the, Megacephalon Maleo . . .396
Malurus cyaneus, the Blue Wren . . .324
ManaHn, the Blue-headed, . . 336
Manakin, the Capped, Pipra pileata . . .336
Manakin, the Red-headed, Pipra rubro-capittata . 336
Manakin, the White-headed, . .336
Manesoukouv, the, Tanysiptera Dea . . .300
Man-of-war Bird, the, Diomedea exulans . . 427
Marcgrave's Cariama, Cariama cristata . . 416
Mareca penelope, the Wigeon . . . .422
Martin, the African House, Cotyle fdli/jula . .291
Martin, the Bank, Cotyle riparia . . .290
Martin, the Brown Sand, Cotyle. concolor . .291
Martin, the Fairy, Hirundo ariel . .. . 288
Martin, the House, Chelidon urbica . . .291
Martin, the Purple, Progne purpurea . . .289
Martin, the Sand, Cotyk riparia . . .290
Martin, the Small Sand, Cotyle sinensis . .291
Martin, the Tree, Hirundo nigricans . . . 288
Mecistura caudata, the Long-tailed Tit . .327
Megacephalon Maleo, the Maleo . . .396
Megalaima zeilanica, the Ceylon Barbet . . 384
Megalaima viridis, the Green Indian Barbet . . 384
Megapodius Freycineti, Freydnets MarJcirio . .395
Megapodius tumulus, the Mound Bird . . . 395
Melanerpes erythrocephalus, the Red-headed Woodpecker 382
Melanopicus torquatus, the Collared Woodpecker . 382
Meleagris Gallopavo, the Common Turkey . . 400
Meleagris Numida, the Guinea Fowl . . . 400
Meleagris ocellata, the Ocellated Turkey . . 400
Melierax musicus, the Chanting Falcon . .261
Meliphaga australasiana, the Tasmanian Honey-eater . 313
Meliphaga longirostris, the Long-billed Honey-eater . 313
Meliphaga mystacalis, the Moustached Honey-eater . 313
Meliphaga Novae Hollandiae, the New Holland Honey-eater 313
Meliphaga sericea, the White-cheeked Honey-eater . 313
Melithreptus lunulatns, the Lunulated Honey-eater . 316
Melithreptusmela&ocephalus, the Black-headed Honey-eater 317
Melittophagus hirundinaceus, the Swallow-tailed Bee-eater 302
Melizophilus Dartfordiensis, the Dartford Warbler . 323
Mellisuga minima, the Little Humming-bird . .313
Melopsittacus undulatus, the Warbling Grass Parroquet 376
Menura Alberti, Prince Albert's Lyre-bird . 322
Menura superba, the Lyre-bird ' . .321
Merganser, the Hooded, Mergus cucullatus . 424
Merganser, the Red-breasted, Mergus serrator . 424
Mergnlus Alle, the Little Auk . . .425
Mergus cucullatus, the Hooded Merganser . 424
Mergus Merganser, the Goosander . . 423
Mergus serrator, the Red-breasted Merganser . 424
Merlin, the, Fako cesalon . . .257
Merops apiaster, the Common Bee-eater . 301
Merops nubicus, the Blue-headed Bee- eater . 302
Merops ornatus, the Variegated Bee-eater . 302
Merops philippinus, the Philippine Bee-eater . 302
Merops viridis, the Indian Bee-eater . . 302
Microglossum aterrimum, the Goliah Cockatoo . 379
Milan, the royal, Falco lanarius . .256
Milvago australis, the Southern Caracara . 245
Milvago Chimachima, the Chimachima . . 245
Milvago Chimango, the Chimango . . 245
Milvus Govinda, the Govinda Kite . 259
Milvus niger, the Black Kite . . . 259
ililvus regalis, the, Falco lanarius . . 256
Page
Milvus vulgaris, the Common Kite . . .258
Mimus felivox, the Cat-bird .... 331
Mimus polyglottus, the Mocking-bird . . .331
Mniotilta aestiva, the Blue-eyed Yellow Warbler . 327
Mniotilta vermivora, the Worm-eating Warbler . 327
Mocking-bird, the, Mimus polyglottus , . . 331
Molothrus pecoris, the Cow-pen Bird . . .356
Momotus brasiliensis, the Brasilian Motmot . . 294
Monasa atra, the Wax-billed Barbacou . .301
Monk, the, Tropidorhynchus corniculatus . .315
MontaciUa Yarrellii, the Pied Wagtail . . .328
Moor-hen, the, Gallinula chloropus . . .419
Moornk, the, Casuarius Bennett ii . . .407
Morepork, the Little, jEgotMes Novce Hollandice . 279
Morphicus Urubitinga, the Urubitinga . . . 250
Motacilla alba, the White Wagtail . . .328
Motacilla boarula, the Gray Wagtail . . . 328
Motacilla Yarrellii, the Pied Wagtail . . .328
Motmot, the Brazilian, Momotus brasiliensis . . 294
Mound-bird, the, Megapodius tumulus . . 395
Mouse- bird, the, Colius capensis . . .369
Murasing Chatterer, the, Artamus fuscus . . 338
Muscicapa atracapilla, the Pied Flycatcher . , 333
Muscicapa griseola, the Spotted Flycatcher . . 333
Musophaga violacea, the Violet Plantain-eater . . 369
Mycteria senegalensis, the Senegal Jabiru . . 414
Myiophonus coeruleus, the Hill Blackbird . . 333
Mynah, the Bank, Acridotheres ginginianus . .352
Mynah, the Common, Acridotheres tristis . . 352
Myzantha lutea, the Luteous Honey-eater . . 317
Myzantha garrula, the Garrulous Honey-eater . . 317
Myzantha melanophrys, the Bell-bird . . .317
Myzantha obscura, the Sombre Honey-eater . .317
Myzomela erythrocephala, the Red-headed Honey-eater . 316
Myzomela nigra, the Black Honey -eater . .316
Myzomela sanguinolenta, the. Sanguineous Honey-eater . 316
Nandu, the, Rhea americana .... 406
Nauclerus furcatus, the Swallow-tailed Kite . . 260
Nazarene, the, Didus Nazarenus . . . 393
Nectarinia oenea, the Bronzed Sun-bird . .305
Nectarinia asiatica, the Purple Sun-bird . . 305
Nectarinia splendida, the Splendid Sun-bird . .305
Nectarinia famosa, the Shining Sun-bird , .305
Nectarinia Lotenia, Loten's Sun-bird . . , 306
Nectarinia pulchella, the Beautiful Sun-bird . . 305
Nectarinia violacea, the Violet-headed Sun-bird . 305
Nectarinia zeylonica, the Blue-throated Sun-bird . 306
Neli-courvi, the, Ploceus pensUis . . .368
Nemosia flavicollis, the Green-mirror Tanager . . 366
Neophron percncopterus, the Egyptian Vulture . . 239
Nestor hypopolius, the New Zealand Nestor . . 380
Nestor productus, the Phillip Island Parrot . .379
Nightingale, the Indian, Kittacincla macroura . . 326
Nightingale of Norway, the, Turdus iliacus . , 330
Nightingale, the, Philomela luscinia . . .322
Nightingale, the Virginia, Cardinalis virginiana . 367
Night-churr, the, Caprimulgus europceus . . 27-J
Night-jar, the, Caprimulgus europceus . . . 274
Ninekiller, the, Lanius excubitor , , . 341
Nisser Werk, the, Gypaelos nudipes . . . 240
Noddy, the, Anous f.olidus . . . .430
Nonpareil, the, Spiza ciris . . . .361
Nothura maculosa, the Spotted Tinamou . . 405
Numenius arquata, the Curlew .... 416
Numida cristata, the Crested Guinea Fowl . . 401
Numida meleagris, the Guinea Fowl . . . 4 Of
Nutcracker, the, Nudfraga caryocatactes . .349
Nuthatch, the, Sitta europcea . . . .318
Nuthatch, the Black-capped, Sittella pileata . .319
Nuthatch, the Canadian, Sitta canadensis . ,319
Nuthatch, the Carolina, Sitta carolinensis . . 318
Nuthatch, the Orange-winged, Sittella chrysoptera . 319
Nyctale acadica, the Little American Owl . . 267
Nyctale funerea, Tengmalm's Owl . . .267
Nyctibius grandis, the Great Ibijau . . .278
Nyctibins jamaicensis, the Jamaica Ibijau . . 278
INDEX TO BIRDS.
441
Page
Nycticorax europaeus, the Night Heron . 413
Nyctiornis Athertonii, the Azure-throated Bee-eater . 303
Nymphicus cornutus, the Horned Parroquet . . 376
Ocellated leipoa, the, Leipoa ocellata . . ^ 395
Ocyphaps lophotes, the Crested Pigeon . . .392
(Edicnemus crepitans, the Common Thick-knee . , 409
Oidemia nigra, the Common Scoter . . . 423
Oil-bird, the, Steatomis caripensis . . 278
Oiseau monpere, the, Gymnocephalus calvus . . 339
Open-bill, the Madagascar, Anastomus lamelligerus . 415
Opisthocomus cristatus, the Hoatzin . , 370
Oriole, the Orchard, Icterus spurim . . . 356
Order Acciptres . / . 235
" Columbze . 388
'• Cursores ..... 405
" Gallinae ..... 394
'• Grallae . . . . . .408
" Natatores . . 420
" Passeres ..... 272
" Scansores ..... 371
Oreoica gutturalis, the Crested Bell-bird . 342
Oreotrochilus Chimborazo, the Chimborazian Hill-star . 310
Oreotrochilus Estella, the Stella Humming-bird . .310
Oreotrochilus leucopleurus, the White-sided Hill-star . 310
Oreotrochilus Pichincha, the Pichincha Hill-star . 310
Organ-bird, the, Gymnorhina organica . . . 344
Oricou, the, Otogyps auriacularis . . . 239
Origma rubricata, the Rock Warbler . . . 325
Oriole, the Baltimore, Yphantes Baltimore . . 355
Oriole, the Crested, Cassicus cristatus . . .356
Oriole, the Golden, Oriolus galbula . . .332
Oriolus galbula, the Golden Oriole . . . 332
Orthonyx, the Spine-tailed, Orthonyx spinicaudus . 319
Orthouyx spinicaudus, the Spine-tailed Orthonyx . 319
Orthotomus longicauda, the Indian Tailor Bird . 324
Ortolan, the, Alauda Calandrelfa . . . 363
Ortolan, the, Emberiza Hortulana . . . 361
Ortyx virginianus, the Virginian Quail . . 402
Oryzornis oryzivora, the Java Sparrow . . 360
Osprey, the, Pandion Haliaetus . . .252
Ospre'y, the Indian, Pandion Ichthyaetus . . 253
Osprey, the White-headed, Pandion leucocephalus . 253
Ossifragus giganteus, the Giant Petrel . . . 427
Ostrich, the, Struthio Camelus .... 406
Otocoris alpestris, the Shore-lark . . . 363
Otogyps auriacularis, the Sociable Vulture . . 239
Otogyps calvus, the Pondicherry Vulture . . 238
Otis tarda, the Great Bustard . . . .408
Otis tetrax, the Little Bustard .... 408
Otus brachyotus, the Short-cared Owl . . . 269
Otus vulgaris, the Long-eared Owl . . . 269
Ourax pauxi, the Cashew Curassow . . . 394
Ouzel, the Ring, Turdvs torquatus . . . 330
Ouzel, the Water, Cinclus aquaticus . . . 333
Oven-bird, the Red, Furnarius ntfus . . . 320
Owl, the American Barn, Strix perlata . . 271
Owl, the Australian Barn, Strix delicatulus . . 272
Owl, the Barn, Strix flammea .... 270
Owl, the Barred, Syrnium nebulosum . . . 270
Owl, the Bay, Pholidus badius , . . .272
Owl, the Boobook, Athene boobook . . .266
Owl, the Brown, Syrnium aluco . . . 270
Owl, the Burrowing, Athene cunicularia . . 266
Owl, the Ceylonese Eared, Ketupa ceylonensis . . 269
Owl, the Churn, Caprirnulgus europceus . . 274
Owl, the Eagle, Bubo maximus . . .267
Owl, the Fern, Caprirnulgus europceus . . . 274
Owl, the Googoo Horned, Bubo bengalensis . . 268
Owl, the Hairy, Athene scutulata . . . 266
Owl, the Hawk, Surnia Ulula . . 265
Owl, the Javanese, Strix javanica . . .271
Owl, the Little, Athene passerina . . .265
Owl, the Little American, Nyctale acadica . .266
Owl, the Little Horned, Ephialtes Scops . . 267
Owl, the Little Indian, Athene Brama . . .266
Owl, the Little Rufous, Athene Noctua . . 265
Owl, the Little Screech, Ephialtes Asia
Owl, the Long-eared, Otus vulgaris
Owl, the Oriental Horned, Bubo orientalis
Owl, the Powerful, Athene strenua
Owl, the Radiated, Athene radiata
Owl, the Red-eared, Ephialtes Asio
Owl, the Screech, Strix flammea
Owl, the Scops-eared, Ephialtes Scops .
Owl, the Short-eared, Otus brachyotus .
Owl, the Snowy, Surnia nyctea
Owl, the Spotted, Athene maculata
Owl, the Tawny, Syrnium aluco
Owl, Tengmalm's Nyctale funerea
Owl, the Virginian Horned, Bubo virginiantts
Owl, the White, Strix flammea
Owl, the Woodcock, Otus brachyotus
Owl, the Yellow-footed, Ketupa flavipes
Oyster-catcher, the, Hcematopus ostralegus
Oxpecker, the, Buphaga ofricana
Oxypogon Guerinii, Guerin's Helmet-crest
Page
267
269
266
267
270
267
269
264
266
270
267
268
270
269
268
410
353
312
Pachycephala gutturalis, the Thunder-bird . . 337
Pachycephala pectoralis, the Banded Thick-head . 337
Pagophila eburnea, the Ivory Gull .. .429
Paille-en-queue, the, Phaeton (Ethereus . . . 432
Palamedea cornuta, the Horned Screamer . . 419
Palaeornis Alexandri, the Alexandrine Parroquet . 375
Palaeornis Barrabandi, Barraband's Parroquet . . 376
Palaeornis longicauda, the Malacca Ring Parroquet . 375
Palaeornis torquatus, the Rose-ringed Parroquet . 375
Pandion Haliaetus, the Osprey ... 252
Pandion Ichthyaetus, the Indian Osprey . . 253
Pandion leucocephalus, the White-headed Osprey
Patagona gigas, the Giant Humming-bird . . 809
Paradise, the Emerald Bird of, Paradisea apoda . 350
Paradise, the Golden-breasted Bird of, Parotiu aurea . 351
Paradise, the Incomparable Bird of, Astrapia nigra . 351
Paradise, the King Bird of, Cicinnurus regius . .351
Paradise, the Little Emerald Bird of, Paradisea papuensis 350
Paradise, the Red Bird of, Paradisea rubra . . 350
Paradise, the Magnificent Bird of, Diphyllodes magniflca 351
Paradise, the Superb Bird of, Lophorhina superba . 351
Paradisea apoda, the Emerald Bird of Paradise . 350
Paradisea paprrensis, the Little Emerald Bird of Paradise 350
Paradisea rubra, the Red Bird of Paradise . . 350
Pardalotus punctatus, the Spotted Pardalote
Pardalote, the Spotted, Pardalotus punctatus .
Pardalote, the Streaked, Pardalotus striatus
Pardalotus striatus, the Streaked Pardalote
Parra Jacana, the Jacana
Parra sinensis, the Chinese Jaeana
Parroqnet, the Alexandrine, Palceornis Alexandri
Parroquet, Barraband's, Palceornis Barrabandii .
Parroquet, the Carolina, Conurus carolinensis .
Parroquet, the Ground, Pezoporus formosus
Parroquet, the Guiana, Conurus guianensis
Parroquet, the Horned, Nymphicus cornutus
Parroquet, the King, Aprosmictus scapulatus
Parroquet, the Malacca Ring, Palceornis longicauda
Parroquet, the New Holland Crested, Calopsitta Nova
Hollandice ......
Parroquet, Pennant's, Platycercus Pennantii
Parroquet, the Rose-ringed, Palaeornis torquatus
Parroquet, the Warbling Grass, Melops'Macus undulatus
Parroquet, the Yellow, Conurus solstitialis
Parotia aurea, the Golden-breasted Bird of Paradise
Parrot, the German, Coracias garrula .
Parrot, the Festive, Chrysotus festivus .
Parrot, the Gray, Psittacus erythacus .
Parrot, the Green, Chrysotis amazonicus
Parrot, Le Variant's, Psiltacus Le Vaillantii .
Parrot, the Patagonian, Conurus patagonicus .
Parrot, the Phillip Island, Nestor productus
Parrot, the Steppe, Coracias garrula .
Partridge, the Barbary, Caccabis petrosa
Partridge, the Bronze-wing, Geophaps scripta .
Partridge, the Common, Perdix cinerea
337
338
338
419
419
375
376
375
376
375
376
376
375
376
376
375
376
375
351
292
378
378
378
378
375
379
292
406
392
402
442
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
Partridge, the Crowned, Rollulus cristatus
Partridge, the Guernsey, Caccabis rubra
Partridge, the Red-legged, Caccabis rubra . 403
Parus ater, the Cole Tit . 326
Paras csernleus, the Blue Tit . . 326
Paras major, the Great Tit . .326
Paras palustris, the Marsh Tit . 326
Parus cristatus, the Crested Tit
Passer domesticus, the House Sparrow .
Passer montanus, the Tree Sparrow
Pastor roseus, the Rose-coloured Pastor . 352
Pastor, the Rose-coloured, Pastor roseus
Pavo cristatus, the Common Peacock
Pavo muticus, the Javanese Peacock . 399
Peacock, the Common, Pavo cristatus . . 399
Peacock, the Javanese, Pavo muticus . . 349
Peewit, the, Vanellus cristatus . . .410
Pelecanus Onocrotalus, the Common Pelican . 431
Pelican, the Common, Pelecanus Onocrotalus . 431
Penelope cristata, the Crested Guan
Penguin, the Cape, Spheniscus demersus . 426
Penguin, the Jackass, Eudyptes demersa . 426
Penguin, the Patagonian, Aptenodytes patagonica . 426
Perdix cinerea, the Common Partridge . . . 402
Pericrocotns flammens, the Flammeous Chatterer . 338
Pericrocotus peregrinus, the Crimson-rumped Chatterer . 338
Peristera jamaicensis, the Jamaica Ground Dove . 392
Peristera tympanistria, the Tambourine Ground Dove . 391
Permis cristata, the Crested Honey Buzzard . . 247
Pernis apivorns, the Honey Buzzard . . .246
Petrel, the Broad-billed, Prion vittatus . . 427
Petrel, the Cape, Daption capensis . . .427
Petrel, the Pintado, Daption capensis . . . 427
Petrel, the Giant, Ossifragus giganteus . .427
Petrel, the Great Black, Puffinus cequinoctialis . 436
Petrel, the Stormy, Procellaria pelagica . . 427
Petroica bicolor, the Pied Robin . . .325
Petroica multicolor, the Scarlet-breasted Robin . . 325
Petroica phcenicea, the Flame-breasted Robin . , 325
Pettychaps, the Greater, Curruca hortensis . . 323
Pezoporns formosus, the Ground Parroquet . . 376
Phoenicocercus carnifex, the Red Chatterer . .337
Phcenicopterus ruber, the Flamingo . . . 420
Phae'ton sethereus, the Common Tropic Bird : . 432
Phaeton phoenicurus, the Red-tailed Tropic Bird . 432
Phae'tornis eremita, the Little Hermit . . .310
Phae'tornis superciliosus, the Cayenne Hermit . .310
Phalaropus hyperboreus, the Red-necked Phalarope . 418
Phalaropus lobatus, the Gray Phalarope . . 418
Phalacrocorax Carbo, the Cormorant . . . 432
Phalacrocorax graculus, the Green Cormorant . . 432
Phalacrocorax sinensis, the Fishing Cormorant . . 432
Phalarope, the Red-necked, Phalaropus hyperboreus . 418
Phalarope, the Gray, Phalaropus lobatus . .418
Phaps chalcoptera, the Bronzed-winged Pigeon . . 392
Pharaoh's chicken, Neophron percnopterus . . 239
Phasianns Amherstise, Lady Amhersfs Phetisant . 397
Phasianns colchicus, the Common Pheasant . 396
Phasianus nycthemerus, the Silver Pheasant . 398
Phasianus pictns, the Golden Pheasant . . 397
Pheasant, the Common, Phasianus colchicus . 396
Pheasant, the Fire-backed, Euplocomus ignitus . 398
Pheasant, the Golden, Phasianus pictus .' 397
Pheasant, the Impeyan, Lophophorus Impeyanus 398
Pheasant, Lady Amherst's, Phasianus Amherstice 397
Pheasant, the Nepaulese-horned, Ceriomis satyrus 399
Pheasant, the Silver, Phasianus nycthemerus . 398
Pheasant, the Wood, Menura superba . . 321
Philseterns socius, the Republican Grosbeak . 368
Philomachus pugnax, the Ruff . . ' 417
Pholidus badius, the Bay Owl . . . 272
Philomachus pugnax, the Ruff . . 417
Pliflomela luscinia, the Nightingale . . 322
Phytotoma Kara, the Rara . . . 365
Pica caudata, the Magpie ... 348
Picathartes gymnocephalus, the Bald-headed Crow 348
Picoides tridactylus, the Three-toed Woodpecker 381
Piculet, the Minute, Picumnus minutus .
Piculet Temminck's, Sasia abnormis
Picumnus minutus, the Minute Piculet . . 383
Picus martius, the Great Black Woodpecker . .381
Pigeon, the Aromatic, Treron aromatica . .391
Pigeon, the Bronzed-winged, Phaps chalcoptera
Pigeon, the Cape, Daption capensis . . .427
Pigeon, the Crowned, Goura coronata . . .391
Pigeon, the Crested, Ocyphaps lophotes
Pigeon, the Didunculus, Didunculus strigirostris . 392
Pigeon, the Magnificent Fruit, Carpophaga magnified . 390
Pigeon, the Nicobar, Catenas nicobarica • 391
Pigeon, the Passenger, Ectopistes migratorius .
Pigeon, Swainson's Fruit, Ptilinopus Swainsonii
Pigeon, the Waalia, Treron abyssinica
Pigeon, the White-booted, Treron Sieboldii . .391
Pigeon, the Wood, Columba Palumbus .
Pimlico, the, Tropidorhynchus corniculatus , .315
Piuicola enucleator, the Fine Grosbeak
Piper Bird, the, Cephalopterus ornatus . • 339
Pipit, the Common Indian, Anthus rvfulus
Pipit, the Indian Tree, Anthus agilis .
Pipit, the Meadow, Anthus pratensis . . • 328
Pipit, Richard's, Anthus Richardi . . .328
Pipit, the Rock, Anthus petrosus . . .328
Pipit, the Tree, Anthus arboretts . . .328
Pipra rubro-capillata, the Red-headed Munakin . 336
Pipra pileata, the Capped Manikin . . .336
Pitta, the Bengal, Pitta bengalensis . . • 332
Pitta bengalensis, the Bengal Pitta . . .332
Pitta csernlea, the Giant Pitta
Pitta, the Giant, Pitta ccerulea
Plantain-Eater, the Violet, Musophaga violacea . 369
Platalea Ajaja, the Roseate Spoonbill . . .414
Platalea leueorodia, the White Spoonbill
Platycercus Pennantii, Pennanfs Parroquet . .376
Plectrophanes lapponica, the Laplimd Bunting . . 362
Plectrophanes nivalis, the Snow Bunting
Ploceus larvatns, the Abyssinian Weaver-Bird . .368
Ploceus pensilis, the Madagascar Weaver-Bird . 368
Ploceus philippinus, the Philippine Weaver-Bird . 367
Plotns Le Vaillantii, Le Vailhmfs Darter . . 432
Plover Crest, the, Trochilus Ddalandi . • 309
Plover, the Golden, Charadrius pluvialis
Plover, the Gray, Squatarola helvetica .
Plover, the Ring, Charadrius hiaticula . .410
Plumed Bird, the Magnificent, Epimachus maynificus . 304
Plumed Bird, the Superb, Epimachus magnus . . 304
Pochard, the, Aythya ferina .
Podager Nacunda, the Nacunda Goatsucker . .278
Podargus, Cuvier's, Podargus Cuvieri .
Podargus humeralis, the Tawny-shouldered Podargus • 280
Podargas, the Moth-like, Podargus phalcenoides
Podargus, the New Guinea, Podargus papuensis
Podargus papuensis, the New Guinea Podargus 280
Podargus phalaenoides, the Moth-like Podargus
Podargus, the Plumed, Podargus plumiferus , . 280
Podargus plumiferus, the Plumed Podargus . • 280
Podargus, the Tawny-shouldered, Podargus humeralis . 279
Podica senegalensis, the Senegal Coot-grebe . .425
Podiceps cristatus, the Great Crested Grebe
Podiceps cornutus, the Horned Grebe . . . 424
Podiceps minor, the little Grebe . .425
Poe-bird, the, Prosthemadera Novae Zelandice . .315
Poephila mirabilis, the Beautiful Grass Finch . . 360
Polyborus braziliensis, the Caracara . . • 244
Politician, the, Vireo noveboracensis . . • 334
Polyplectron, the Argus, Polyplectron bicalcaratum . 399
Polyplectron bicalcaratum, the Argus Polyplectron . 399
Polyplectron, the Tibetan, Polyplectron Tiletanus . 400
Polyplectron Tibetanus, the Tibetan Polyplectron . 400
Pomatorliinus superciliosus, the White-Eye-browed Thrush 331
Pork Bird, the More, Podargus Cuvieri . .280
Porphyrio pulverulentus, the Sultana Bird . . 419
Potoo, the, Nyctibius jamaicensis . . . 278
Pratincole, the Collared, Glareola torquata . .409
Prion vittatus, the Broad-billed Petrel . . .427
INDEX TO BIRDS.
443
Procellaria pelagica. the Stormy Petrel
Progne purpurea, the Purple Martin
Promerops caffcr, the Cape Sun-bird
Prosthemadera Novae Zelandice, the Poe-bird
Psittacule, the Bonneted, Psittacula pileata
Psittacula pileata, the Bonneted Psittacule
Psiltacus erythacus, The Gray Parrot .
Psittacus, Le VaillantiL, Le Vaillanfs Parrot
Psophia crepitans, The Trumpeter
Ptarmigan, the, Lagopus vulgaris
Pterocles alchata, The Pin-tailed Sand Grouse .
Pterocles arenarius, The, Banded Sand Grouse
Pteroglossus aracari, the Aracari
Pteroglossus piperivorus, the Koullk Aracari
Pteroglossus viridis, the Green Aracari
Pterocyclus cachinnans, the Laughing Thrush
Pterophanes Temminckii, Temminck's Sapphire King
Ptilinopns Swainsonii, Swainsorfs Fruit-pigeon
Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus, the Satin Bower-bird
Ptilonorhynchus, Smithii, the Australian Cat-bird
Ptiloris paradisens, the Rifle-bird
Ptilotis chrysotis, Yellow-eared Honey-eater
Ptilotis sonorus, the Singing Honey-eater
Puff-bird, the Collared, Bucco collaris .
Puff-leg the Glowing, Eriocnemis vestitus
Puff-leg, Lord Derby's, Eriocnemis Derbianus
Puff-leg, the, Metallic, Eriocnemis Alinas
Puffin, the, Fratercula arctica
Puffinus Angloram, Monks Shearwater
Puffinus jEquinoctialis, the Great Black Petrel
Puffinus major, the Great Shearwater .
Pycnonotus hjemorrhoiis, the Red-vented Bulbul
Pycnonotus jocosus, the Jocose Bulbul .
Pyranga aestiva, the Summer Red-bird .
Pyranga rubra, the Scarlet Tanuger
Pyrrhocorax alpinus, the Alpine Chough
Pyrrhulanda anstralis, Smith's Finch-lark
Pyrrhulauda grisea, the Gingi Lark
Pyrrhula vulgaris, the Bullfinch
Quail, the Andalusian, Hemipodius tachydromus
Quail, the Californian, Callipepla californica
Quail, the Chinese, Cotumie Chinensis .
Quail, the Common, Coturnix dactylisonans
Quail, the Virginian, Ortyx virginianus
Quelea sanguinirostris, the Dioch
Quiscalus versicolor, the Purple Grakle
Racket-tail, the White-booted Spathura Underwoodi
Rail, the Land, Crex pratensis
Rail, the Water, Rallus aquaticus
Rain-bird, the, Gecinus viridis .
Rallus aquaticus, the Water Rail
Rara, the, Phytotoma Kara
Raven, the, Corvus corax
Razorbill, the, Utamania torda
Razor-grinder, the, Seisura volitans
Recurvirostra Avocetta, the Avocet
Red-bird, the Summer, Pyranga (estiva
Redbreast, the, Erythacus rubecula
Redpole, the, Linota linaria
Redpole, the Mealy, Linota canescens .
Redstart, the, Ruticilla phcenicura
Redstart, the American, Setophaga ruticilla
Redstart, the Black, Ruticilla Tithys .
Redstart, the Blue-throated, Ruticilla suecica
Redwing, the, Turdus iliactis .
Regulus cristatus, the Gold Crest
Rhamphastos Ariel, the Ariel Toucan
Khamphastos dicolorus, the Red-breasted Toucan
Rhamphastos erythrorhynchus, the Red-billed Toucan
Pvhamphastos Toco, the Toco Toucan
Khamphastos torquatus, the Collared Toucan
Rhea americana, the Nandu
Rhipidura albofrontata, the White browed Flycatcher
Rhipidura motacilloides, the Blnck Fan-tailed Flycatcher
Rhvnehops nigra, the Black Skimmer
Pa-e
Page
427
Rice-bird, the, Oryzornis oryzivora
360
289
Rifle Bird, the, Ptiloris paradiseus . . - .
304
305
Rissa tridactyla, the Kittiwake
429
i .
315
Robin, the Flame-breasted, Petroica phcenicea .
325
378
Robin, the Golden, Yphantes Baltimore
355
378
Robin, the Indian, Thamnobia fulicata .
324
378
Robin, the Magpie, Copsychus saularis .
324
ot .
378
Robin, the Pied, Petroica bicolor
325
117
Robin, the Scarlet-breasted, Petroica multicolor
325
402
Robin, the Yellow, Eopsaltria australis .
337
use .
404
Roller, the Common, Coracias garrula .
292
se .
404
Roller, the Indian, Coracias indica
293
373
Roller, the Long-tailed, Coracias caudata
293
i
373
Rollulus cristatus, the Crowned Partridge
403
373
Rook, the, Corvus frugilegus ....
347
A '.
331
Ruff, the, Philomachus pugnax .
417
lire King
312
Rupicola aurantia, the Orange Cock-of-the-rock
337
eon
391
Ruticilla phoenicura, the Redstart
325
er-bird
353
Ruticilla suecica, the Blue-throated Redstart
325
t-bird
354
Ruticilla Tithys, the Black Redstart .
325
304
314
Sabre-bill, the Brazilian, Xiphorhynchus procurvus
319
314
Sapphire-wing, Temminck's, Pterophanes Temminckii .
312
301
Sasia abnormis, Temminck's Piculet
383
309
Saw-bill, the, Grypus ncevius .
311
us
310
Sarcorhamphus Gryphns, the Conder .
240
310
Sarcorhamphus Papa, The King Vulture
242
425
Saxicola (Enanthe, the Wheatear
326
426
Saxicola rnbetra, the Whinchat
325
rel '.
426
Saxicola rubicola, the Stonechat
325
426
Sandpiper, the Common, Totanus hypoleucus .
417
Ibul
332
Sandpiper, the Gray, Squatarola helvetica
410
332
Schizorhis gigantea, the Giant Touzaco .
369
366
Scolecophagus ferrugineus, the Rusty Grakle
35o
365
Scolopax gallinago, the Common Snipe .
418
349
Scolopax gallinula, the Jack Snipe
418
364
Scolopax major, the Great Snipe
418
363
Scolopax rnsticola, the Wood-cock
418
364
Scopus umbretta, the Tufted Umbre
415
Scoter, the Common, Oidemia nigra
423
ymus
403
Screamer, the Horned, Palamedea cornuta
419
i
402
Sea-parrot, the, Fratercula arctica
425
403
Secretary-bird, the, Serpentarius reptilivorus
261
403
Seisura volitans, the Restless Flycatcher
334
402
368
Selasphorns rufus, the Red Flame-bearer
Sericornis citreogularis, the Yellow-throated Warbler
312
326
355
Serilophus lunatus, the Frilled Indian Tody
294
Serpentarius reptilivorus, the Secretary- Mr d
261
derwoodi
310
Setophaga ruticilla, the American Redstart
334
419
Shaheen, the, Falco peregrinator
256
419
Shanhu, the, Garrulax chinensis
331
382
Shearwater, the Great, Puffinus major .
426
419
Shearwater, Manks, Puffinus Anglorum
426
•
365
345
Sheathbill, the White, Chionis alba
Shieldrake, the, Tradoma vulpauser
404
422
425
Shorelark, the, Otocoris alpestris
363
334
Shoveller, the, Spatula clypeata
422
417
366
Shrike, the American Gray, Lanius borealis
Shrike, the Black-throated Crow, Cracticus nigrogularis
341
343
324
Shrike, the Cayenne Green, Cyclorhis guianensis
342
359
Shrike, the Crested, Lanius cristatus .
341
359
Shrike, the Great Cinereous, Lanius excubitor .
341
325
Shrike, the Indian Grey, Tephrodornis pondiceriava .
341
334
Shrike, the Loggerhead, Lanius ludovicianus
341
325
Shrike, the Pied Crow, Cracticus picatus
343
;a
325
Shrike, the Red-backed, Lanius colluria
340
330
Shrike, Quoy's Crow, Cracticus Qwmh' .
343
323
Sialia sialis, the Bluebird
325
373
Siskin, the, Carduelis spinus .
358
oucan
373
Sitta canadensis, the Canadian Nuthatch
319
zd Toucan
373
Sitta carolinensis, the Carolina Nuthatch
318
zn .
373
373
Sitta europrea, the Nuthatch
Sittella chrysoptera, the Orange-winged Nuthatch
318
319
406
Sittella pileata, (he Black-capped Nuthatch
319
^lycatcher .
334
Skimmer, the Black, Rhynchops nigra .
429
i Flycatcher .
334
Skua, the Arctic, Lestris parasiticus .
429
429
Skua, Buffon's, Lestris Bv/onii
429
444
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Skua, the Common, Lestris cataractes .
Skua, the Pomarine, Lestris pomarinus
Skylark, the, Alauda arvensis .
Snake-killer, the, Haliaetus kucogaster
Snipe, the Common, Scolopax gallinago
Snipe, the Great, Scolopax major
Snipe, the Jack, Scolopax gallinula
Snipe, the Summer, Totanus hypokccus
Soldier, the Poor, Tropidorhynchus corniculatut
Solitaire, the, Didus solitarius .
Somateria mollissima, the Eider Duck .
Spark-bird, the, Dicceum trigonostigma
Sparrow, the Hedge, Accentor modularis
Sparrow, the House, Passer domesticus
Sparrow, the Java, Oryzornis oryzivora
Sparrow, the Song, Zonotrichia melodia
Sparrow, the Tree, Passer montanus
Sparrow, the White-throated, Zonotrichia albicottia
Spathnra Underwoodi, the White-booted Racket-tail
Spatula clypeata, the Shoveller
Spermophila falcirostra, the Greenish Grosbeak .
Spheniscus demersus, the Cape Penguin
Spiza ciris, the Painted Bunting
Spiza cyanea, the Indigo-bird . ,
Spizae'tus bellicosus, the Martial Eagle
Spoonbill, the Roseate, Platalea Ajaja .
Spoonbill, the White, Platalea kucorodia
Starling, the Cape, Amydrus morio
Starling, the Common, Sturnus vulgaris
Starling, the Mountain, Amydrus morio
Starling, the Red-winged, Amydrus morio
Starling, the Red-winged, Agelaius phcenicevs
Starling, the Wattled, Dilophus carunculattu ,
Steatornis caripensis, the Guacharo
Sterna arctica, the Arctic Tern
Sterna Boysii, the Sandwich Tern
Sterna caspia, the Caspian Tern
Sterna Dougallii, the Roseate Tern
Sterna Hirundo, the Common Tern
Sterna minuta, the Lesser Tern
Stipiturus malacurus, the, Emu Wren .
Stonechat, the, Saxicola rubicola . .. ,
Stork, the Black, Ciconia niqra . ,
Stork, the Marabou, Leptoptilus Marabou
Stork, the White, Ciconia alba
Storm-cock, the, Turdus viscivorus
Straw-tail, the, Phaeton cethereus
Strepera arguta, the Hill Fruit Crow .
Strepera fuliginosa, the Sooty Fruit Crow
Strepera graculina, the Pied Fruit Crow
Strigops habroptilus, the Kakapo . , ,
Strix delicatulus, the, Australian Barn Owl
Strix flammea, the Barn Oiol .
Strix javanica, the Javanese Owl
Strix perlata, the American Barn Owl .
Struthio Camelus, the Ostrich .
Sturnns vulgaris, the Common Starling .
Sturnella Ludoviciana, the American Meadow Lark
Sncrier, the, Certhiola faveola .
Sula Bassana, the Gannet . . . .
Sultana Bird, the, Porphyrio pulverulentus
Sun-bird, the Beautiful, Nectarinia pulchella .
Sun-bird, the Blue-throated, Nectarinia zeylonica
Sun-bird, the Bronzed, Nectarinia cenea ,
Sun-bird, the Cape, Prameraps caffer . .
Sun-bird, the Crimson-throated, Dicceum hirundinaceum
Sun-bird, Loten's, Nectarinia Lotenia •
Sun-bird, the Orange-backed, Dicceum trigonostigma
Sun-bird, the Purple, Nectarinia asiatica
Sun-bird, the Shining, Nectarinia famosa
Sun-bird, the Splendid, Nectarinia spkndida .
Sun-bird, the Violet-headed, Nectarinia violacea
Sugar-bird, the Green, Nectarinia famosa . .
Surnia nyctea, the Snowy Owl .
Surnia Ulula, the Hawk Owl . .
Swallow, the American Barn, Hirundo erythrogaster
Swallow, the Australian Chimney, Hirundo frontalis
429
429
362
252
418
418
418
417
315
393
423
306
326
359
360
360
310
422
364
426
361
361
250
414
413
355
352
355
355
356
353
278
430
430
430
430
430
430
324
325
414
414
414
329
432
344
344
344
380
272
270
271
271
406
352
352
307
431
419
305
306
305
305
306
306
306
305
305
305
305
305
264
265
288
Swallow, the Bat, Acanthylis oxyura .
Swallow, the Cape, Hirundo capensis .
Swallow, the Chimney, Acanthylis pelasgia
Swallow, the Chimney, Hirundo rustica
Swallow, the Crag, Cofyle rupestris
Swallow, the Esculent, Collocalia esculenta
Swallow, the Panayan, Hirundo panayana
Swallow, the Severn, Hirundo bicolor .
Swallow, the Tree, Dendrochelidon comatus
Swallow, the Welcome, Hirundo neoxena
Swallow, the White-bellied, Hirundo bicolor
Swallow, the Window, Chelidon urbica
Swallow, the Wire-tailed, Hirundo filif era
Swallow, the Wood, Artamus sordidus .
Swan, the Black, Cygnus atratus
Swan, the Mute, Cygnus olor .
Swan, the Tame, Cygnus olor .
Swan, the Wild, Cygrius ferus
Swan, the Whooping, Cygnus ferus
Swift, the Aculeated, Acanthylis pelasgia
Swift, the Alpine, Cypselus melba
Swift, the Batassian, Cypselus batassiensis
Swift, the Bearded, Dendrochelidon mystaceus .
Swift, the Common, Cypselus apus
Swift, the Esculent, Collocalia esculenta
Swift, the Hooded, Dendrochelidon comatus
Swift, the Jamaica Palm, Cypselus ph&nicobius
Swift, the Needle-tailed, Acanthylis caudacuta .
Swift, the Sharp-tailed, Acanthylis oxyura
Swift, the White-bellied, Cypselus melba
Swift, the White-rumped, Cypselus ajfinis
Sword-bill, the, Docimastes ensiferus .
Squatarola helvetica, the Gray Plover .
Sylph, the Blue-tailed, Cynanthus cyanurus
Sylph, the Green-tailed, Cynanthus smaragdicaudus
Sylvia Hippolals, the Chiff-chaff
Sylvia sylvicola, the Wood Warbler .
Sylvia Trochilus, the Willow Warbler .
Spine-tailed Synallaxis, the, Synallaxis spinicauda
Synallaxis spinicauda, the Spine-tailed synallaxis
Syrnium aluco, the Brown Owl
Syrnium nebnlosum, the Barred Owl .
Syrrhaptes paradoxus, Pallas' Sand Grouse
Tachypetes aquilus, the Frigate-bird
Tachyphonus coryphcEus, Vigors' Tanager
Tachyphonus cristatus, the Crested Tanager
Tachyphonus leucopterus, the Black Tanager
Tadorna Vnlpanser, the Shieldrake
Talegalla Cuvieri, Cuvier's Talegalla .
Talegalla, Cnvier's, Talegalla Cuvieri .
Talegalla Lathami, the Brush Turkey .
Tailor-bird, the Indian, Orthotomus longicaudu .
Tanager, the Black, Tachyphonus leucopterus
Tanager, the Banded, Calospiza vittata
Tanager, the Crested, Tachyphonus cristatus
Tanager, the Green-mirror, Nemosia Jlavicollis .
Tanager, the Jacapa, Tanagra jacapa .
Tanager, the Orange-breasted, Calospiza thoracica
Tanager, the Organist, Euphonia musica
Tanager, the Red-capped, Tanagra gularis
Tanager, the Scarlet, Pyranga rubra .
Tanager, the Seven-coloured, Tanagra Tatao
Tanager, the Tri-colonred, Calospiza tricolor
Tanager, Vigors', Tachyphonus coryphoius
Tanager, the Violet, Euphonia violacea ,
Tanagra gularis, the Red-capped Tanager
Tanagra jacapa. the Jacapa Tanager .
Tanagra Tatao, the Seven-coloured Tanager
Tantalus, the African, Tantahis Ibis
Tantalns Ibis, the African Tantalus
Tantalus lacteus, the Milky Ibis
Tanysiptera Dea, the Ternate Kingfisher
Tchitrea paradisi, the Paradise Flycatcher-
Teal, the, Querquedula Crecca
Tephrodornis pondiceriana, the Indian Gray Shrike
Tern, the Arctic, Sterna arctica
Page
28-4
288
283
286
290
284
287
289
284
288
289
291
422
421
421
421
421
283
282
282
284
281
284
284
282
284
284
282
282
312
410
312
312
323
323
323
319
319
270
270
404
432
366
396
324
366
366
366
366
365
366
366
366
366
366
415
415
415
300
334
422
341
430
INDEX TO BIRDS.
445
Tern, the Black, Hydrochelidon nigra .
Tern, the Caspian, Sterna caspia
Tern, the Common, Sterna Hirundo
Tern, the Lesser, Sterna minuta
Tern, the Roseate, Sterna Dougallii
Tern, the Sandwich, Sterna Boysii
Tetrao cupido, the Pinnated Grouse
Tetrao Tetrix, the Black Grouse
Tetrao Urogallus, the Capercailzie
Textor erythrorhynchus, the Red-billed Textor .
Textor, the Red-billed, Textor erythrorhynchus .
Thamnobia fulicata, the Indian Robin
Thamngphilus nsevius, the Spotted Batara
Thick-head, the Banded, Pachycephala pectoralis
Thick-knee, the Common, (Edicnemus crepitans
Thinocore, D'Orbigny's, Thinocorus Orbignyanus
Thinocorus Orbignyanus, D'Orbigny's Thinocore
Thrasaetus Harpyia, the Harpy Eagle .
Thrush, the Brown, Colluricincla brunnea
Thrush, the Buff-bellied, Colluricincla rufiventris
Thrush, the Cayenne Ant, Formicarius cayanensis
Thrush, the Gold-vented, Turdus auriventer
Thrush, the King Ant, Grallaria Rex .
Thrush, the Laughing, Pterocyclus cachinnans .
Thrush, the Missel, Turdus viscivorus .
Thrush, the Port-Jackson, Colluricincla harmonica
Thrush, the Red-breasted, Turdus migratorius .
Thrush, Selby's, Colluricincla Selbii .
Thrush, the Song, Turdus musicus
Thrush, the Spotted Ground, Cinclosoma punctatum
Thrush, the White Eye-browed, Pomatorhinus supereiliosus
Thrush, White's, Turdus Whitei
Thrush, the Wood, Turdus melodus
Thryothorus palustris, the Marsh Wren
Thunder-bird, the, Pachycephala gutturalis
Tichodroma muraria, the Wall-creeper .
Tinamotis elegans, the Crested Tinamou
Tinamou, the Crested, Tinamotis elegans
Tinamou, the Great, Tinamus Brasiliensis
Tinamou, the Spotted, Nothura maculosa
Tinamou, the Tataupa, Tinamus Tataupa
Tinamus Brasiliensis, the Great Tinamou
Tinamus Tataupa, the Tataupa Tinamou
Tit, the Bearded, Calamophilus biarmicus
Tit, the Blue, Parus cceruleus ....
Tit, the Cole, Parus ater . . .
Tit, the Crested Shrike, Falcunculus frontatus .
Tit, the Crested, Parus cristatia
Tit, the Great, Parus major .
Tit, the Long-tailed, Mecistura caudata . ,
Tit, the Marsh, Parus palustris
Tit, the White-bellied Shrike, Falcunculus leucogaster .
Titlark, the, Anthus pratensis ....
Titmouse, the, Parus cceruleus ....
Tocko, the Black-billed, Tockus nasutus
Tocko, the Red-billed, Tockus erythrorhynchus .
Tockus erythrorhynchus, the Red-billed Tockus .
Tockus nasutus, 'the Black billed Tocko
Todus viridis, the Green Tody
Tody, the Frilled Indian, Serilophus lunatm
Tody, the Great-billed Indian, Cymbirhynchus macro-
rhynchus ......
Tody, the Green, Todus viridis
Tody, the Javanese, Eurylaimus javanicus
Tomtit, the, Parus cceruleus ....
Topaz, the Crimson, Topazapella
Topaza pella, the Crimson Topaz
Totanus Calidris, the Common Redshank
Toucan, the Ariel, Rhamphastos Ariel . • .
Toucan, the Collared, Rhamphastos torquatus
Toucan, the Red-billed, Rhamphastos erythrorhynchus .
Toucan, the Red-breasted, Rhamphastos dicolorus
Toucan, the Toco, Rhnmphastos Toco .
Touraco, the Giant, Schizorhis gigantea
Touraco, the Green, Corythaix per sa . , ,
Touraco, the Louri, Corythaix albocristatut
Tragopan, the, Ceriornis satyrus
Page
430
430
430
430
430
430
401
401
401
368
368
324
342
337
409
404
404
250
342
342
332
330
332
331
329
342
330
342
329
332
331
330
330
321
337
318
405
405
405
405
405
405
405
327
326
326
342
326
326
327
326
342
328
326
371
371
371
371
294
294
294
294
293
326
311
311
416
373
373
373
373
373
369
369
369
399
Treron abyssinica, the Waalia Pigeon . . .391
Treron aromatica, the Aromatic Pigeon . .391
Treron Sieboldii, the White-booted Pigeon . . 391
Tribe, Conirostres . ... 343
' Dentirostres . . . 322
' Tenuirostres ..... 303
Trichoglossus hcematodes, the Blue-bellied Lorikeet . 377
Trichoglossus pyrrhopterns, the Orange-winged Lorikeet 378
Trochilus colubris, the Ruby-throated Humming Bird . 308
Trochilus Delalandi, De Lalande's Crested Humming Bird 309
Trochilus granatinus, the Purple-breasted Carib . 311
Trochilus polytmus, the Long-tailed Emerald Humming
Bird ...'•-. . . . . 309
Troglodytes domesticus, the House Wren . .321
Troglodytes vulgaris, the Common Wren . .320
Trogon, the Cuba, Trogon temnurus . . .295
Trogon Curucui, the Couroucou . . . 295
Trogon, the Fasciated, Harpactes fasciatus . . 296
Trogon Hodgson's, Harpactes erythrocephalta . .296
Trogon, the Narina, Apalodtrma narina . . 296
Trogon resplendens, the Resplendent Trogon . . 295
Trogon, the Resplendent, Trogon resplendent . . 295
Trogon temnuras, the Cuba Trogon . . . 295
Tropic-bird, the Common, Phaeton oethereus . . 432
Tropic-bird, the Red-tailed, Phaeton phcenicurur, . 432
Tropidorhynchus cornicnlatus, the Friar Bird . .315
Trumpeter, the, Psophia crepitans . . . 412
Turdus auriventer, the Gold-vented Thrush . . 330
Turdus iliacus, the Redwing . . . .330
Turdus melodus, the Wood Thrush . . .330
Turdus merula, the Blackbird .... 330
Turdus migratorius, the Red-breasted Thrush . . 330
Turdus musicus, the Song Thrush . . . 329
Turdns pilaris, the Fieldfare . . ' . .330
Turdus torquatus, the Ring Ouzel . . . 330
Turdus viscivorus, the Missel Thrush . . .329
Turdus Whitei, White's Thrush . . .330
Turkey, the Brush, Talegalla Lathami . .406
Turkey, the Common, Afeleagris Gallopavo . • 400
Turkey, the Ocellated, Meleagris ocellata . . 400
Turtur auritus, the Turtle Dove . . .390
Turtur risorius, the Collared Turtle Dove . . 390
Twite, the, Linota montium .... 359
Tyrant, the Crested, Tyrannus crinitus . . 335
Tyrant, the Fish, Pandion Ichthyaetus . . .253
Tyrannus crinitus, the Crested Tyrant . . . 335
Tyrannns intrepidus, the Tyrant Flycatcher , . 335
Umbre, the tufted, Scopus umbretta . . . 415
Umbrella Bird, the, Cephalopterus ornatus
Upupa Epops, the Common Hoopoe . • • 303
Upupa nigripennis, the Indian Hoopoe . , • 303
Uria Grylle, the Black Guillemot , . 425
Uria lacrymans, the Ringed Guillemot . . . 425
Uria Troile, the Common Guillemot . . . 425
Urubitinga, the, Morphnus Urubitinga . : . 250
Urubu, the, Cathartes fcetens . . . 242
Utarnania torda, the Razor-bill . • 425
Vanellus cristatns, the Lapwing • * • 410
Vidua paradisea, the Angola Whydah-bird
Vireo noveboracensis, the White-eyed Flycatcher . 334
Vireo olivaceus, the Red-eyed Flycatcher . • 334
Vulture, the Abyssinian Crow, Corvultur crassirostris . 348
Vulture, the African Bearded, Gypaetos nudipes, . 240
Vulture, the Arabian, Vultur monachits . • 237
Vulture, the Bearded, Gypaetos barbatus
Vulture, the Bengal, Gyps Bengalensis . . . 238
Vulture, the Black, Cathartes fcetens .
Vulture, the Caffrarian Crow, Corvultur albicollis . 348
Vulture, the Californian, Cathartes Californianus . 243
Vulture, the Egyptian, Neophron percnopterta .
Vulture, the John. Crow, Cathartes aura
Vulture, the King, Sarcorhamphus Papa
Vulture, Kolbe's, Gyps Kolbii, . . 238
Vulture, the Lamb, Gypattos barbatus . .240
Vultur monachus, the Arabian Vulture • • 237
446
INDEX TO BIRDS.
Page
Vulture, the Pondicherry, Otogyps calvue . ' . '238
Vulture, the Sociable, Otogyps auriacularis . .239
Vulture, the Tawny, Gypsfulvus . . .238
Vulture, the Turkey, Cathartes aura . . . 242
Wagtail, the Gray, MotaciUa boarula . . .328
Wagtail, the Pied, MotaciUa Yarrettii . . .328
Wagtail, Eay's, Budytes Rayi . . . .328
Wagtail, the White, MotaciUa alba . . .328
Wandering Albatross, the, Diomedea exulans , .427
Warbler, the Blue-eyed Yellow, Mniotilta cestiva . 327
Warbler, the Dartford, Melizophilus Dartfordlensis . 323
Warbler, the Garden, Curruca hortensis . . 323
Warbler, the Grasshopper, Calamodyta locusfella . 324
Warbler, the Reed, Calamodyta arundinacea, . . 324
Warbler, the Rock, Origma rubricata . . 325
Warbler, the Sedge, Calamodytes phragmitis . . 324
Warbler, the White-eyed, Zosterops palpebrosus . 327
Warbler, the Willow, Sylvia Trochilus . . .323
Warbler, the Wood, Sylvia sylvicola . . . 323
Warbler, the Worm-eating, Mniotilta vermivora . 327
Warbler, the Yellow- throated, Sericornis citreogidaris . 326
Wattle-bird, the Brush, Anthochaera mellivora . .315
Wattle-bird, the Long-eared, Anthochcera inauris . 314
Wattle-bird, the Lunulated, Anthochcera lunulata . 315
Wattle-bird, the Short-eared, Anthochcera carunculata . 315
Waxmng, the, Bombycilla garrula . . . 336
Weaver-bird, the Abyssinian, Ploceus larvatus . . 368
Weaver-bird, the Madagascar, Ploceus pensilis . . 368
Weaver-bird, the Philippine, Ploceus pkilippinus , 367
Wheatear, the, Saxicola (Enantke . . .326
Wheel-bird, the, Caprirmtlgus europceus . . 274
Whinchat, the, Saxicola rubetra , . .325
Whip-poor-will, the, Caprimulgus vociferus . .276
Whip-Tom-Kelly, the, Vireo olivaceus . . . 334
Whitethroat, the, Curruca cinerea . , . 323
Whitethroat, the Lesser, Curruca sylviella . . 323
Whydah-bird, the Angola, Vidua paradisea . .369
Widow-bird, the, Vidua paradisea . , . 369
Wigeon, the, Mareca penelope . . .422
Wind-hover, the, Falco tinnunculus « . . 257
Page
Wood-chat, the, Lanius rutilus . . 341
Woodlark, the, Alauda arborea . . . 363
Woodpecker, the Collared, Melanopicus torquatus . 382
Woodpecker, the Dominican, Leuconerpes dominicanus . 383
Woodpecker, the Golden-winged, Colaptes auratus . 383
Woodpecker, the Great Black, Picus martins . .381
Woodpecker, the Great Spotted, Dryobates major . 381
Woodpecker, the Green, Gecinus viridis . . 382
Woodpecker, the Ivory-billed, Campephilus principals . 381
Woodpecker, the Lesser Spotted, Dryobates minor . 381
Woodpecker, the Red-bellied, Centurus carolinus . 382
Woodpecker, the Red-headed, Melanerpes erythrocephalus 382
Woodpecker, the Three-toed, , Picoides tridactylus - 381
Woodpecker, the Tiga, Chrysonotus Tiga . .382
Woodpecker, the Yellow-backed, Brachypternus attrantius 382
Woodcock, the, Scolopax rusticola . . . 418
Woodstar, the Short-tailed, Calothorax macrurus . 311
Wokhab, the, Aquila navioides . . .249
Wowo-wiwi, Pholidus badius, . . . .272
Wren, the Blue, Malurus cyaneus . . . 324
Wren, the Common, Troglodytes vulgaria . . 320
Wren, the Emu, Stipiturus malacurus • . . 324
Wren, the Furze, Melizophilus Dartfordiensis . . 323
Wren, the Furzeling, Melizophilus Dartfordiensis . 323
Wren, the House, Troglodytes domesticus . . 321
Wren, the Marsh, Thryothorus pahtstris . .321
Wryneck, the, Yunx torquilla . . . .383
Xanthomyza phrygia, the Warty-faced Honey-eater . 314
Xema atricilla, the Laughing Gull . . .429
Xema ridibunda, the Black-headed Gull . . 429
Xiphorhynchus procurvus, the Brazilian Sabre-bill . 319
Yellow-bird, the, Carduelis tristis . . .358
Yellowhammer, the, Emberiza Citrinella . .361
Yphantes Baltimore, the Baltimore Oriole . . 355
Yunx torquilla, the Wryneck . . .380
Zonotrichia albicollis, the White-throated Sparrow . 360
Zonotrichia melodia, the Song-sparroro . . 360
j Zosterops palpebrosus, the White-eyed Warbler . . 327
VOL. 1.
PRINTED 1JV WILLIAM MACKENZIE, 43 & 45 HOWARP STRKRT, GLASGOW.
31 AM M ALIA.
Papio. .Mrcetes.Aieles, CeWs,
( Celsidse.
-
M A .>! M A I- 1 A .
JJjQja3x:.Jacclrtxa l.emur. ladris.
Lemuridae .
Order,
M A JX/J jVJ A L J A ,
I.nfis (uila^ii . Tarsius. tialpopithecus
families.'
1'LATK +
Kvelicebidtr,
r'arsiid*.
Gal'eopithecidje.
Seneo&lensis . s< n< iinl
T Spectrum. 7>/r\/it-.
YitlntiK, l-'llliini l.i
MAMMALIA.
:/. _Erinaceiis, Sorex_,Talpa.
Order. IrLsectivors
Famili
Talpid
Order'. Camivora
T. £njvpaMs. Common .Mole,. ^\
— Conunan Seiliic7ii
F&mily. C £tni-d te.
MAMMALIA.
: Cams Meg-aiolis. Vulpej
Carnivora,
PL4XE. 7
J"a.mily. C ani 1 ae.
^c^^^^^gjg^" '
^^~r?^> .~^p<3?
(L-Jjjpus. ITfi/'
EDINBURGH i, LONDON.
('/•/f/7\ Carnivora
MAMMAT.TA
Cams IVli^
PLATES
> i;/<T ( ' a imvor EL .
TVTA MMATVTA .
Hva-iiH Vhvrra,. Herpeste;
PLATE 9
Families
, Liva-nni u
v /<••/: Cannvora
M1WAT/TA
j il i i 1 1 s .Martos. JLirtx-a
/'/..///;
Families Ifust eli da?.
j 1/f//// •' v arums. Skunk .
Mart,3 frina. 11ns Martin.
ASSOW. EDINBURSH i LOND
MAMMAJLIA
PLATE 11
Carmvota
/'. Zntin: 2f,u-c,','ii .
EDitJBOSGM V LO
*. Cannvora
dv. TJrsidae.
Orde.r. Ptmrrpedia..
Gener-a. . -PKo<
Family. PTiocidaa.
P.Viln'lina. Common
MA >1 3IAI.1A.
Order. Pirniipedis
. EriotecfttB. .Aixtocephalus.
| T luclie cidae .
_^. TTr sinus. Sea- Bear.
I'nlcr. Rodenna
MAMMALIA
Sciur opt eras. Arctomys. Dipus Helamys.
!• i i
PLATE.
( ScraricLffi.
^ Drpoclia.ae
Cupensis (ii/'t1 Jerl>i'ti
< 7;'<n-/it/tiri ./
' 'I;
ft'i'. Rodenti;i
3IAAIMA.LIA
s Mus. MvochlS C;is1(
-17
My *A\ •s/taniirt'it.f Dorn-n-u.ff
.l/f/.r. Kutfu.f Bldck Rttt
f ' -Lemmas Lemmun
MAMMALIA
G'er/era "Mvojotanras. Hystrix Lepus ,La.g-omys,
PLATE 16
S crania?.
H. Cristatci dnniu
MAMMALIA
Bcmasjus Ovu-v
'mericajuis.^. American £ison.
0. //mrnen. Thibet
••in Sheep
Ruiuiiiantji
ffl A ffi SB > Q. B A .
Capra. Catoblepas. Ceplialolopims. Antilope.
PLATE 19.
jj£i>osceridae.
FcanOies
[AiLtilopida; .
^ r R u m i nantia
MAMMALIA
fartera, Or\«: Port? 7;
/•~"/i> i iv. Eovidae.
PlATE 21
Or<li'r. Ruiuiiiairtia
Senerc
CerricLae.
Gap* Capreecu Roebuck
. Fabnatu.s. —.Elk or Moose, .Deer
M AUJV1AJL1A
Rffflvpf.-r Caniclopardalis
FamOies 6"1
MAMMALIA.
PUTS,
- Genera C amehis , .Aiicheuia. , Tr
MAMMALIA
Order. Soliching-ula..
Family. I!, (juidae
MAMMALIA .
Padwdermata
( Kkin.oceruLa>.
v. HippopotaTnicLuP-
Bluuocejais. Hippopotamus. Tapirus
IL 0
Mxnatas BaHcoxe.JQ^tizia
M ^u&tra&s
4rru>rican. Manatee
H. Dii(jou<i
^ *
^ £
s 1
^
PLATE 29
Flxascolornylae
JJyp'" Trufwr 2'oti>ri)o. orJTantjaroo Rat.
GLASGOW. EDINBURGH fc LONDON
Xi S
MAMMALIA.
PLATE .
Family. DgLg
Order. Mbnotremata
. EcMina.,Tlatypus.
Families
/ fl\vrrix.PoTCiLpTn& ^4nt -eater
MAMMALIA,
/V///7//K.
Alvst ii-rtiis
rachvdemiata .
Genus. Mastodon.
RSH S SLAS60W.
SKELETON OF BEASTS
ifyrnaecopliagaL jubata. Great ^nt eater
MAMMALIA.
SKELETONS OF BEASTS
PLATE 34-
Bradypvxs IridactyTutr . Thres hied Steffi*
i \\ 0 S
Order. Accipilres .
////////I
.Yultnr S arc orliainphiLS .
Vultur Mbnachus
Order. Accipitres .
BIItBS
Genera. Gvpaetos Falco, Spizaetns.
Families
PLATE 2
Ynituridae .
PalcoiiicLae.
{rttpaetos Jlarbatus. IB carded/ l^uMure'
Spiz Htlliw.ws Martial, E
Accipitres.
BIRDS
Genera Buteo, Serpent anus. Syrmum.
LaopTts. Roiuh -
Strig-idee.
auUuco. Brown O\vl .
Genem Otas. Strix. Surnia.
FLATEf
/•;//////•• su-i-
i 'hi.-;, vulgar is . Loittf Eared Owl
Sirf f7tiinmea..3arrv Owl.
. S/io\\\if (>"'/
Cnlcr. P^sseres
B .1 R D ^
Genera Hirmido CypseliLs.Collocalia
Families
HLrnndJiddae.
Cypselidee.
E.lTrbwa . Souse Martin
BIRBS
Capri uiulgiis. Ka
famutee
Ceraciedje.
B 1 K 1.)
PLATE 7
Order.
Al«-ofl<
G. Leptora. Long-tailed Jam /tun:
JAM 'MACKENZIE. 3LAS8OW, EDINBURGH I
B J R !J 8
Jacamerops. Mecqps. Ppopa .
A] <•<•'! Ulitl
. ! U
&r s rr
'
Trochilidae .
BIRDS
Bis
Sitta . ^femora.
mijh. Certhiacbe.
28
S.!Jnrop;ea._
Menura saperta Lyre IrircL
JAM MACKENZIE, 6LAS«>*. EDINBURGH 1
BIRDS
PlAIElO
Order. Pas seres
Mecistura. Ea-ytk^cos. Mimas Muscicapa
> v.l \Tida?.
"BirdicLa; .
^Vf .Cani3-a,ta T,cng tailed; Tttnunise.
BIRDS
Rupicola. Lauras. Pict
PL1TE11.
_L'ii in Hies Lamilas.
EDINBURGH 4 1.0KBON
BIRDS
PZATE 12
>/,/•. Ekssetes
Genera. Iiu:adis<-a. Stnrinis Coi-vtliaix.
Paxadiseid^e
SUivnida;
Mns ophagid se
Bucerotiaee
BIRDS
ffenem. Lamms. l-Vin^illa KinU-nza Maud
J-amify
Order, fassi-
Sean
BIRDS
env. Pruicola I.oxia Macrocercas.
PLATE 1-1
1'sittaciil*.
ifacrocercos Macao. ,w-///-A/ M,,,-r,n\
I
BITtDS
. Conurus. Psittacula.Psittacus. Lionetis. Microglossum .
PLATE. 15
Faimly. Psittacida.
Psittaxai? ErTthacus. Grev
• "-
lacmetis TemrirostrLs. Long-nosed C
lUco-oglossirta Aten-iumm . Grey Sriun'l-torniiti't/ fcurot .
Psitta.cuLa Pileata.
> UOHDON.
B I R 13 S
•fi Rhanrplia.stos, PteroglosstLS. Mc-us. Picoiles.
, . ,
families
Kh -al ilpliM st nl H
Picidse
Picivs Martins. (hvat JUatic Voodpeel&
BIKDS
Cohrnibae
Tiircx_ CuculiLS. Columba CarpopJiag-a.
CiicrulicLee.
Columbidse.
On I-. Maqnilica^ Mhanificent Fruit Pigecti
CoTunnbae.
BIRDS
Genera. Treron. Goxtra, GaUim. Ceriomis,
PLATE IS
Family.
C oluarLbicLae .
T. SieboLdii. White -looted Pioeon.
G. Uarikivus. Domestic l&c
C Satvras. ]fcpattl SffnteA Theasartt ,
I 6LAS6OW.
Onler
BIRDS
Genera. Crar Talegalla Mc-^af>.....lius. Perdei B-<SUutas < 'Uionis.
PLATE 10
Cracidse
Chioiriditi^e
Perdei nibi-a Red leaped Pai-trnf</e
Cr-ai alec
Tale galla. 1 afhami j?7 v/.<7? Tin -ker
Order. Curs ores
BIRDS
Genera. Struthio. Bkea, C
I'LJTK 21
h'. StrufMonidse.
ASGQW, EDINBURGH fc LONDON
B I R ! I S
Grallce
Drmnaius. Apteryx: Otis , CEdicnemu
Apteryx Austr eQis Shaw's Apln • i . r
D . IsTovs -HoUaniLae Eineu, .
WILLIAM MACKENZIE. 3LA39OW.
f >?;/,•/: GraTlas.
B J R D 8
Genera*. Cursorms. Glareola.. Ckaradrius. Sqiiatarola. ILeiuatopus, Ct
PLATS 23
-TT, „ .
-comities
^
87
. ~^' " -
G. Torquata. -CeUareci ffr-atweole.
L1AM MACKENZIE., GLASGOW EDINBURGH J
Onlcr. GraJice
BIRDS
Avdea . Botaurris. Cancroma.
PLATE 24
fluiiT/y . Ar deilae .
, - :- - ^ --
Order. Grail*.
BIRDS
Oenera Flatale-a,. CicoriLa. Mvclcria
PLATS 25
Fiu/nl
Platalea ^V:jaja._ Roseate Spoonbill
M. Senegidt
NBUR6H « 6LAS6OW.
Larder. GraJLe
BIRDS
Genera. Anastonra-s. Scopus. Tantalus.
JPLATE 26
Family.
S Umbretta . _ Tufted Umbre
A. LameDigerns. —
B 1 R D .4
Recurvirostxa ScoTopajt, 1'ari-a
landlies
Scolopa.cid5
Hccurrh-ostra avocetta 4.vocet
Soolopax gallinag'o Common
a u si s. __ Chinese Jacana.
BIRDS
<'.'ii,r<i. FaJruiH'd.'H. fudiu ri. Inqiliyi m, GoDimfLa.
PtATB
Pal sane dcidae.
TarraJies
Porpli Fulverulennis. Svultana-lnrtt. .
Gallintila cMoropus Gallinule
BIRDS
Order: Matatores .
Family. Anatidae.
Genera I'lKi-mcppterus, Anser. Cereopsis,
Ans. Ferus Wild' &oose.
Cer.
BIRDS
Genera. Cygmis. Spatula,. flvd.ro bates, MergTis .
2Z2
AuaticLae.
S . Clypc'ata Shoveller.
H.Lobatus JLobated, Duck
JT
M.Merg-anser _ Goosander.
Bim>s
G-eri. Fuhnarus. Pnon, Diomedea
PLATE XL
Famih&s ProceHaiidse.
I
F . Gla.cialis . FuTmer Petrel
D. Exulans 11 'i/nt/awif /IHati-oss
JIMBUR6H Sr LONDON
L-;;;V, GF CALIF, upar^y, LC-? ANGEL
University of California
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